JoLRNAT.

oF PRoPULSÌoN ÀND PowER

Vol. 14. No- 5. SeplenrbeÍOctober1998

Pulsed Plasma Thruster

R. L. Burton*
Uniwrsitr at UÍbana ChampaiSn, Urbana, lllínoís
oí lllitlois 61801
and
P J. TurchiÌ
Ohío St.Líe Uníwrchy, Colunhus, ohio $2lA

The 35 Joà. hislory of rüe developmenrâíd âpplicniiotr of the püLed plasmâ ihrtrster (PPT) ie re-
vieÍed, The PPT operât€sby cr.tting È puhed! high-cürrent dischaÍgelc.oss th€ expos€dsuÌ{tce ora
solid insuìútor, such as a Terlon6 bú Thê ârc disch.ree ablut€s nàlêrial from this suÍfâce, thereby
pÌovidüs pmpdlúl thâí is ionizcd, h.âtcd, ând âccel€Ìatedto high speeÍl lypicâlb, thc cuÍeít pulse
l.sts for â fev micrcsecotrds, d ven by t câpacitor thâi is chargld !íd dhchâÌs€d lpprolinÌàlelJ once
per second,Itxtâüst speedsÍ!Íge from 3 to 50 kn/s, dcpeDdiíg on ah€detnils of the PPT d€sign.W€
revi€r tho bàsicphysicsând typesoI PPT\,,nd dis.üssthe perfornrànceolíight ând laborstory versions,
with spdiâl âtiention to yeìocityrnd plüme measurem€tts.lve âIso pr€sentth€ stà1usÕf PPr theorv âtrd
modelús, wilh enphâsis on mass evolutioÍ ànd plisma âccêlerstion,!íd d€scriberec€út varialions on
PPT opêrârion, Iaboraíory thíusl n€asüremetrttechnique!, ând íh€ sepaÌâtecompôdenti ol FPT effi-

I. Introduction Durir8 tìe !a\! selerâl decades.the researchand develop

nent of eÌectricpÍôluÌsion has embraceda greât vaÌiety of
lìN N o r . . 1 , .l . ( , 1 . r h e / o n d : . p c J e r ' â ' k . ì
l ( r L Õ $ - d M . r s - o r o B ! k o u r i r l e S o \ r e r l ^ n "çnc. vì ' e
Prd- ì candidlie\ystèns.nve of which âIe row fliShlqnalned.Star_
dar.tterNÌ5Ì6provìdeth€ laxÕnÒnyofúese rec|nìques,which
mondNlater,Edio coúmnicalion waslosl, ìnd wiú itcontrol de loosely organizedinto three DÌaincatesoriesof eleciro
to provide thrce-
of the 'a electrìc proptrlsion systenr designed üemal. elecbomagnerjc. ând eleclrosÌaticproluÌsion.Of the
axis iLude conlrol. The zond 2 pulsed pÌasmathrusters nve flight quaììlìèdsyÍems, two a.e eìectrÒthèmal Gesistojet
(PPls) wcre the lì.st :Ìpplicarionof elect.ìcpÍopxlsionon any and .rjet), ole is elecrosiatic(ion nrntster),ând two areelec'
tromagnetic(HaÌl thruslerríd lle PPT). Toeelher,thesede'
Orhersuccessfuìflight âpplicationsof the PPT fÒllorvedin vicescovÈÍâ lvide rangeol /.r and èficieDcy.
lhe Unired States.h ì968 â PPT oD lhe LES-6 sâteulÌebegü This papeffeaiewsúe propuÌsionchdacteriíics of the ab
ì0 yeds of servicepÌÕvidingattitudecont.ÒI.In 197,+a PPT . . , i o rl e , l I ì ' . e d J , o u Ì . e dp ì J . m cn . o _
was depÌoyedon the Syrclüonous M€teÒrÕlogical SateÌlìte thnNÌer,rr7seneràÌlyÀbbreviaieds PPT. Of àll the vüious
(SMS). And beginniry in 198i the Nâvy TRANSIT naviga eÌecldclhÍusÌerconcelts.the PPT was dre fiÌst to achìeÍeãc-
riotr sateÌliìesylren employedthee spacecrâft calledthe TlP/ ceptàncÈ for applicationon spacemissionsbecauseofits sys
NOVA (IRANSIT lmprolemenÌPfograDt senes,$hich used reú simplicitl. Mmy yeüs Ìarerlhe PPÌ wes iìtlowed by the
PFIS: a for dftg mrkeup to nÌaintain a "drâg free" orbit l augnrenledhydraziDeth.uster, Ìhe kilowattlev€l 'ìÍcjet. the xe
posìtion- These spaceúaft accunuÌaled â roÌal of 28 tlmslef non ion engine. and the HaÌl of sta!ìonàry Pìâsma thrusier
yearsoí successfüloperatio!. (SPT). ln .onÌrâst with the PPT. these steady-stâtedevices
El€ctíc propüÌsionis usedbecaNe it proaideshigher €x- .chievedlheìr optinum levelsof peúrrftâúceâfterdecadesof
hâust speedsthan availúle chemicalÌy,allorvins signincant developìneDtin the labor.lory lldeed. thè thnsl effciency of
propeÌÌdt sr!ìrg! foÍ seleraÌ ap!Ìicatìonsin space.Today, fl;ghi úodels of rÌre xenon ion engineaDd the SPT 100 can
theseappìicatiôrsinclxdeonboad protulsìonfor saÌellites that exceed50%. The simpliciÍy, robuÍness, shofi develolmenÌ
aÌreadyrequiresieniflcantelecrical powef to accomPlìsh rheir Ìime. and low cost of thc PPT.however,.llowed its seìectior
mhsion. e.9., comDrunication.Such !.opuhioí prinÌariÌy lÒÍ s!.ce-fliehrapllì.rÌiÒnsin lhc 1960s.dÈspiteamuchlowet
se es stltionkeepingúeeds.'' but the câPâbilityclearly ex eftcieDcy. The PPT is ihus unique in combitìitìg decâdesôf
tÈndsÌo orbit [ansfê.' drâg compensltionând formâÌ]onfly space-qunllned flightusewith consldefabÌe olloÍlunity for im
ing.''" Ànd âtlitude control.'l" Flight experieDceg.Ìinedin
tlÌesenedr'Èúth missionshas encÒuÍAged appÌicaiionoí el@- Flgure 1 schenâricallydisplaysã PPI in its lladitionâI,
tric populsion for planetarydnd deepspaceex!Ìoülion.'r" breech-fed.rectangulaÍform, drileD by èn LRC (irductance_
EÌectÍc prôpüÌsìonhasaÌsodeÌnonsimted sevenl systenèd' resisÌance caldcitânce) pnlse circuil. In this arrangemen!
va agesov€r chemic.l pÍopuÌsion,leadirg lD its seÌecliotrin- (rhich can dso be madecoaxial).a ínìd propeÌlantbar, úu-
sreadof high ,f,r.Thc rcasonsfor this selectioncan inclÌrdèâ âlty Teflon@, Êìls rhe gap betweeDtwo èlecúodesconnectedto
longer life and less propellârt lealoge ard roxic Propella , ! chàÍgedcapaciïorin vacnnm.A sPa.k ignileÍ !rcvides a
making el€clric pÍoPulsioDconletitìve, even at conÌparabÌe smalÌ anrounlof initiaÌ plasnr. tÍiggeriDgan eleclricaldis
ch,ìrgè âúoss th€ eÌpôsed snúàce of the Tenon. HeaÌ t.múèr
fÌom tÌìis discnaÍgec.usesevaloraliônof propelÌanrmdLenÀI,
whìch is then acceleÍaledby electrcnagnéticârd Pfessurt
ReceivedJune,1,1993irerGion receivedJunè25, l99sr accepled forces.As rhe propeÌlantevàIrÒÍàres wìü each dischüge, a
rbr publicationJune 29, 1993.Cúpyislìt O 1998 by Ìh. Anìcrican
lNritute ofAercnaÌrics andAÍrcnrutics, In.. ÁlÌ riShÌsÌeseÃed.
simpìespring mechini\m rdlences tlìe iJropeìiântbd a:iaÌly
*PÌofessoi Depxí.ìcnt of Aercnautic.Ì ând Asúona.tical Engi inÌo the rhrusichrnÌbeÍ.clÌnnÌatjne rhe needfor a ProlcllanÌ
neering,104 Sonthwrielìt Sireet.Aí$.iale FcÌlow AIAA. tanì(and feedregulations)sÌem.
ïÌÍorèsor. Depâímenl of aêrospâccEngineerins,Applied Ì\'Ic_ Variantsofihe PPTincludethe so-called"side fèd" stÍeú
chânicsând AviâtioD.Asso.ilte Fêüow AIAA. (!ig.2). whlch canbe usedin ÍecrâtrgnLar orcoâxìâlgeometry.
but usestwo llopeÌlüt baf, ldvancedfrom oPposilelides. " 5) Solid propeÌlanladvan(ages: no lanhse. teedÌnìes,lerls,
'rhe coaaiìÌ ârâtr8ement(Fig. 3) lras oriEinrlly deveÌopednì necha caÌ ral\es. easiÌj mea!rcd p.opelìantconsumlLjon
' 'I. or. j!o ' í.10 o i-.
the foLrÌ ot' mxgnêltìllâsnìâdynarnic {MPD) devices and is .í !..r.ogenc..'.Lrn
no$ pâr of rhÈ PPf faììily long shelf 1ìlì. not alfê.led by râtjd iernperatÌ[ech.nges.ôr
PalunÌboand cnnÌân'" m.de the svsÌens.rse ntr rhe PPT nor affectedby lari.ble high "s'- Ìi)aLìs.
folÌo$,ingneafÌy9000h of nighÌ operâlioúswiÌh an eÌny PPT 6) DìscfeetimpuisebiÌs compalibleuüh disftal logic.
câlle.tthe LEs'6 thruster.over a l0 year pcÌjod begir!ìingin l) Vârì.ÌbÌethru\i ìeveì
1968: 8) PedormalcecompâÌiblewiÌh âLLiLude.ontìrìl aÌd st.ilon
l) zero samnp úìe. zè,o standbyporver. kèèpÌngrequìre)Ìents.
2) Inert .!d f.il safe no unpÒ*èredL,trques or lìrces. 9) Ope..tio! âÌ largevúiariÒnln envi.oDDrerlal ÌempefaÌüÍe.
3) ScaleabÌe to pcrfomarce requirerìenÌs. 10) TìItst lcctof co!ÌrcÌ ciprbilìL)
4) UsabÌeon sÌrìtìnilgor drrc. aÍis stabilizedsiÌelliÌes. To theseçe m.y .dd tlìai thc PPT is capàbleol p.ovidiDg
iÌn] nÌlulse bic. cftbÌirg ÍÌnc .tÌitude and pôsìrìorconrrolof
\atelliies,$hich is panìcularlyimpôÍÌânÌfôÍ tu.Ìarìon iìiiÌg.
FuÍhernore, Ìhe robnst desìgn hàs petuì(ed ìnnìedidre
dNsler olemljon. evcn aftcf lrany yeâ^ ôf íÒragi, These
advartageseìplanì irhy tire PPT wis nìiÌiaÌìy èmplÕye.ìotr
space.ratt.and why it contìÌrles Ìo be develÒpedind used

II. Bâsic Physics of thê PPT

AlÌhough siÌìple in lts cnìbodnneDÌ. LhePPT unilesrìÂny
.onplèd intèrâcliôns.esrlrins fìon, eÌectfomasncïic atrdclec
trotìÌernìil lio.esses. Pühed operrLìónand the thrce-diÌìen
Fig, 1 Solid propellâní PPT Gche.ntic). slonalgeometryof Ìhe úxdiÌionrl PPTrnákÈtheseinteracrions
qìiÌe diil.ulL Ìo rssersqllnLjLiÌìvely.ÂtfeDdìx A rcvl.ws b.
slc dreÒièÌicâl tumllxtìon! úÌÌL cu heÌpnr undeúandingPPT
behavioraDd leÌ]ìÌmaDce. Secljon XÌ dìscnssesrecent ad-
vancesblsed oD nurnericalsÌnìuÌations that aÌÌerìptÌo incìrde
ail lìrocesestosether.The pr.s.nl sectioninÌerd! Ìo provìde
a ri!ìÌcrvork tbr súsequ.nt dìscussionsof PPT eaperiúenÌs

The complexityof PPT benâviorsiansrvlih the igrition of

ilìe discharge.UsìÂlly, an leniter plug p.olides r splk ser-
emtedal . senicÒndrcÌiígplÌrg $úfr.È. The eneÍgl und mlss
àssoci.ÌedwiÌh this spúk .Íe ftuch sìrÌle, dran dìe coüe
spon.llrìev.ÌÌresfof Ìhe maitì.liscììârge, rnd $ Ìhe erxúL.on-
diiiols of thc lenitcr plaeDâshorld noÌ directly .lÈct the pe.-
Fig. 2 ScleÌntic ol sidejtd elêclrcde-proielìantconfrguration. fb'rnaDceof the PPT. NeveÌtheles. conditiors .Lo .ì.ÌÌer Ìo
sonìcdegfeeas sonÌeshoÌÌo sììotvârlâÌiÒnof PPT thíÌsr ú,ì\
- J r l , o \ o r . , o e' o p l . . . . e i
I
igDitef plaeDa.FuÌhcmÌore, tlìc poslÌlor of Ìlìe igdter plug
.Èlliiye to ihe suúaceof the Ìrroleillnt nìusÌ nccesariÌy be
Òptimizelìempificxllt for er.h Llesigr.
To d.te- ìÌrsuficìcntstldr lìas beeí delored to deLineiÌine
Lhelctral mechanisnsb! yhi.h the ìgnirersraÌtsdre PPTdis
chà.ge.CmdidÀLe troces\esnìclde simpl),pÍ,vidìnc an initial
lhsnìr dilchâÍgeneÌi rhe prôpellânÌsurlÈe. Thi\ nìiLiaÌdi+
..g..-',e..Í.i..\. or,.,' Ír .po!. 1 '
ìieh.r curclls. AÌteÌraÌÌrel), ultravioÌetmdi.tlor lroÌÌ ihe ig
niier sparkcan iiee electronslion lhe prcpelÌaniÌhal inltlate
. dischit8e aÌongic surï.cc. Nr!ìerlc.l sìtNÌatlonsnìcces
flüly !sè lbe forner Ìnechríi-qì in noLlelnìg Lhe PPII l'he
lâÌter!ìechanienpanicipaÌ.slrì the fl.shove.of innú.Ìots nÌb
ject Ìo nÌcÌì lìighercÌectdcnclds ií racunn: lypicaÌ fieldsâre
10 100 lv/cÌn vs -l kv/cÌn in PPTS.

Onçe nìíiìLed. thè PPI' dn.hârse ì.Ìridly bÈconei ü arc,

wìth Lheloluge bclReenlhe eieclrodesd.otping rulidìy ro a
lè$ huDdìedvolts. Farl) in the curÌenrpulse, the dischlree
di\tays nlanrentsand sÌrotllllchrÌent at electrodes,
tlpical ol
Ìow curent. lÒw pressureúcs. -{s Lhe.trÍe.Ì rise\ Lolilôàm
tÈÍcs tç. cn of vidLh howeler. conLlítunsfo. LÌdi||Ne a..
càn exi\!.'rhàÌ ì\. rhÈ.eis suflì.ìenrheârÌ nsfoÍLrÌ Lheìow
rânicÌc Lìensnìe! âlioidedb) Ìlìe dornsÌÍe.m lrcuün rc Òler
cone Ìhe Lendcnúlfor cürenÌ con.Ènt.â(ion!in .egiÕnsÒf
PPT geornet.ies. orìginàllÌ dêÌêlopèd li,r thr highcr ph\mâ tcmperrÌúe Ìdeill!, Lhediruse ú. cÒre( Lhe
ÈnrneexpÒsedÍrii.È oi dìe ptupeilúl. prôliding unitôm
?Ì8

conditiônsfor heattransferto, ând ablâtìonoÏ. the pÍopelhnr

ó r . E r n e n n e n r .r n J h . ' . er h a r! . r P L o n c r \ r r ]d e \ e ' o p 'J Ì
iüally n.,. Tedof popell"lr .riJ.(\. u g g e ' r i n gÌ l - i l . d
t.ansloÍ frôú the arc coícentrates in the middle of the sur-
face.T€stswith altefrâtinglayersof Telìonând polvelhvlene l,t
, a ! , 1 $c h e db e r k e e h e e l e . , o ' l e . \ j m ' 1 " ) : n d ( d e . n J n i
form ablãtionalongthe Propelìantf.ce The rel.donshil ofthe
widú of ihe dischargeto the width of the exlosedpropelÌut
süÍface remains a subject fof fúhèi íldy ând clearÌv cân
.ffect dttempts to scale the PPT ro lower or hlgher power lev_

Thè PPT plèsúr is composedof eÌecúonsand heavv-p.rti

cles of larious chdge statesin a conditionof electricalquâsi
neu!Íâllty,this i! typical of an ârc dischargeThe eìeclron
temDeraturedepeDdson a bÀlanceof resisLiveheating and
coÌÌisionàlenereylÒss,prnnarily1ôinternals1âtes ofüe heàvy
con.litions exrst rn of â rectunsulârPPT confisum'
Fis, 4 tdealücdrep.esentation
D!Íicies úd üdiation. NoneqDllibdum
tioÍ, shosús Dìssmãcuneít and magfttic liêld lines
varying .legreesand kìDdsbecânsethe downsnEamtâcuum
permits Ìow paÍicle densitiesând higlÌ low sFèds IìÌ the
imme.liatevìcinity of the propelldt surface.wheÍe speedsare hea! conductioíand ndiâLion.Energy depositionìn rhe soÌid
lo\r and densities are high. DÌorê oppoÍunity for locaÌ tbeÍ- ÉroDelÌantliberalesnrèLèrlal,an unknown ffaction Ôf whlch
moduaúic eouiÌÌbútrmiLTE) exists. althÒlgh üe electrÒn parricipatesin the lhsma discìraÍge Heat t.ânqfêr rô Ìh-'
teDr;erahrre n;y s1ì11dìftèr signincaltly irom lhe heavy_Pâr tbnster àúd sp@ecrâftstruciure(ând to sPlÌceby radiatÌonl
iicÌe teúperalure (rwo temterâtüe LTE). accountsfor eDergynÔtusedby massabladon Nole that the
l - ! a ' e r d o s r r r r Ê .n. . n o k . \ ê . p J \ Ì - o n d i r i o n m 3 ) . e transfer of ènefgy lìom úe dìscharge to th€ \ôlid proPellanÌ
lercÌy tesr âvailable lools fo. modelin8 flow behavìo! in deLÂil gèneraÌìydependsor the relatÌvePosilionof Lhèdischarge
The Dossibilirvtbr noúequilibnuú can exÉnd to üe elecÍon Thus. unde(tândÌngPI'r behavjorànd peúbrmâncercq!rcs
veÌociiydisfibution,wiÌh microinstâbiÌities P.ovldinehigh-en- a self'coNìstentsolurÌonof èquatiols foÍ plasmadynaúics
g 1 . i . . " r o ' n . o I e F r o e s r e Fo i o n r / d 0 1 | L e \ P e ( 1 d Íran\poÍ. and electicaÌ circuitry.
"b . F e du n l e ì ' p e a l e . d " ' J . d r d * i l \ l J l n r e l r - n ' o n Two limitirg úodes ol' discharteoper.tion ca! Ôccxr,de_
I r e r ! e , r r i o n . ' l 5 p e c r r o - o Dnre r ' r ' F m e n o f ' Ì e P P Í e \ Dendinson úe detâils of ihe heât transferând acceleEnon
hxu.p . l " . r 3 , i e , I o r ' l ' e ! J T p r e \ " ; e ' uìl' procesl For sufnciert trearúânsfef, tnÈ propelÌant surlace pro
nonequilibriumconditions vides nêw electricÂl]yconductiúgmateriâ],so dÌat the dis_
clrarqelatlì can remaìnadjxcentto the propelÌantsuilâcein.
C. Plasnr DynâDics siali;naÍv "ablâÌionarc" mode." OLhenvise.the discharge
As aÌ uc discharge, Ìhe PPT PÌâsmahas sÌÌmciendv high úusl foÌiow the accelenÌednaterial at hish velocitv.so 'Ihe that
illropagatingi' or "shrg" mode
_ e . o e r o r u , er \o p r o r r r ei r r e Ì . Ì . n E\ " l u e ' . i p r . r t c i n ' l u ì ' e LhèPI'I o!êratesin the
'
wher .Ò npdd s,ri .he.ni-:. rha.rer. I_elâ' c oroce.'-' àheÍnativetem "deflâgi.tion is sometimesuted for üe fbÈ
-deb-
ard ndiation, however,linúÍ the elecÌrontemlernrre b á rew ner mode, For dischàrgesüiven inÌo a gN. rhe term
eV (1 çV = 11,600K). Thjs, ir tuin, ÌinÍs the erergv lhâl nÂtlon Dìght apply 1ô lhe lafier mode. exceptÌhal the PPT
nt n ode rnrJ
p l " , n a p r J p a ! . i e .. n Ì u ' c 1 , , . \ i , n ' b ; l a r r o o
heavypâíicìes can xttâin by hea! !Íansferfrom the eÌectrons s . h d r gcea l ' e
and.iheÍefbre,the valueofelhrust speedassociaÌed wlÌhelec a ' o , . r r ri _ $ h r h I n ep r J p r r r ' i r r E ' P l . .dn' â
h ô l l e r t u l o p e ' J o n . F o re i , r p l e J ' r n - | r g n ci ' r r e rr o c l suffioienivoliageúeaflÌre p.oPellanÌsuÍiee to allow â second
ature oï 2 èV and a specinc heat Íâtio of 5/3 foÌ a frozen. discharge(a restdke ) Ìh.t remaìnsstalionaryin ân ablatioÌ-
dissociâtedflow of Tenon. Ìhe linÌÍing exhaustspèedsof
hè.w DâÍicles should not exceedabônt 8 km/s iìr carbon and TÍaditionally. the PPT operÈteswith an oscilÌatory cunent
? km/À for lÌuÒrine.Mè.súed exhatrsrspeedsin PPTSare waveforÌÌ,cbsely reserÌhlingthat of an LRC circun Coupling
mtrchhÌgheÍ (>15 knts). Th s, lreâtingof h€âvvpaÌrÌcÌesbv ol maqneticflux to lhe pÌasmalìow. therefoÍe.caDresult in
plâsmaeÌectrÒns cannotProvidemoÍe than aboLìt25-l' of üe hìghe;magneÌicÍìeldsin the pÌasfla thanlrovided bv the ìn-
kinelic enersy of the healy larticles Loss of mÀssfrom the stâíÌ.leous curert in LheealemalcÌclif The plisna eiilc-
proDelÌântsurface wiLhout the oPportunìty for electronìagnetic tivelv experiencesâ.celemiìonby â Ìnagneticliston thâr os-
cilats (rvirhdecreasine anpÌiiude)as cunentsin the upstream
i . . i r . . r ' o n . e . d r i e r n e. . . \ ú 8 e r u l ' e o b m a . P a r '
" addidonalsmâll contfibulionstô the irnpuhe poÍìons ol tlÌe flow ire aÌtemately rele1l€d and attracled by
cÌes,cân píovide
bí of thç PPf. The exnence of hìgh- and low-speedconPo- cuÍents ìn lhe backstrâpconducto.From a fieldpoint of\iew.
nents of massto$ is confimed by bÒth expernnell.Ì ÌEa r l e n , , ; e r t r n e . r ' r e ! r d J i ' ì l . r r . t e p ' r ' r d c c r e . e F ed l
sxrem€ntsand theorericaleaìyses of PPTS,dnd represents â e c L i o r ì t . n . l - e - j , . " 'c u n e n r o _ . , e i . c\ -. . f u . c : l ã r iJ ' c
critical characrerisljc in understânding PPT performance Gee ceÌeralion .dverseìy affects the pedbÌÍÀnce oï lhe PPT. if
Secs.X and XI). abÌarednaleriaì doesnot achievea unifôrmlv high speedThe
o p o o l |1 \ l o . p . r x - u r Fn lodr'le lro 'úec F|:n
ElectÍomagneti.fo,ces !ro! e ilÌe hiSh slecinc inPulse
cÒúporentof the PPT.Figüe'+ di\pl.ys üe cunènrnÔwrnd r " . . r r e r n , t r ' r i r d l - , , r ' r e t . q r " x r . c rp r ' r ô n o d e P l PT
mâgrctic neld pattem for a PPT j! an idellizedrepresentatìon p - í o í n - n r . ú i r g c r ' . r ' , e o u r . ! n . r n d ' i n P ì ep | l r r J \ n ' m -
of lts rectangDlârconfiguration.Curenls in fte pìasmadiv ; . . . e . g . .r l u - n o o e . \ 4 , n e r o n ) do d ) n J m \ 4 H D t . â l ' u " _
chargeaDdúe retnm or "bâckstruP conductorrepel.causng lions. of course.can follow curenr ând lìeid vúiaiions sÈli:
electromagnetic âcceìerâtion of the plasmalnd â Íê,.non to.ce
on the Íetrm conducrorAt lhe sâmetime, lhe magneticnèld
lines encirclìngthe plasmâÌend io \queezeúe ptasmamto â
!úow coluftn. The resullinglorces on úe Plâsm. de dç- Thè PPT can losenass in severalwÂysnnd o! several!Ìme
süibed !n rems of both electuonragneÌic Íìeld theoryand cÌ.- scalès.Th.se ìnclüdesìDpteevaporaliotdufnÌg ândfolÌowing
aDderÔ-
the dlschôfgepülse,the exPulsionol macropaÌìrcles,
cnit theory formulationsin Allendix A
sbn ofelec!.odesaDdLheigniter pluS TlÌe va.iÒnsrnassescan
ResisliveheâtitÌgin rhe dischargesustainsúe plasmaa1â periìr
have quite diftèfent leLocities. of
Consideraiion PPT
high iemperaturc,Nplltitg ene.gyto tbe Ínid propeìldt bv
mnce dd its improvemeú must lttenpt io delineate süch Revjeiv of the lêrge number and varieiy of PPT experiÌnents,
ditrerencesf1onì pasl ârd fulure datâ that usÌâlly only pro!ìde and thejÌ inierlrerations. requnes consideÍâbì€cde becauseof
totaÌ rnassÌoss and thrust impulse over mâry nrings, the severalpossiblevelocity comlonenÌsând time scalesas
Exposur€ of the prcpeìlant suface to tbe dc dischüge in sÒciâbdwilh mássevohüion,By identifyilg aspecrsof PPT
creasesthe propelÌant lemperatue ne.r the surface. leading tô oFraiion ihat presentÌyÌimit perfomance.we ctu rhen look
hieher rates of evaporationtoward the downstreamvacnum. foÍwârd ro directìonsfor imt.ovements.
The equilibnumvaporpressürescalesin an exponentiaÌfash
ion with tenperatuÍe IU. PPT Types
PPTSmiy be classinedir i 2 x 2 !ìatrjx of four types:
Pq =À exp(_r./",) (1)

where ?. atrd Z. are chaEcteristic pressure and Ìemperature

vaÌues,respectiveÌy,tbr üe Ìnarerial: and Z. is the $üfice teft- ReLÌangulâÍ CoaKidL
perâture.For Teflo!, p, = 1.8.1x 10ii N/ml aM ?. = 20,815 Breech fèd Side fed
K.ri! The high !âlue of Z. for Tenôn indlcaresthât modest
cbrngesin snrfacetemperâiure canresultin veÍy largèchanges
in evaporationrate.This suggeslsúat the delaiÌsof he.t tÍaís- A coÌìmon configurâtion is the breech-led PPT wì1hpa.allel
port tô thè surfâce from rhe úc crjticdly atÌect rhe tnÌe scale rectangulareìectodes.driv€Dby a Ìong cureni pulse.as tt?-
jfied by the LES 8/9 and EO 1 tlnsters. For thè rectàngulâr
for providirÌs nass lo the dischüge. Different behavior, there
fore, might rèsult from snâI1 chrnses in the operatinsand elecrÍôdecônligurdtnh,the .urènt and seÌf-inducednÌagnetic
design parameters of the vdious PIvIs. CurioxsÌy, howefei, field are primariÌy fansverse to the flow. The ânode and cath-
softe generalconsistency exisu in tems ofnass losspèrjoule ode úc attachnen! regions nÍè then fiee to move downstream
of slored erergy ove! broad nnges of conditions. Thì ìnifor- âlong rhè electiodeswith rhe flow.
mily allows speculâÌiorã thai the mâss prodrclion is deteÈ The codial connenrarionis usDâllyconicâI.lypicalÌy with
ì i n e d b y c o . . ú x i , . o f , h e o \ e r . ' ì Ìt o w l e r d . r . ! . . . o n i . . ^ - cential and downsreâb Íing elecbodes.h aDy PPT iÌre ignilel
ditiors, insreadof detendingclosely on lìne-scaleslructures. plug is üslLâllynornlÈd jn thÈ cathode(we have lound no
e.8.,ten1Perature-g.adÌent scaÌes, exceptionsto rhis Ì!le). whìch in dÌe coaxiaÌversion can be
Such slecuÌaÍon obtains iurrher credence tìom recognilion either the center eÌecrrodeor the downstreamring. Coaxlal
úar úe amount of energy neededto evaporatepropeÌlanl rep aüaDgemenlsof abÌalìon fed, pÌasnìa thnsters (Flg. 3) were
.êsenls onÌy ! very smaÌl filclion of the eneryy Deededto origjnaÌlydeveÌopedas MPD devices.''The outerring elec
dissociare, ionìzê,and accele.ab!hè resuhjngvapoÍ.The heat trôdèjs usuâllyràrorv, so LhãlLhécu! e.l ancho.sai a dell.ite
oí vaporization for a poÌymerzr comprises üe phaserransition location.Modestvalüesof magletic Reynoldsúuúbèr resull
,jto a gas,the depolymerizarnrn ôr "unzip!ìng" of th€ poly in â liìÌited dow.st.eamextensìonof ihe curent pattern.
ner chain ,r. ând the heÂting of thè gas to dc temperâluie The dischargeÍesÀriviÌyis detèminedby thè elecbôntem-
lerature, and tÌE dischdge resistaDce dependson lhe Íesisti
h" = hj + hd + .t^T (2) vìry and úe geomet"y.In the Ìimit of magnetic Reynolds num
b€r basedon a! eì€clrodelúgth muci largeÌ than unit), tbe
Fo. Teflôn, ,/r equâls about 2 x l0ó J/kg, with three-quâíers sreamwiseexlenti i.e., thickness.of the dischargeis deter
becauseôf l, + hd.AÍ exhaNt speèdof l5 kn/s coresponds niined by úe flow sleed (lividedby ihe resÌstivìtÍ TlÌe resÌs
to 4 kineLicenergyler uniL nass of abou! l0'J/kg. Thus. tance is dren p.oporrioDal to ihe back eÌectromolive force ( U
evaporation requúes otrly âbout 2-4% of t|€ energy needed x B) divided by üe cuüen| By varying the eÌectodedian
to ecelèrâtèpÍopèllart ro speèdschâracterìslic of specìlìcÌm- eier,simuthal symmet.yir th€ couiaÌ PPT givesbetterco!
pulsevalües(Ì000-1500) for the PPT. troÌ over resistlnce than does lhe rcctanguÌü geomet),. for
Not all Lhemarenalleavingthe surt&c. howeler strainsthe which the curert deÌsity is not as well kDown.
high speedsthat provideslch slrecincirnpllse.Inúeasingthe Wheúer the PPI is breech fed, as early veAions weÍe. or
sutf@etenpeÍâLu.ei1ô süpply elen a súâll ânount of mass side Íèd, developedlâter (Fig. 2), ì.jìu€nceswhetnerthe PPT
lbÍ electromagnetic .cceler.tion during Ìlìe dischúge pulse, opèràies in Íhe ablatlon ârc or propâgelidg ftode. These lwo
demandstne depositio! of hoatwithin dÌe propeìlant,Simlle operatingmodescloseÌyresembledeflagratlonandprolagating
hearconduciionrelâÌesthe total hèâtdelivèredin the pÍôpel modesnr electrÒmÀgnelic pulsedplâsfu dèlices eithèrüsing
lanr m the prodnct of sxdace le!ìlerâture and thermal-diifu- gãs injeclion.sÌch as the coaxial "Mâ^haU" gun," thè pàr-
sion depth. (RadiâtiveÌrânsporÌnây úodìff rhe derails,but alÌeÌ plate conlìguraLion,'?3the high repelitionrate PPT,:'!the
the lÈú!èrâtuÍe disdbúriÒn srill !èâks ar úe srfâce.) The suÈ coaxìalpìasmaaccelçralor,r! and Lhepinçh engire.rror usine
face,lheÍèfoÍe.çill continÌe to evaporàreIong âfÌeÍ cÒúplè- p.elìlls such as the linear pinch.rrThe gas-fedplâsmâaccel-
tion of the dischargepDhe.providingúas\ lhaLcamot expe- erators iÚect Drèssi. the !Ìtí.eânr regioD, wbich has th€ effect
rience âcceÌenúion 1o high speeds by electÌomagnetic and of supplyÌngcureni cariers â! the breechof lhe device.The
gâsdynamic fbrces. The fiaclior of mass laÌ1icÌpating ìn lhls irÌjectedmas is the! ionized by a conìbimtion of radiation
Ìate-iimeablationis not well understood,Furthemore,high and electroncollision.3ìrrDevicesd this type alsoinçlúdethe
teúpeÍatxres at the sxrfâce during ihe dischârge pulse iftply MPD rhruíer and Ìhe deflaCÍation gun.r5róWith snfncientcui'
the ôploíunily for snfficiendy high lemleratures beÌow the Íent carien snppliedupslfeaìn.the curenl distrlbutioncan
surlace for decomposition or phasechange of üe propelldl. bècomestâtiondy. similar lo üe deflâErationnode of com
Suchchangesin the prcsenceofa pressurelulse l.om the PPT Lrustio!observedwith flames.
can reruìl in additional]ôss of úârend ât low spèedìn the The b.eech-fèdPPT,sxch âs úe LES-6, featu.esa cnrent
fom ol droplèts or oúeÍ nâdopârticles. Experinents by distíbutìon Ìhat initiâlly propagatesdowrstreamat a speed
Sp&jers et à1.'"suggest1bâtpeÍhaps40í. ôf úe ftâss loss greateì thm the ftâssÀveragelelocity. sxggestingÌhâi the
fronr the PPI is in the fom of low+pèed nâciopàíìcles tha! mâssr?te of âblÍìon rhe Íeâr of the dc is not sÌflìcient to
do not contribnte sigtrif,cantly to Ìhe irnlnlse bit. pÍovidespatiâlstabiliz.tion.ID tlE breechfed PPTthe pfimary
The lbflster eÌectrodesand sidewalllnsuìâtoBalsoprovide j x R foÍce vecior poinÌs away ffom the abÌating srrfâce. so
mai€rial!o thc PPT lìow. Someofthìs mat€rialpàrticìpaies in that when tne a.c strikes ir noves Òrthe súrface.rèducing rhe
the ove.all electrômàgnetic accelèralionof plâsnâ dunng the abìationrate.On tbe ôtheÍ haúd.for side'feddevices,thej x
dischaÍgepulse.OtheÍúass. however.mây evÕlvelâteÍassüi- A vecloÍis tâÍrllel tô the âblâiingstfâce..nd the, neld ünes
facescool (oÍ empÌ)fôllowing tbe hertptrhe ândpúticle bon- a.e nomÀl tô it, provldingâ conduilfor eÌectronslo reachÌhe
ba.dment froú Lhedischarge. Tènor ard mxintàinthe abiâtionrâÌe.Thus.a do\rnslreammo
 Talrle 1 Thrusí and mâss ablâíion ch.Ìacteristics of yt.ious PPTS

LES 6 l.3s 300 26 3.3

sMs 3.4 450 133 l5 3..1 3.9
LES 8/9 2A 1000 291 t5 l5
TIPI(NOVA) 2A 850 3?5 t9 2.3
MIT Lab 2A ll 2.8
MIPD 3 ]OO rr30 2230 23
i2t0 22.300 30 2.5 21.7
1136 'Ì31 t7 1.5 2.6
ó00 450 60 10.0 36.0
JapânLâb 30.4 Ì5 3.7
China Lab 23.9 Ì9 1.9 5.3

Ìion of the side{èd PPT. to lìÍst ôrdeÍ, does not charge dÌe

lú addiüon to the four bâsic gèoneric and propeilânl feed

variaüons, PPIS âre àho disÌinelished b] variations that in
clude shoÍ pulse vs qua\isteadytablâtiÒnúeâ: the locatio!
aúd type of the igüir€r plúgi âlÌematepropeÌÌantsother than
TeflonipdaÌlel !s ilâredrectanguÌüeÌectrodes; abÌatÌDg. non
abÌating,md corducÌiveíozzlesrosciltatoryvs noloscÌÌÌaïorf
cu[enq ând âppliedúâgneric field. Thesedistincrionscrclte
ditrerenr op€raling úÒdes for the PPt atrecting ihe imluÌse
bÌt and specificimpulse.and aÌÌ mlst be coDside.ed in a PPT
design.A brief dìscusslonof eachis give! here.
Shott pulse $ í.tudsìsteõd!:In nÌosr PPTSthe puhe iength
is genèrallylong. in thar the puÌseleDgthtpis gÍèÀterLhú the
stÍeâmwiseacoustictime a/a in rhe thrusler,âlÌowingthe pres
sureto lolÌow the instartaneolspower jnpur.Typicaìlyt i$ 2
cn and a is 5000 m/s, givirg ,/4 = 4 /^, comtded with rp= Fis. 5 Sid€-fêedihrns.er with íar€d ëlecÍldes,
20 irs. ln the limit te >> t/2. the flowneÌdpfolertjes vary in
quasisteadyfalhion âÌôrg with the lhnster cunent.The time
scale foÍ ejection of the thennal !Ìasma from the th.usler is
úerefore govèmed more by üe pxÌse length than the sonio
velocity. ln lhe shoí pDlseìimit te << Z/a. üe eÌectronagnetic
componenrof thruí is applied in time ,e. folÌowed by the gas
dynamicconìponenlon à rifte scalèa/d.
Ablatian areat PPTScan be râÌed by üe slecilìc nas ab-
Ìarion (ablated mâss peÍ jôule), wìlh a lower vaÌue of this pa
iamete.g€ne.d1lyâssôciated wiú higherspecificitnpuÌse.This
qüâúrityis shownin TabÌe I nì u.its óf pglJ. The tâble .lso
displayslhe pg Õf ablatedlropelÌant per exposedafeaof Tçr:
ìon fÒÍ vdious PPT tyles.
.rgrlrer plls: The brèàkdown is nìirlated wiú a !Ìue. usually
of tbe semicolducroÍtr?e. locaÌedin the cathode.The plug 0102030
dischdgeenergyìí a frâctionof â joule, and is $tppliedby .ì Tinc tgsed
siÌiconcontlolÌed recdnÈÍ{witched_1 kV capacÌtorcìrcuit.
'lhe Fig. 6 TypicâlPPI cnrrentp!ls€.The oscilhtionsredrcethrNl
p h g r . r . L a . l ), ^ . ' \ . ' 1 r. n d r ' r eb e d d o $ n s a \ N ( e - r
m uimuLhàl ]Òcxtionthat vdies from shot-to-shot, which. in
tum, can pÍôduceshotto slìotvüìations in Lhèúâin dischúge
devicesuse a TelìonnozzÌe.which the! contÌnuouslyabÌates.
Propellart AIleÍ lÈstingof severaldozenaltenìatÌles,úe and çhich Ìnay or may noLachieveân equilibriumcontour.A
propellúl pÍôdüciry úe besi pedomanoeìn r PPT is Tèllon. üiJd ve6ion usesa nonabi.tingceramicnozzle,with the Tei:
Teflon provides auributes ôf high /.e, high impuÌse bÍ. and zero ìon prôpellanÌintoduced upstreaDr ofthè LhrÒâÌ. Ìr'iÌh a Teflon
surface char The sèdch cÒntinuesfor alternatives wiih beitef ôr cermic nozzÌe tlÌe cathode is e thin .nnular rinS at lhe
characteristicsi seeSec.VIi. nôzzleexí plale.
ParuUelrsfldftl electtu.ler:Inthe rectangular sèÒtuetry Ìhe Palserlapei Becânsethe extemal(LRC) cücuit impedânce
planeelectrodes afe usuâllypdÀllel, but for somethnNte6 ihe can eÌceed the dischdge imledlnce. the PPT cxÍenl pnlse
performanceis imp.ovedby algling the electrodes awayfton generèllyoscilìâtesin the manler oi a daúped sine wave.
lhe thrusraxis.pÌoaìdinga nozzleeffecr(Fig.5). The resuhing achìeving2-4 h.lf cycÌesbeforeüe remainingvoltageú in'
r e J u f e Jp l . , n - d e n 5 i Dì , i ) J l , o o e n e l iet l e r u , " s n ei 1 c suftcientro breâkdown the electrodegap (Fìe.6). Thú tuodè.
celèrationof the plasnÌa. somenmescalledbipolar,can lroduce reeionso1 reve6el x
Nozl?: Use of a high arearaúo Dozzle'electÍode combina- A iD llÌe plâsD]a,and the oscllÌatiÌrgvoli.ge forcesa !Íadeoff
tion in a coaxiàl PPT can incre.se both elec[omaenetìcand berweenlifetìme aDdcataciÌor nìass.CuÍent rele6aÌ aÌsoin-
gasdyDanicthrus! cÒúponenu.Coaxial le$iols of the PPT cÍeâseselectrodesheathìossesrnd heiÌ ÌÍansferA betlerluÌse
e \ i . r ' n ! F \ r , d ,v e , . , o n x. .l l e m p l o ) . nap h , s h: , e d , J i ô J / - shâpeis the Ìon.elersing uúilolú pulse,çhìch is achièved
zie, úsuallyconicaÌ.The nozzlecan bè úetâllic. in which case Íhroughône of severalÌechniquesenrployinga pasile (Pn1se
ir is artachedto oÌ comp.ìsesthç câúode.A nnnber of coaxial formnrs) or àcÌllely switchedextenìâlcncuiL(seeSec.XII).

--t
 72Ì

-
FoÍ.oaxill geoDretriesthe PPl i tedân.e c.n be lìlgh enough Dnring 1ÌìisÌìÌne. rork coDriDuedüì ltaÌ1" on ablation lèd
'r
r) .edúce or eÌiÌninat. curenr oscillatioì. coÌriài N1PD Ìlúustes ând also h Jap.nr' atrd Chi!a.'* Tlìe
AppLed ,rdsreti. ,eld: Fo. ÍccLàngtrìà. PPli. in xtplied loíner icÌiÌitìes us.d ablatio! to avoid the difficuÌtÌes of de
ield lafallel to the field úâr is self-induced b, dìe.uÍenÌ \rÌlL veloling a gas !.lve foÌ repetìtive ope.ation lof nrjìliors ol
enhâì.e Ìhe./ x B rc.eÌenrior. The neld can be suÌrflied br shoÌs. The Jrprnèse sturlies.by severnl aulhors, included nass
ere.LÍÒ of pematrenÌ ÌìreneÌ\. spÈcl.Òs.opic ina\ses,tr and c.tensjon of ttudjtionaÌ PPT .r
raneenÌentsto ìÌrclude lppÌied m.Ìgnetìc Jìeìds," " .eÌJ ling ir
l\. Eârl) L\p(rimrnlal Hnr0r\ l 7 4 N \ / J a L â \ p e c i l ì c; D p u l s e o I , 1 0 0 0 s .
_fhc
e.rliest klÌoçn p!Ìsed thmsler came liom Rus\ia Ìn By the eârly 1980s,eÌeclriclropulsio!lì..1faiÌedto de\eÌo!
l9l.r'ì Tlìis tlÌusteÌ de\eÌoÌred sas p.cs\ue by dischi€ìng as i !Ìerns of pfim.ry sprce propulsjon. even tlìou8Ìr labora
.ipaciÌi!.iy stored eneÌg) inLo ! plemn lined qiÌh pliÍlc. Ìory Èse.rch.nd delelopDrerl had contirued toi tour dÈcades,
úsnìg a conlerenre dirersìng metÌ|li. rozzLe to e1pând .rd TÌìus. Ìlìe PPT renìaiDed thè onlr eÌecL.Ìcth.usre, wL!, ì uo,F
x.ceÌqaÌe the Ì€5nhÌng gNes. lÌ i! nôt knoçr if dìrust Ìnea Ìnru.d ãlflìcation as orbo,trLlrroptrlsnlr ftr àn ope.rÌioml vs
sürerÌenrs serè ÒbrÌinÈd. bnr becanseofth. coDlìguraÌioD,rhe scieflitjc le\L tui\sion A str.tegy for elecific protülsion de
...eÌerarion ÍÌÈchÌnisÍì was prrel,! ele.tfoth.rìal. A numbel reÌopmenL sa\ lhen ptutôsed. usnrg the PPT .s dìe sÌ.fÌiÌrg
ol eâ,ìr delices lvere gas fed" or lìd çith i ÍÍÌ \vâ\. " point tuf r lÌdill Òl robusÌ. siÌnple elecfic ÌhntrteN niih ltr
Artmpov aDd Kh.abrov in the USSR. begn!ìitÌg in 1962, creasìÌÌeÌI arìbitìous so!Ì\,"r4 The PPT *Ònld p.olrde â côn-
d.veloÌred L$Ò PPT designs. one wiÌlì .n .ÌcctfoÌnagreÌic aDd ndled. ierretiLive sourcè of pi.Ína ÌlìrÌ $ould acÌuao Ìatcf
one yíh i Llìeúnal rcceÌ.riÌloD mecìaDìrÌ (Fig 7). The latter '', Í'...o1
\È^bn w.s lÌìlcgmr.d on the Zord'2 \fa.e.fult xnd *xs in \rhich dìe $rilchirg occuned ÍÌìen Íhe plarnra !Íi\ed. A
'
lâlnchediD 19ó1 h nÌe U.S.,PPI ile\el.püènt qxs ìed by l*Ò'\Ìrge PPT demonÍraÌed dre bâsic concett, usins ! con
rhe tionc.rine $ork of CurÌln rrd Pahnibo. it the FairchìÌd slanLcuncnL fulsè foinìing retlvofk lo drivc an alrlati.xì tèd,
Rcpublic oÌìpur". and of Solbes. TÌìonìa$cn iÌÌd \bDdm. at .eúLargtrlârthnìÍer rs Ìhe sccoÌd sÌaec. This secoDdstage ig-
{he \lassuchu\cus InsrìLúe Òl Te.hnology LincoÌÌì Labofato!: nired âftèrieceilnrg pl.sma lionì a nìeht quaÌincd tnodel fìorn
ThÒe eÌìirs coÍsisÌed of cxpcrimentdl fesearchto ondcr\tând úÈ lr60s LES 8/9 serles. The design enere! of ihe second
_fhè
rrsi. PPT physlcs. as welÌ a\ dèreÌ{rFhem aid nlghr qurlin {âgè couL.l irìcfeasecs neededtufììeher e.erg missior\.
úition of PP_rs Oi, sepl. 2tj. 1968 the nsÌ L.S. PPT spacc 1àüriLt ol ÌlÌustcs as ô wh.ìe, horevei sonÌd sha.e Íight
night wâ! x.hieled on Ìhe LIS 6 satellile. iq *hìch rhe 'pí e,.cô:!' o.l'c Ll . (..r '' r' : le,;'-
du,ste. ÌrèifÒÌììed .ÌÌiÌude co!Ìrol. Ii Ìhe U.S., lÌre ïiìÌulu! nrenr úiÌ re{ electrl. profulìioì s!sterìs lâclied llighr èxpe-
lo. úie LES ó PPT \1irh soli!ì'feil{rn p.opellànt..tìe tÍorn
cârLyctïbÍs ( I 96ì ) r) in reg.rre onto a saÌeÌliÌe a 360 pN dìrust Ai Ìhc Ìì.ìe tììjs \tntcgy \!as lrÒpÒsed, dre posiblllÌy of
lrs lèd PPT Ìh.rr rìiÌed b€canse of lhe úe.h.nic.l !ìeÌernìg ícaLlt power levels in slacc of upÍafd of 100 kw {Ììl c.Ìr-
r.lve The PPT s,!sÌe!Ìs ln üs. toda) are siìÌììd. to Lhoseem- Ìrìred rììe .ttcntìon of nruch ol Lhe ele.úi. potDlsioí co!ì
fìl)yeLl nì rhe Zô d 2 ind I-]1S 6. nìunity.r: DesÌtite çaiÌing\ ol NoLher "LLse dnwr" tlìat
Dulng the 1970s dnd 1980\, Íhèn tN.h of space teclìnol $ould ìelre elÈct.i. rìÒpulsiô! sÌill çithont pfiÌnârl pfopul
osv in the U.S. lrnguislÌed ln . posl ApolÌo n\iljght. stlLdre! rLon exterien.e. úe !tunìise of sÌeidy el.clficaÌ posef nì
o,Liiued on Ìlìe PPT lnd feÌ!Ìed th.uste,\. OnÈ erâutle *rs sÌrace oìeicuìe úe âcÌliÌÍy of success nith sìrller ÌruÌsed
úe ati.!ÌDi ro exÌend the {(úe!slül los energy PPT Ìo Ìhe elecL.icals)íeú\. \!nh the íteÌ4ìo...y) denìjse ofspace Lrased
nìillipound .aìse,'' tì Ínb = ,1.150ANl b,! oiìcfatilg ai a ruclear ÌroreÍ. nnd the inüeise in úlsslors Fith modcsl. sollr
r,ighef energy |er Ìruìre, rnd.eqriied conqueing selef.l lfob clccÌfical fo$er Ìerèls. jnteresÌ has rekindÌed nÌ tlÌe PPT.ii'
lcrÌ\ *ìLÌì ignnef p1Ìrg .n.l clc.rrode deeradation. By tììc Èrd The er\lred perlbr!Ìancc of a rurnb.r ol PPT5 ìs gjler nr
of lh. ÌnilliÌroufll fì.stuh. .ìlaciÌoÍ ÌlleÌime renìained the 'Ììble
l, qlÌh pnÌse etrcrer_raneiDg iìon, 1.85 tÒ ?50 J. fôr
f.ircipJ Le.hrÒlogi.âl hurdle. and roltaee reversll and clpdc- bree.h fed and side rìd rhrusLers.The rhrlsÌ. me.nÌred rn
Ìrô. oÌeÌìreatins aÌrFÈaredi! úe üì.jor.arse for iiiÌÌü! at llfc Ìerì\ of iÌìp!ì\c bjÌ per jonÌe, is plotÌed !s I in Fis. 6. wirh
iiÌne\ 1ìr ÍrorÌ ol the deslen CoaL.^ìso, dtr.ing the idse!- rhe e{.ettìor ofth. PPT -1.çhich \rill be discus\ed sepi..tely,
cnÌies. adrânced PP'r ..n.epLs à.hìeted nìc.eised ÌeveÌs of (he th ìÍeN !ÌairÌ) tìlÌ eiüe. ìrL,) ! high /-, gtuup iÌ iÌ00 1
püÍì.Ìance. ìn!1ÌÌLlingI side led arr.trgeneDts th{t achieled Ì00 s rÌ l5 l0 4N'\/I, or r loqèr /,, grolp aÌ 450 a 150 s
1ì l|N yJ ai n sfeciÍic inpnÌse of Ì50{l s, Ànd end fed s)sÌe!tr dÌ 1.1 2l rN-íJ. Ìno ÌhrsÌ.fs op.mtitÌS !Ì l, >.+000 r aÍe
rhrt rchiered 2Ì /'.N+/J âr 5160 s. Nevertheless.rÌ dre end of .lso retoÍed (Fìg. E). MosÌ ÌhtrìsÌeA (T.bÌe lt ablaÌe ìn the
rire ilcc.de tJ S. Ai. Fo,.e fmding shifÌed Ìo oÌhef lecds. òe ratrec 1..+ -i.3 4g/.J. rnil the rìas ablated is 1.5 - Lt) pgl
lrrre LÌrÈmiìlipound engiie .rd .dv^trc.d PPTj de\eloped ìÌrto .rÌr. !Ìsse\tins reiâÌi\eÌy sinÌil abÌaÌìon Drcchlnìsms iar rìl
fighl iìâd!r.r.. O! lh. otheÌ \idi ol tle Pnciiìc. the Chire.eal qpes. These dârà bâsìcrll! deúe from nìclsufemerts of
.erfoDìcd d {òoiniLâì Le!Ì Òl â PPU steady Ìlnusr d!úng r.peiìtlle tulrìg of tirc PPT dnd subsequent
measurencnrs Òf nrss Ìost by tlìc propelÌaDtslab. Àt]I]endir B

z
i
.2:

\ 1.- r :rr:
F , , . r ,d L
. \ .F:ìl'. '
\r1, rrb \-1!4! r3ÍinL$

E
201r .rú 600 3001000 1000 .10{0 6000
Slecúìc Impul'e, s

fig, ? !i.sl PPl desigrs (LSSR). Dle.tronÌâsnctn ú-isht) and Fig. 8 Idpühe bit peÌ.jotrir r! lpecilic impuhe tb.larions lliglÍ
discússes the .lesì8n ard operaÌìon of thrust siands iìr PPT etersof the exlemalcìrcuitrelectrodegâp d = 3 0 cú, çidd\
l] = 1.0 cú. leDerh0.6 cni câpaciÌance lìom 0 66 !o Ó.1ì/JF;
evahation.The subiçcrof Da\s loss dirccLsâÌtentionto the
r \ e m r l e , : , o n m e r .orl r \ c P f l q l - c h d p e n d \o r rr \ e r e Ó e voÌlagefrom 500 ro 2000v: extemaìrcsjttancetìom 0 to 0.80
tition rãÌe and eneÍgt Per shoÌ. TlÌe dala summaized in Table lì: exlemalindu.ranceiìon 50 io ó50 nH Under thesecon
I .lo nÒÌaccoun!for vdiatiors becauseof repetilionrate ditionsthe abìabd mlst vdied from I to 17 Églpulse Ii eas
thenp.oposedj5 ihrÌ the imprlse bit be rePreseltedin Ìhe foÌm
V Flight Thrusters (adoplingdllúI = t'):

rr (3)
The first lììeht PPT. usedfor àttiÌudecontol on üe 196'l I'"= \ìnUí + . L' I r' ú
/J
Zo!d-2 nissi;. w.s a breechfed. coaxiàl "erosbn tv!e" de_
siEn.wìth six th.usie6 on the s!.cecràiì The PPI Dsedtwrn
ba;s of ?0 rmìons cylildricâl TetlonlÌrbcs(0.'r kg). eachoI wherethe veÌocityând the inductancegÌadienraredçreúìined
which ças contâinedin a 60 mr-id thin-wâll tube of àlu_ by a cuÍve lìt 1{,rhe data.The resultspere Uil - 1225 ìÌ^
minurn auor Ìhal fotued the arÒde Total system nìass !!.s 5 and t' = 0.253 pílld) = 0 95 t(H/n
ks. The ceítÍaÌ cathôdewa\ à 20 mm_diamcoPPerÍÒd The The impulsebit and àblatedmâssof tlE LES_6ar 540 s arè
thnst ftechanismçâs prjmLúly electroÌhemÌaÌ, and Ìhe sÌrace shown vs eneret jn Fig. 9. DependiÌì8or úe cìrcuir Pàr.m
ouaÌi1ìcation tes! wâs 10ópúhes Perfomince PaÍâmeÌe$aÌ! eters, the úeasured specìiic iftpuÌse wâs it the ünge of
p r r e l n e \ , .P ! r t r e r e r .r r P o T f o r / o n l 2 : r , 1 . d e n e r y r- _ n 200 590 s. of which 125 s wãs the gaílvnâmic conribulion
j, 'o .'e" ,.0.\.rtsr;er')'€r 'o rFe Inkv At 500 s the elecúoDragnetlc coDÍìbürionwas 175 s. and the
PPU" . pefficieDcy
. ' " | | o , = 0.E, pdse flte = 1 0 Hz' specincimpuhe gasdynâmicconkibuÌionwas tlìe.efore259.
= 410 s. thÍust at 1.0 Hz = 2 nN. and impulsebìt/J =:10
/d's/.J. c, sMs
The PPT deli8nedfôr the SMS Fovided morê ÌhnNr thdn
F. LES 6 wls rv.llable trcú LES'6. Tlis PPT had Ydiable tlmst ca-
The LES-6 PPT was launc|ed in 1968, ând achievedl0 pabiliÌy and w.s usedfor spin axis precesston
cotÌro1
yeds of operaÌìonin oÍbit In the e.rll' developmentof PPTS
ìt w.s rcc;Anizedthal gasdynânicpressurepl.ved an iúpoF D. LES-8/9
tâít rcÌe iÍ lroducing Ìhnst. MeâsnrcDren! of rhe magnúude Tlìe LES 8/9 PPT was flight quali'ìedfor Ìaunchil 1975
of the sasdvnamicconflbutioÌ ón Ìhe LES_6thnsref $ìs P.o bni ultimatelywas not on the mission.óAll Prclulsion otr the
vided úy s;bes and Vondra," who mea{Ìredrhnst impnlse ,+54kg sâÌelliteswas to be deliveredby \ii PPTS'\'hich were
rnd m'.. ron.rrprron \.l c\?er'r. r''l) \a\r''t p' n . o n " . o , " r " ' . , " e . o n ' . 1..l r i o n t e í D n g . d { ' o n' l r J n g
P " r n l r - . o l , l r I L S 8 . o P P I 1 r ep r o . d e l n T " t . -
!.
ln labo.alô4 teÍs lhe imp!Ìse bit was louíd to vary frÒn
267 ro 152 aN s. averaginez9r |.N s oreÍ 2 x 10' pulses
This va.iâÌionças caÌsedby intenÌìonallvvaryiÌÌerhè locâÌion
of tlìe spârk in ihe annuld l]trg gap, iìoú 2 io 11 mm fionì
the ÌrrorJellant 1ace.cansinea coÍesPondinglvÌa.ge vÂÍiation
6
nÌ aÈh;ed massfÍonì 36 to 26 Á"g/PulseIÌìPrlse bii varied
r , n l \, t e . . . ,- ^ r l r . o r ' p o . ' o , I o n r 2 5r \ ' ' r ' 2 m r
"
r . u 5 , . i r r n .L . ' . p c - n r p u ' e r o * + r o l ) ìq.z'
s âr 2 úm to a maximnmof I150 s ai 7 ftm. faÌling lôr larger
distances.Shoflo-shot variatìonin tbe iúpulse bjt Nâs im
prcve.i by  ph,g designthàr sÌabilìzedthe sparl'ìlì'iÌjÔn
The LES E/9 wâs al$ tèstedat lour tnnesdre eúergv(E0 I.
1000 V) and one lbúLh Ìhe Pulse r.te (0 25 ppr' keèPing
p o v . ' . J . x n . I r t - . ' r ' . Í p ú . c . F 4 5 0' ã n n c < . ^ e
;f l5%. and the imptrì\ebit ilcreàseda facior of 5 1 to 1500
! - \ - . i n d r . dnr " _ r ' . r ê ' e i l í l l . e n c ) C 1 p J .o i ì l J
i r e r I . a ' t r .g e d i m r r f e J r o l 0 ó r r' e ' \ ' l 0 p u l ' e d
r 5 0 0Y

E. TiP-II (NOVÂ)
o-ì-23 Two TIP ll PPTSwe.e usedto pÍôlide d.èg coDìPensauon
É N É R G Y( J ) on lhe NOVA seÍieaof satellites,whiciÌ lìo\Ysin a Phased
Fig. 9 lmpul.€ bil ãÍd tblâred mr\\ ot rh( Lfs-6 \' entrg\' consLelhtionrvirllin a 2'nm deadbríd in a 640'n mile orbir'

Tlbl€ 2 specifrcationsof the LEs 8/9 PPa

Rcclan8ular, FârauclPlatê.
brcèch fed. rwi. tuel bars
lhn$ x\È ClntÈd lo-des .o ÌnnNreraxìs SPcìn' ìmpuÌsc Ì000 !
Ii:l RêcÌângultrTeflonbds Ìgniler PLug CoaxiâlseÌmconducÌol
!,.,.: l"-e' _ 20 r lerirer voÌlxsc 6-21y
i...i- M y Ì t u - p â P e ôÍ ì 1 .Ì l r 1 F ! 1 1 5 3 3 v l a n i e rê ' e r Ê v 0'1t
p.,:: Cr.a:r;on* 20 LHz dyb.ck Ì\Iis/tuÌse 30 3 r'glpnhe
PPL .nì.i:nr\ 80t! Thru(er 1(Írl nÌìss 6 60 kg
iu, po,.-"t l ppt 255W r : l l e ' ! Í Ò n im
' sl s s O9lke
P.?-\ !uÍ.d! l!.000 A FtrèÌmass 075 kg
roril imFuÌ!. rl2o N s cârr'iÌor nlss I :l .ks
l"'pur*ilr 297 ANa sÌnÌcturènNs 3 01 rg
Performanceof t|ìs 20-J sysieú. with 0.,15kg of Teflon per
is givenin Tâblel.
Íhrusrer,

VI" SeÌectedLâboratory Thrustcrs

A. RüssiânNÍIPD-3 PPT
The wôrk of Alt.opov et aÌ.'a'7 includes peifomúce ìÌea-
surcments on rhe MIPD 3 útusler plus detaiìeddìagnostìcs of
ÈÈ arc ând pìunre.The tÌNíer is a side fed devicewìü an
/.j, of 1130 s dd impulsebit of 2250 /..Ni at 100 J. DunDs
the tiNt hâli:cycìç,magneticprobesshowednÕcrrent d€nsiB
âÌ the bâck insulatoÍ. dd aj x R cuÌÌent froDt moving in the
flow dtection at 20 25 kn/s. fÍoú which it was coNluded
lhat dÌe A field lìneswee frozeniúLÒthe pla$a. AcompleteÌy
diüèrentbelÌaviorwas displ.yeddúng the secoDdhaÌf cycÌe.
for which rhe curent dìstribütionwâs stationary,wrth a mrx-
imum along úe back insulatôrThis \uggeststlÌat tlÌe arc wns
operatingin a prop.gâÌingnode for the firsi hdlfcycÌe ând a
deflagÌation mode for thè secÒnd.
The nragnelic aDd gasdynamicpressnÍeslveÍè esiimated
t r u mJ r I e n r . J e h ' ) . J ì d D e . { r e d . f 1 . ì h ( ì - r : m u n n r g
neiicpressurewas on üe oider of 10 atú, and ú€ gàsdynamic
pressure on rhe o.der of 0.2 ann, suSgesrirg rhat Ìhe thrust
mechaDism of tle MÌPD'3 is predominaleìyelectromagnetic.

'clrx10-
Kimum et aÌ."'" demonsfaiedconlrol ôveÍ thç relativeelec (kA'-sec)
ÌÌoDragnelicaDd eleciroüemai conflbntion in a rectangular A. J'
PPT by a!!lyi!g a ìnagneticneld parnlìelto lhe self ilduccd Fjg,10 Ablatednds per dischârg€as â lunctionof ú4,/Á").f i' dt,
field, to increaseor decreasethe teld sÌìengrh,Both elecÌro
magnetsaDdpernìanentmagnels!!ere usçdjtrp to 0.57 T. An modemjel ajÌcmfi. the favored syÍerì .oiv usesa siÌicon
.pplied magnericÍìeld of olposite lolarity Íèducèdüej x , cÒrL.olle.lredìfier lof switchirÌg,coupledto a seniconductoÌ-
1ôrce,incieasinghasvpul\e and iÌDpulsebii. the l.uer by as type plÌrg, enibllng loìtage! of Ì kV or less.Life cycle lests
much as 66,/c.It was concÌudedtlÌar lhìs retardingnelLlìn- ivere peifÒmed on Lhisty['e of syslemfor 1.5 x 10! pulses
cÍeasedthe eÌechothetual.ÒnhibutioDbecalseüe impnlsebiL o! üe igniter circuit.nd 7 x 106djlchafgeso! the 17 J/kg
increasedwith reducedj x ,. çapacìtoN,ivitlÌ 2160 N s of irnlulsè .lelivere.lolrr 3800 h
oú r singÌesèt of cÌecÍodes.
ln Chinâ, An er al.r: desigred, built, flighÈquali6ed,and
launcheddìe MDT'24 PPTon â souDdìng rocket,the nrsÌ Chi- vondÍâ ând'thondssen''testeda 20 J side fed PPTby vâry-
neselaunchof â pulsedpiasnrathrusterYuanZhu." working ing dìe sprcing belwèenthe Ls'oprolelldt Lra6.resulÌirg in
with a paralÌeÌplâte.bÍeech-feddesigD,ped-ormed paranerer a variatior in the massper puÌse.For 9 /aglpulse.lhe ìmluÌse
studiesio show the effect of eÌectrodeCeometryând energy bit was 227 /lN s al2580 s, and foÍ 56 ,Éslpuì\.. the nnlulse
Òí perfoÍmâNe.A saúple of lhe data Ìs shoçn in Table i. bit wÂs.154/N-s ai 600 s. ft was concludedthât thç doublÍìg
The eÌectrodespacing'lo,widúratio ,^r was shownro affect ' n m t , ì * b r - r - 0 Ì u - r ( c - u e o f . . eg . ,d ) r 1 . p , - . e
perfomancesignincxnily.For23.9 J. irìcrcasing À/r,fron 1.38 thrusl *àìch js approxìmateìyequal to ihej x À rhtusLà1
Ìo 4.50 inc.eased16,by,+7% Ìo 4.18/,N-s, ând ./.!by 357' to 600 s specincirìpulse.
990 s. This resulLis consislentwith dre incieâsein l-' by 656/ó In rìüther sìdejed PPT wofk at the 300 J lelel, Palrnbo
foÍ Ìhis vúialioú in À^r. and Cuhân5' elaluaredgeometuies for whlch lhe fecing !ro'
pellànt ba.\ were angledto fom a "V" slìapedcâviÌy (Fig.
2). A iypical 1,r çàs 700 s. FÒrincludedV anelesbetiaeetr0
Guman-:sworkjng wiih a bfeechfed PPT,develope.lm an deg (laralleÌ waÌls) and E0 deg, lhe th.usi/porvefratio s,as
alytìc Íômuìation that trcatedthe inìpulsebit.s úe $n of highesttbf 0 deg, ard was 11% lìighe. âÌ 0 deg than a!,+0
elect.omagneticand eÌectfotlÌenÌalcontributionsl deg. ln a lfopeliant âbÌâÌionstudy.il wâs denonsüried tlìal
the ablatedmasscoreÌâted wÍh the pa.$r€rer (4,/Á.) .la t' dr.
,,,,=)', q ^,,4]"' rvìrere,,l/is Ìhe ablatiDgâreaof the prÒpell1út exposedto dìs
Ita,* [,1,_ Dlq chargeÌldiation, andÁ.,Ìs lhe openareaâÌ the plâsúa bôúd-
aíes lhroughshìch radiationescapes(Fig. l0). The coúela-
\!here. for Teflon (7 = 1.3),the y function = 0.79. TlÌis ex iìoD lÌolds ovef a range of two orders Òf mâgnitudein th€
pressioÌjs oDÌy apprcxìmaiebecaüseit âssÌmesÌhâr the Jìow pxrâúereÍ,lòÍ $lated nasse\ lÌoDr 7 to 600 /,g/pulse.The
expdnsionoccur\ at consrantdca. and thar all of Ìhe energy qnantily.l; & ìs observedLo equaÌthe storedenereydìvided
ti is âddedro ihe èrc befo.eany mass^r, abÌates.a conditnrn by clicuit Íesistâncefor a lìxed LRC circuìt
thar doesnoÌ hôìd unìessth€ dischdeepuÌseÌengilìis on rhe f'r
oÍderof I /^. This nÍìd€l ìçd directìyto rhe prcdictionrirhâr | , ,1 -^ !:r,
the inrpüÌsebit will be iftpÍôved by th€ additionof a nozzle. J!^
Uslng the saoe PI/I, early work on igDiler ciÌcuits begâr
wiú úe Kryton túbe, but was droppedbecauseof hniÌed Althoügh the toÌ.1 resistance ,4 is not known a prìoÌi. ji ivas
Krytror life (1.3 x l0r discharget aìd its,+'kV voÌragere found th.t tlÌe curent lntegralcould be rep.esènted!s

l,-''^,=,,"1e
quirenent.in favor of â 3-kV seâledspark-gapsyÍem, wlìÌch
e{ceededI x Ì03 pÌhes ir lìfe t€\ts.5 AÌflroughrlìc sealed
jtark gap systenìis still ìn !\e Lodayfoi tuhire igDilioDon
 Table 3 Srmiempiúcal PPT PeÍfomance data e reported by Arington et aÌ " for a
dsign eqüttioN PÍimex Aelospace Co. breadbodd PPT with flar oi V+hâped
prcpellantand PdaÌÌeÌ or flded elecaodes,for whi.h rhê in-
.t," / x.I,Ì. |.N4?
pulse bit is generaÌÌy 17 /..N+/J up to 54 J. Best performance
Breechfcd 320(E;lA)"" 2500Ê'" in tems of thtust to power rario was @hieved wlth a nolched
V-sh@e.t 320 (ËilA)r6 16608 " fuel face in the Teflon proPeÌlant, bxi üis apProâchinlrodnced
si.re ied 32tJIEJA)n' I 120816 difflcuÌties wiú the fuel feed system design

whèÍe \4"rc is called the iniLirl impedance.dd to is found Separatelines of study ãnd experiment hãve prcceededfo.
at í - O ttot\ La(.di/dí) = VL,tyPicàily it the ratge of lO0 200
mâny yem in which abÌationof solid propeÌìàntprovidesâ
úH.
cÕnvenientway to avoid gas valves for pulsed oÍ qnasisteady
semiempirical equations for a plrticuld PPT design weÍe
provided by Guman.óobased on Ìhe expeÍimertaì results for Dlasma devices. using coaxial geometry. WoÌk is ongoing at
ihe UniversiB, of Roìne on a coâxial MPD Thrusrer,* and a
bÍeech fed, V*haped. and side fed conlìgÌÍations (TabÌe 3) gÍoup at the Russia! Research Center. Kurchalov InstituÌe,
corÌelations were lbund bôth for the speclnc impuÌse ând ior \ 4 o , c o r . L . e \ . ô d : c l P F l i r Õ . . u d j e ' o l p l a . m áó r c c e . . i n g
ú e D r o J u ( | o/ . a n J , ô p u l . e b :i n l r(m.ot he'rored(aerg)
t " r r J a n dr h ee i p o ' e dp , o p e ' l d rd r e l a e' c r : , . T h F P r i n c i p r l
EarÌier work on the puhed electroúemâl rhruster (PET)*
resuÌt is that the 1,, is independentof rhe geometry.The PrÔtucl
and lhe ptrlsed arcjet"' úow exrendsto ân âÍmgement in which
of impulse bit and /." is geom€try depeDdent,with less ttrsst
two, side-fed Tellon bam fom the boundary of a dischârge
being deveÌopedfor side-fed than breech-fed dences
chànnel, pfoviding mass now to a coaxiaÌ PI'I accelerâtor lts
È Oíe MitlipoundThrEter present embodiment uses a solid state diode in paralleì çith
PeÍfomance studiès were made by PaÌumbo a Guman"' rhe e"ersy sloragecâpâcitor(Fig. I Ì).ó(ó7Early versjonsof
ôn a high-energy (450-750 J) rectangulâr PPT driven by d rbÀ thnster (Fig. Ì2) e distilguished by higì iftpulse bit per
joule (Fig. 8) and an acceÌeÌationprccessdominatedby gas
108 t Fd pulse-foming ner\toÍk with extemâlcircuit paraÈ
ete6 of ìR.,.=2.6 mO and ,-, = 60 nH- Boü breech and side_
fed modes weÍe examined,and inÌereÌemode spaclngmd eÌec- OperaiionofquisisteadyMPD thrusterswith màssnowpro_
tÍode incÌuded-ângle weF vâned, aÌÌ at 450 J For aÌl of tbe vided by azimuthâllydiscreiebaÍs of abÌaringsolid-PÍopellant
slde fed tests,úe trmsveNe spÂcingbetweenthe ÍecianguÌlr \ l r . I ' d e m o n r ' r r e 'r h - r r e f ' p e ì Ì d nt e e d . ) r e Ê r e r d ' o l
plopellântba$ wâs heìdconstantat 9.3 mm. the àxiaìpropel d e n a n d .r,e c r a l g u .e, e c r r o d8ee ô n e , q".* u h r l e i * , e . . e Ê
Ìanl lengthwls 3l úm. and rhe el€cÍôdespacingwâs 76 mm tainly will remain Íegüding the de!èlopmenrof azimuthaÌ
AblârednÌasswas foundto inc.eàsenonotonicallywith a pa syFmetry within t|e thflsr chamb€r,úese do Dot difièr gÍèâtly
ramèier conelating the exPosedpÍopeÌlant !Ìea ànd .f ir dt A tìorn equivaÌent cÕncernsin g4çfed MPD tbrusle(. Tbe op-
portnniryfor srbstârtial improvementof conndencetn lheo
naximum ìúpulse bit of 16.7nN s (37 r!N+/J) was found ài
a 20'deg incÌud€dèlectrodeangle,at 1210_ssPecificinpuÌse. reticâl modeLingol codiaì devices(vs rectangulãrrÍânge-
wiü d ablaLedmss of ì .4 mg/puÌse. Opeiâting in üe breech- meDts) enooüragesa locus foi fulure develoPnent of PPTSin
lèd node al tÌìe same ènergy reduced the abÌaredmâss 90% the directionof coaxiàldeüces.Maintènúce ofconnectiôúto
the Êigh!experience of tiâditionalsystensrepresents úe mêjot
úd raised thè specilìc impulse ôver 5000 s. at aboui haÌr lhe
chailengèm snilÌ dele1Õpmert.
A Mlúo PPT d€velopedby Spanje^ Íepresenrs a paÍticüld
iÌìe iúpüÌse bit" wâs separatedinto an eÌectrcthermàl and
an elecÌronagneúc componen! but Ìhe indnctance gradient fomr Õf coaxialPPÌ. BasicaÌly.a high voltagePuìsèdelivered
L' was considenbly overestimated. A! à reasonabÌe, = to the exposedend of a codiaÌ cable provides tbe âblâtion arc
0.7 pHlm aúd a Ìylical curent integraì0120,000A' s, lEMis $'ithout r€quÌing a separateigniter and cncultry The relativelv
14 mN-s, accountingfôr nearly all of lhe impulsebit The low energy of operâdon perÌnits this sim!Ìification, ând cor'
eÌecfôthermaÌcomponèntof the ìúpuÌse bit. lredjcted as relates lvell wirh ÍippÌication to \tlicio Sals (S/C mals <20 kg)
-O.AQLnE*)"', accountsfo. the remaining ìmpulsebit if The lesent MicÍo PPT packagèhas a massôf less úan 0 5
^fr = 80"/, of the toiaì abl.ted nÌass (side-fed node) and Eu
= 5 J- The low enersymay indicúe â lüee heatloss ro the
wâlls in Ìhis Ìhnsler.
ln â elated effon."' the impulsebit was aÌalyzediú terms
of the gasdynãftic ard el@tÌÒúâSnetic contriburions The im-
pulse bit was found to vâÍy lineüÌy with ì, where

t.
&o I t"d/ Fig. 1r PPT circtrit with diod€ to preventcurÊút rcverrâl in Íhè
J
'-
\'tr' t^
is prol)oniôn.l to rlÌe r:Ìtio of eÌcclromÀgúeiic lo Sasdvnãúic
impú1sebit, md nr is the mas\ úiâted pef PuÌseThe elergy
requied to ablateTeflon wâs give! as 4070 J/gm, and is tvP-
icálly 3 iew percentof rhc Llnchrge eneÍgy
A P P t c l l l e , l r l ê M l l r N u n d T m s l e r . " "d e \ e l o ó e dl o r r h ê
| .5. Air F'",e. wr. I /.n J. \rdeled PPI The ir.luì'e hil
s d ' 2 2J u o p \ ' . s y { e n d e \ e l o l m e nc a j l e d o r I 4 l0'
puÌses,but <10' dischdgoswere achìevedâr capacitofiãjìuÍè.
possibÌybeoauseof a negalivecuüent rèverealof 30 li4. ex'
perienced in rhe extemaì circuit. Wiú thè higher enetgv or
operationoveÍ the mlicipâÌed nÌssìor. propellanlhèndliúg
rceded to advancebeyond relâdveÌy shoit, staight bars of Fis. 1? Coaxitl side-fêdPPT \tith power cahl€lnd siíìê-nnnì1ed
TelloÌ. leàdingto the useof sliraÌ Propèll.ntba$
 725

kg, and üsesa dischargeeneÍgyof 0.8 J to geneÌateimpulse,

bits of àbÕút2 ltN-s. 12
GDmú and Peko" inv€sligaleda breechfed codial PPT
(Fig. l3) wlÌh â cenrâl ànodehavnrga rerririrg slÌonldeirnd
ú dial slring. The 1,pwas found !o vary with lhe stored en
ergyand abÌaiedmass.s 1.,,- (Eor,lr3, ard n wasconcÌuded
úat úe únster mechânisú wÀs pâÍly electromagnetic [.f.. -
(E!/u)LDland pâíìy sasdynamic11.,- (t/ft)"'1. Increa;ing
the rozzÌe size aDd decreasingthe stored en€rgyieDdedto

The UnivÈrsityof lÌìinois coaxiaÌ ihnslei design (PPI-3, PlasnaTenpentuE{eV)

PPI-4),'"" like the Zond-2, is characterized by a relalìvely
high vaÌueoï impuÌsebir perjouÌe. low specificimtulse. dÌd Fis. 16 EquilibriunìplasDâsoundspeedys tenÌperatur€pre-
a predomÌnotly eÌecfoihermal âcceÌeraüonúe.hânìsm (Fig. dtutedby the Sesanìe
code.
12). TÌÌe dmster is side fed, ald enploys a high dea ratio
ceraìnicmzzle to extract as much gasdynrnìc ând eÌectro use of a dìode acrossthe capâcìlor.and rhe pulse Ìength ls
rnagNtic thnsl as lossibÌe.The singleigniieÍ phÌg is iocared shofi compúed lo the chitrâcÌenslic acoustic tiÌne I/., (lenglh/
ir lhe nozzle, berwecn the exii and the ihJo.t. The bulk of the soundspeed),slch thal the storedenergyis deliveredand the
sÌoredenergyis deliveredto â smâli-diàtuèter p.Òpçìlan1lined eiectomagnèdcÌh.trsLìs lroduced prior to most of rhe gas-
caviry. closed at one end by ihe anode. wiÌh a lúgè râÌio ol' dyDamictlÌrlst. The PPT4 cxÍenÌ puhe is nrodeÌedaccurateiy
lelgdr to diaÌletef,minimizinelrÌa$naheatÌossto èlectrôdès wÌth a lìxed LRC circult (Pìes.1:1ànd l5).
'fhe
and irs aLors,ànd prcduciDgp.essures on tlÌe oder of 50 àÌh €iectromagnctÌc tlnsÌ componenÌof LhèPPÌ-3/PPI4
from -10 J. The cnÍenÌ pühe is nonreversing becauseof the coaxialthtusre.sis +a' .f 1: dr, wherEr' is 0.66 /.H/n, âbouL
727.lhalôflhe LES,6 r€ctànguldüruster (AppendlxA). The
gasdynamicconponenrçân be aplroximatedby asumirg thât
Ìhe sÌoÍedenergyE is dèliveredto dÌe subsoDiccavlty.of vol
xme L x Á. in an âdixbaric,cônstân!-volume process.givirg
a pressurer, = (-) - l)t/LA. The imluÌse bit perjouÌe Ìs then

r
A
Jrat =r i (.7)
E
Fig. 13 CoàxiÈlsoÌìd-púpeìllnt thruster schematic, The t€mperature, 7, and soundsfeed. d. de rypicâlly 1.5 eY
1.3. rnd:l kn^ iìoú rhe thrusterrcsistanceand the Sesâne
code (Fig. Ì6), giling 75 /aN-s/J.The measuredaalÌreis 60
/,N-s/J {Flg. 8). corestor,ling !o a heat los of 20% in thè
calacitorând cavlÌy.The speciiìcimtulse is ó00 s, corcslold
ing Ìo â lelÒcity 50% hìgherlhàn dÌe sould spced.Tlìe gas
dynâúic thrusl.on!Íibutioncàn be decreased and the electo
magnetic corÌponeDt incrcased by operating al highe.

VÌI. AlternativePropettants
Fis. 14 Fixed LRC circüit model or PPT-4 thrNt€í A Ìarge,u!úer of propelì.ntshave been e!àluãledin the
holes of nndirg inproverDeúÌsorer Tellon. The evatuatrons
are u$'ally perfomed by nìeasrringthrusrstandpeÍiomânce.
and by exanÌinÌDg the postlestconditìo. ofthe abl.Ìtedsurfâce.
Cumln" neasuredperformanceon . breech-fedPPT for
Teflon ând ornerplastics,incìudìngKyDalô,Viion@.Flxorel@.
KetF@. ceneron@.Halonú. Dehn@.CTFE,2]006. polypfo
-----cürúFi' (Pspne) lylenÈ, and polleÌhylene.AddiLiverfor Telìon suchas Ìithium
hydÍìdeto redücèúe ionizaÌionpoteDtillwereprolosed.Pre
ìimina.y I'eúbmance testsshowedth.t thrce of the pl.stics
resred.pôìypropylene,Delín-AF@.and Kynap. formed sul
1 fice chaÍ.'rhe ôÌhe. ptupeurnlssboled varìationsìn /.,,lìom
F ESR 7 . 5 m O 947 s (Kèl F) to 2410 s (folyeÌhytene){ith Teflonat 1085 s
: h a breech'fedcÒnngüation.
P.lumboaDdGnnÌan''eyaluaEdsever.lconìmercialllastics
(CelcoD6.Hald@,TefzelÒ,and Halon)aswell asTeflondoped
0.94 with l0 aDd107. ÌDBr,. ar.100J. Although ìl wâs concluded
that the lerformanceof ÌlÌeseplastÌcswas lower than that of
Teflon. the Ìests were oDly Ì!n in lhe breech fed mode. pre-
vçntjn8 diÌecr conparisonwith the sÌde-fednode. PaÌuìnlro
aDd Gunìan5'! aÌso anempredto evalÌrateTelton seededwith
alkaÌi metals,bul the sinteriDgteÌnperaftrre of the Teflor was
abovethe rnetalmel eDueruture. AD attenÌplw.s madeto nse
Tim llssl
a popelìant composedof 80% LjIJ,20õ, polyeihyÌene, bur llÌe
Fig. 15 CoÌnpârison of m€asür€d cüreni ând lir€d LRC .ircuit liLbìum elÌed Òut Õn the surtu.e and very bw values of
modcl cur.ont for PPT 4lhruster. abl.ted mâsswere .chieved.lÌ wâs .Òn.hded thàt.10bè suc-
 deslstrof the PPT.The incÍeaseof operatngle!ìlerãtúÍè çÌLi
-"i, . ' s : - ' ' . l , a rP P T d e . , s n f d p ' n o n a n . e . i n Ì e r
o r c . r o r - : r ' r rer r l n e .r l o ' - b l e . n , S r n 3 ' o r t a À eÚ. d F '
ú , ó 1 . ' . ; n$ i l l d e n e n d orn\ e n . : u - p f l r d ' o . e c { i o n '
keeling vs ofbir raisjng.

Ix. Additional System Issues

With a long history of Right apllication, the PPI sho!Ìd
h.ve bright p;ospectsfoi turther use i! slace FÔÍ êâ'h neq
/ PPTúis;ion. hoeeveaquestiônspersìsrÍegardìngeÌectroDâg_
n e Ìc n . e r l e rcee r r \ 4 f ) J n Í j . o r c r n - r i o r o r ' e ' P L ' J ' i
fr ---'-l bv ihe PP'f exhauí. EMI ftusr ahïâvs be addiessed
,o,, n"""r.. . . r \ e Êe'"r-' I e n d o s . d r o r e
rn â nes
a n' b e
h u L"J" .. .er n, . o t t e r ' 'e e c | | o -. . u h . ' . , r n . C . 1 , . r r i r - l h n b \
Fig. rt Fúel geometrÍ sho*ing T€floÍ/poÌvethvlenêlâminâiiotrs the PPTth.ustermusÍbe considered eventhoughPPTthru\te'r
eject less mas thdn cbemic.l thruíes bocâuseof the posi
cessfuÌ. anv additive wonld have to deçÕmpose at 'bout lhe bilih of ccrbor JrlosrÌiun
.lerolvmeri;adoí tenperarure of Tenon (330'C)' I n r e r e ' r , e u l , r ' Ò r I o . h c ' a d Ô t P P ' o e ' ' g nr l í
i{asA Lewis Rèsearch Cerier Ànd Oiio State UniversitÍ"' bÀsiccuíeni Ìo;p ofihç plasmadischargeacÌsas ân e:cellenÌ
u,:ne dn LLs 8'o \erresr\nrer. penuncd er|e :n enÌ' Io ânÌema.h Ddncille, exreÍnaÌcoils nìav cânceÌtlis broadcâs!
,lre'"-he Jbh.-nc \uí !e o lhe p opel,d r brr h\ "r'ern lrng dl leastpàrtiaÌlÍ but moí designspay Ìi1!ieattenliÔnto such
lave* of Telìôn ;Íh new lJrol,èllant mrÌeriaÌs This lechrique. mâtters._PÌasm; disch4ÍgesaÌso cân Prolide eÌeclionagnetic
r'q"' honrô. u ot l,l p o\ it e impru\
'o p(i||' imp l< trirh emissìonsby subtÌerprocesse\'Thomassen"measuredrâdia_
' o $ n ! ú e o ' e , , 1 d r e l < . r i c . . , ( n e h ot ' órie Tel o r'_ r i o n. n r h ci . ) 1 8 C _ l / b a ì J r o r J l l S 8 - h r u J e ur ' r n C a
un
Radiatior was orlv observed du'ing the
làce. Fiõre 17 depicls üe arangeftent of ]Àmim of different bFadb.nd alLenna.
maleÍìâis in the m;dined propellani bar' Elrlìer attenlts to use fiNt 0.5 1 r^ of the 8 /ls dischargepulse. dunng the high_
p l x . Ì . . . 5 J c h d . p o ) ( l n ) l ' r ' ed i n e d : l ' r c n g h P r ' a ' r r t u voltasebr;kdown phase,and was characÉrlzed bv a fla! fre
uelsnÌ ôl eúaJ. proJrn' b) el:nrr ' I nF nJ' 'e lt
led ou"niv .r,e"r-n' *iìl u toÌâl radiâtedpower ôf a few hundred
wtrir serere carbonization ("chaÍins ) occurcd."'In the Íè- milli;a$s over tne ftequencymngè.con!ìrèd to a discharg'
l3n,Ère.o iíf'n 'lC F Ir -nd ooì)erh_ loser dissiPâtionof 10 MW
y l e n er l i _ - t 1 1 . ' . e . e d | . l n e e r | ' n i c . 1 " c ' - $ r ' í r P {'c" eo A l FlxtensiveEMI tests .nd corechve úe.surcs wetc Per_
; a ' e . d i ' D l 3 \ c d ü e r r n d e r lJ r o r ' h r p o ì ) e h ) ì e n c
'L ro , ^ - , e d b ) | b e n e r - l . n | ' e \ O \ A c _ e cJ l r A l ' 8 \ '
carbonizÉ.çhile the intervening Teflon teceded at â fâster râte ..d. led ic.o,n, o re{ nd 'f -'Ji c rr'lod' Fed dln iÈ
Slch modiÊcâlion of rhe su.f&e occrÍed oveÍ severâl thou- flieht qualjficâtionis described 'o
sand firjngs and did not affect the alriìiLv of the coiüìned i o " i , , t , " o . . \ p r o \ , , l e 'J J Ì p l e . p p r o x c \ e d r ' n t s
D " L e l U Idúr l . " r i o n . n P P f . .S ! : , e c r J ' \ i o € r )r r r ' l
$ÌÍface lÔ hold off the initiaÌ charging_vÕllage,b*ause FeÍg "
ditiìcultv ot' acceptirg â delice tÌÌat looks
inE of cúbonized Ìayers across úe inleÍvenine lèflon did nor ihen confrort the
oc;ur. Comparisôn of üe PropeÍiès of Teflon and polvelhyìene dlffercll than the ône lreviousÌy selectedby otberdestgners
{,e8e{. rlxrInr.tLe'r r.trô edPPTPolell'ìr' mar Le CerÌainÌ!.rlÌe buÍde! restswiú the dnsÌer engireersto dem-
penã .uu.te .a',r..
" r. r c h
d' rìe 'h€m 'l o í '\;D 1r"l le ònslr,t€ the leìformancè .nd li1ètlmeof a coari PPT in_
"n
iemperÀhúe t'or polymeÍ decomposition.'" clüding lubtl; dìffercncesin proFllint hÂndlingxnd ignilion'
Hlstoricallv.PPTeflluenÌshavenot conl)romsedspacec'aÌt
VIIL PPI System Heating . o e c r i o - . . r . . t . . . r . ' r n - , r . e ol r.l o n . r n e P r n D e l r nn Í l l '
remloràÌureoD Pt'l
Concemfor the eftèctsof PropellanL . , ne r t r u . . ' . n . r . r i r . lo . " ' ' o t m o c r o ^ n ' l d Ì ' r o í n e
petfomance ted to 1wo experimental effotts âimed â1 moni moslly ions of LrothspeciesPÍoducLionof racrolaíicìes and
rr im. er:p ioi oopet r or' r..' | -n " lJ
- . " s e - o e n t u , _ J l u e . w h i n ' h c ! r o D el . ' n b I J r o l ì F r ! r h r i o u o l F h e ' p ' c e c r-l
.o_\l.rr c r
. . " r , , 1 " ,, n r " . p t T . A . p d Ì , r r , h o , ,. , f l e r a ,n , r e n r ' e t r o n
ro ânalvzePPT behâvior,Spânierset al "' Placeda senesoi €nvironmènt,and elecÍôde.sidew.ll. and igniler maleral mây
ú e , n o ; o u p l e1' r . r ' e J l l '.nJ€ o 1 ' L r r h i r r 1 ' l e f ' r r o Ô e l 'J"n nho aplear in úê exhôu\t Erosionof thrusrercomponent\mâv
rls. conÌÍibute1Òcontâmitration (but at ftuctì lower m$s now
o" . H.'.ei n-* lor J'r P P I o o e rr: i o r c u a í l ' e d \
hlÈherGmleratuÍesat hicher aleiage porverleveÌs Masslos
at;en lo; sDeeds by evâlorationbetwèèndischÀrges, jn àd For fli€ht aurlified PPTS,elecrrcdeandinsulârorerosronhas
-Ì ', ';" '; :"u( ó i - l) be l r'e ol
ditio; to macroraÍticle gencration, can sigDilìcantÌv reduce
P P I n e í l o r m d n . ; . s i m i l , f e \ ,l .ee n r "" o r l
q \ | \ " rJ â $ ' n J I n c ; e t .t . ' ( l ) h r g e ' D l - r - ô , , ' I r o . . u nc r n D e . on e - p ^ '
rur i nco D n p € a l - ) M A C H 2 . d l 'rbrron "hi'll tant if the specilìçinìpulse is loÒ hi8h. in which case úe
".e,
conectLypre.li.ted lhe imlulse bÍ becauseÒf discharge.but âblâtedm.s cu be in$ffcient ro providecurenÌ caüi€Ís Ìo
the discharge. In rhis s;!üitio!. whlch cân haPpenif â PPr for
requìÍedlaÌ€ìlme múedaÌ loss to accoun!Ior rhe ftâss ross
n " Li n L E s - b .I n | ' ' e c n . n e r r r ' ' r t e m o c o r P l c ' k e Ì I ' r 0 L r 0 ,l ' e J.cl'Jr!e sill <.\ 'n" ÊeLJmêÊ ron l'e
"ê. i n ' ' . " t e í ] . n p r o \ r l ' n . a , ô i b . , r ì e l e c, Õ d e .o r " .ie. reo. -nCrr*'..-o r l e ja Re rlr' rorPPr'operdn; I
o'. l e í e r r _ó e \ : e " e d u r r \ c " r i n _
" a \eD l'3h/!ru.
È Í e e c h - l È. e d c l a n s u LP i rP T '
IÌÌ bÒthexperimentâleilbís. lhe size of Èe thennÔcouples I e : \ , r eo l \ f , ' c c ( r d . o r ' : n r ' r ' n n b ) e _ l ' I n r ' r '
linììted the s!âti.Ì ônd temPor.Ì resolutionof rne úeasurc exharst càn be e{amined experìmentallyand bv Nmeúc'l
'v pÌume mo.leling. E\periftennl mersureftents are pelfomed
menrs.Thns.ìhè ÌemleÍatnrevaln.s obÌainedÍepresenled
onger
' l ' J t 1 1 í r | | ! ' L r J Êr i ì e ir cryogenicaUy cooledor targe-di.metermcuuú faciÌiíiesro
dd. {'. e., 'Í . n.. {\l-
.r'r.,nce, m t ' r e ' c r . d n o e r r o Ì | ' ó - ' | e l r ' rf " c - nini;i;è iank wail effecls. and nunerical rÌethods eúPlov
tech
"Over
. " ' r of lhe firsi thonsaDds
úe coutsè of shoÌs,temPerânÌres collisioDlÈss Parliclein-cell aDd Monte Cado coÌlìsion
Íose ir âlÌ cÀ\es..PPÍÒ.cÌÌitÌgplâteauvaÌuesLhrÌ dePendoD , , , q e ' A l ' r o r Ë hP P I t h ' - J ' r i Ì l
.;;.".,,, r o , ' . ' , , 1 ( , ^ n , o "l o p ^ ! Ì . D'r- ol
heatimnsferlrom the PPTto the re\t ol thc e{perjmèntâlaP- contaúinltion cnn be â conceú for
.iâÍ,1 fiÒw"and , . " ,backnow
;"
DarstÌ6.TlÌe ânodeis llìe highesttèinperatuÍeeleüent Eìe_
vatèd teoreÍaturesof úe èieciFdès ÌeadsÌo con'eÍns wiLh hjgh power PPTSor 1ìr appìicationsìnvoÌvins sensitiledìag_
heÂttfan\aerro the capacitofas pait of the over'Ìll tÌìenal nostics,e.3.,oPÌics.
 121

Bdckllor coútânìiirÌlon was me.sufed lbf 1lìe }ÍÌllipound \bndfa er dl.'' Dnsured !lêsm! veìocjt) nì tìrc lrlLrmc of
L
Ì'I,f usìns ootl r Fúrdày cut ând â li.lÌri.L riÌrogen cooled the LES 6 bncch fed thrusÌer by Ìwo Ìcchniqucs. Tlìe tna$
quaÌ12cr) íât n\l.robalânce (QCM) nearthc cxit plane ai mdiaì areiaged velocily fronì the specilìc iÌìpulsc Ías 3 2 knr/s. Im
.lislancec up to I m lrom the ÌlÌusl .ais. These rÌein'rernerÌs â!rècorverler inalles of LhèlÌrminous ]r.nÌ shotred a lumiÌrous
\rÈre slppôrÌed Lry photoeraplìl of the ÌuDrìnouspÌlLme,$hich plasnâ Òn the lèflon -\Ífice düdrìg Ìhe pnLse.ând a high !e
nÒ*ed . pÌ!ÌÌe expansjof hrlf:angìe ol .]0 deg. asírcrrted ô. rp '. s l-.,' .,,, e|o.,) o L..d l.
-l- -'-..d:\.up 'i8ro
.i', 11 ....- p.,rr-. cco' n6Ì cuÍenr h.lf cycle, folÌorved b,v ar lncreasc to 3l krn (Ì0
tì.Ìed Ìh.t the bâckfloi! {as predoDrinantly eìectìicaìly reu- times the nars-ayerâged velÒcn!) iìr the Íemânrdei oi dre
!tuÌ, .Ì !ìoÍ 5tn jonÌzed. TÌre QC\J sas lsed Lomea{Lre back- !üÌse. The velocjl) ìncreasç occurcd shoílr" alìer the peak in
Ílos rì.s flux. wlìich dccreared wÌiì râdirs.trL LÕ70 c l.Ònr elecronìignetlc forcc. irhen 75', of lhe capacilor ereÌgy lì.d
rhe axis. A DrodjÍied nozTìe $iLh tr shield plrÌe re.luced Ìhe been disch.rged. Pl.smâ Ìclocily mearued slth a FÂfadiy cup
rxckflow b) âbont a tìclor oì 2. .'
Í!s ;12.5km/s, aDd was t,csnmed to be C lnd F- ions.
ExÌensive coDÌ.nnriÌion neasurclreDls for boú ftnlrd The ÌoÌeÌ cÌiarye collccÌed Lry Ìhe cuLr nnÌrÌied a l0',â ioniz.d
and bàckflo{ mas lìnx s.erc made oD aD Lì:S'8/9 PPT. u\nìg jn dìe dì\charge Èon l$eÍ interÌèr-
' hr Ìhe nr- lhina. Eleclron densirr ' '
Ìxngnìli. eLeclfosralic!rcbc\ ard qunz vrieA. omeÌÍy 11.s -2 x l0 nì aìd nre eìecÌron tenueraÌNe lionì
*ard djfectjon. a bâ\È Jìlnì srs de!ÒsiÌed ÍiÌh inbedded I emissior spectfoscotl ol C ìines rva\ 3 lJ e\'. lnte.e\iÌngly,
a.d 5'r!m paíicle\. Ihe delositio! maicfiaì was conìfosed of dle infered ion ÌeDperatuÌe lìom ljn. brcadeni'ìg q,as 10 15
câ.bor. iluorine, !úd . f.w 5-|!Dr pr,licÌes of elecrtude nrntÈ' eY double Ìhe electron tenÌpcmtÌrrc.
úaÌ, and *$ r'oun!ì to de.Íease r.!i.lly beyond 50 deg off Dopllcr Ììeasurenrentsof indi\'ìdlral specìes showed highe.
uxis. Ìn Ìhe tìack diIection. no measu,abìedeÌrosiÌtun\!as úea- veÌociÌy fof moie lìignÌy ioDized specìes.as gilen iìr Tabìe.1.
sufed ulLe.2 x l0'trÌses. Il Ras concÌÌrded tlÌit . .. ro first Il rvas concìudçd thâÌ Lhèhigh velÒ.iÌy species.cÒnprlslngltt
ordel \prcecrrfr súf.ces behin.l the PPT should noi bc sie oi rhe nra\s. cÒnLrìnedÌ5% of Ìhe stored eNrgy.
niJìcìntl! .oriâmln.ted b) thNsref e\hdusÌ p.drcLs.' Simìlaf Ìelocities. 10-15 km/s. \erc nrea{ftd bv Gnúuìì
trÌccLrodesÌtrdìesqère perforned Lry $ci-ehi'ìg the elecüode .n rhe LES-6 thntsÌer for doubl) .nd lfipl,v iLrnizedC atrd F.
rnnss toss rlìer 9000 !ìischarges." Iso di\Ìlnctìve conctuions hy Òbsèrvlng Ìhe inne of rìüi\'!Ì ol +ìeclrll lirÌcs. SjngÌ) ioD
scre rcâ.hed. Usnrg dìe sanÌe Ìn.teriaÌ lor the cldrode aDd ized C and F mo\ed ÌÌ xbout two Íìlrds Ìlìe !elociÌ\' ol the
inodc, the anode ÈÍr\iÒn wis llpi.âlÌy 10 linì.s 1Ììai of the rtrÌÌtifl! ionizcd spcci.s. NeutkÌs rïere oLrsenedaÌ 5 15 krn/s,
.!írde. Secondly. a copper arode wls obse.led tÒ erude one' signincanllr_iì\Ì.f Ìlìln the m$s rÌetuse \elocìry of I rm/s
renrh a rmch Âs sÌiiÌÌless sleel uDdef similuÌ condirìlrns. It s.s concluded lhnt i! is inâIrtìopiìLè Lô spcú ol r singlè
exhâ.Í leÌocir) for the PPT.
X. Velocity âDd Relâted Plume lleasurements !ìrorì Ì1ì. l-lls 6 relocitj dairri (_fable .:1)tlìe bnìk of rhe
Nlofe than âny orher nt.surement. lelocity disphts ihe exhau\t Ìinrctic Èncrg! nnn ÌnÒhenluú $.\ l.lnd Ìo rende in
conìplexjl) of rne PP'r a.celefuÌnr. prôcess.Il was .ilscolered Ì h c c h a r s e d| r Ì 1 i . Ì È s ( n t o u r 1 ( l t o f r h e r b l ì G L l n r s ! . b â s e d
.Ì .n c.Ì1_ysÌage drai  Ìri1)ndrel{rcÌL) disÌnbúÌÌotr q.s PresenÌ on Fúidrt .up m.as,rcn,.nÌs) Thc arrhoÌ\ pfopose tÌrdi the
in the PPT c raust. Íjth duta Jrom oldèr ertenrnerrs repeaÌ rì$esÌ pinicÌ.s .re a...lcraìcü eul) iÌÌ dre Lrllse. ud the
edlr indì.àÌing Ì.ÒÍehÌior of hieher sp..ds Ìlith Ìrigher ion slo\.f p.Ì1icÌc: llrer. ufd:...ndiLions ol lìi.!heÌ frc\\!rÈ hLì
iz.tion slaÌes. The nôrion Òl rcceleriÌing ions ol dìiïcr.Di
cl\úge sÌâÌ.s in the sanìe elec.ic rìeÌd Lhrs ÍerdilJ súggesls TÌìe pl.rn! \cÌocny if the Rú'sran \ltPD -1,dL\cn.\Èd ea.-
ÌieÍ.r_ *xs meiiured lbuf s.Isr berrrsìig sprÌi.Ìl) in thc
Tnis inleryièÌiÌion, lìolrere., canDoi apply ifthe cuftnidÈ,- !ÌÌÌDe {iÌÌr €Drnrof spe.úo\cÒfti llseÍ ifLc.fc.ometi): lang-
sii,v djst.ihrLi(m (nr Ìvhicb Ìhe Ìlall elecÌrlc fìcld rcsidet er nuÌ probc: üìd nìrsreiic Ìrrcbe\ The velociry ot C and F-
Ìends ore. a st.eannli\è !ìisÌince lmclì l.fgef ÌlÌan thc ÌÌean n)n. wâ\ fouíd Lo be.l5 km^ by specüomeüt. WiÌh interfèl
free F hs 1ÒrnÌotuenÌrn Ì nsfef coÌlisions anoDg ihe vârbns oÌìÈLry r frsl jon blob âÌ 25 35 km/s Ías obse,aed, foÌlo\r.d
\pe.ies. Furlhcfmore, up n) tuu. chnÌge-sÌates.e.e., Cro C by a íoweÍ blob .t 1.1 15 Ìnús, both 1ìster than Ìhe eaD
\!oul.l have Ìo coe\i\t n, .ômpd.âble liopoflnrÂs ar Ìhe same \elocitr. Òi 1l hrÍs VclociÌ] oí Ìlìe ncuÌraì\ rïas Dredsuredas
rinìe aDdlosiliÒn fÒr súbseque!Ì accclerationb) rhe HaÌl neìd l5 kú/s by slecÌroscopl \\ìtÌ an elect.o{âtic F.obe Lhe la\t
Ildrelc.. n'ìized g.ses lypicaÌÌ,Ì ottèr ore charge-\tale thll ì o n ! Í e r e 3 0 3 5 k r n ^ , f o l l o s e d b y s l o Í e . n ) n sa t l . Ì - 1 6 Ì n t
do,r rc \ | , \í ,. lp-p,l.rion . ìc e. ,!Ì,.j | ..' f h. lc d : 0 ..,ro .r. r.le
,nd LoÍef Ìcv.Ìs This Íould seern 1o ìÈâd LÒâlÌemetÌrè ex úc, âÌ . ÌemperaÌÌue of l il :.Ó e\: inyarjaÌ! du.j.s the frÌse.
planaÌÌons tbr the .bseìled ringÈ Òl lelÒciÌies. snch as ihe Dufnrg the lì.sl hnll .)cle Ìhe !Ì.gretic probes sÌiowcd ro cu
Lcndency Ìo c1latc higher clìarge-st!1e\ ìr Lhe lower de.sity. relt !t lbe back in\tr|àor of this slde 1èd thnrsler rDd aj x l}
hieheFspeed loíiÒns of iììe PPT e{lìaust. .rÌÌenr lront moline ìÌì 1Ììc 1ìor! difcctior ar 20 ?5 kÌÌ/s.
Al ihis lirne. ìÌrtcrr'ÌeLlljon .i the velocny dara in PPT ex The velocily oi üe e\h0usÌ gns in xJâprnese PP']!_ qâs
peimenÌs .enanx .n olen issrc. TÌÌc dìiÏculÌr' oi such inteÈ rlso anaìlred $ìúì elecroÍatic Ìiìne ofnìeht pÌob.s. loclúed
pretlltun iture.ses ivhcn ÈrFriÌìeDial con.lnsnms p.esenLèd 107 and 2i)2 .m fron rhe dìn6Ìer Tlìe measured iotr flor
I. ror...'r\o rec,:,..rir..ìF 'r n, in. T í1. 'Dí velocii) qas 3.1 ÌÌÌ/\ *iLh úis ÍEúrod From a Ìolrl enerB)
spectFscopic obseìrâLioì Òf úe usleâdy and mnlnllìin
plasm. flo\r in PPTSlan i'ìtroduce eror\ lecau\e 01 samtlÌng
qüiÌe dìftircnt LìÌdsmasal.ng dre optical path. lhese erors thbl€ ,l LES 6 spedes 1cìocilic\
nrcltrde erÒreous l,xlues of cÌectron tenìI,ÈrâLuÍe\l.Òm Írer f.onÌ Dopplcr me!su.enedls
cci\ed lìne-inÌensìlr Ìnrs. ind olefestin.lcs ofhe!r) paÍicìe
ÌempemtLuc when lÌne brca!ìÈnìng meesure!ìenÌs capiÌ!e r!
sLe:úy .onìponcrÌs ol dirccÌed yelocìty, !uìhuÌÈnce, ard colli
sn)nal effecÌs. FuÌlì.rDore. tirÌe+a.iarnrns of pliÍDÀ cheiì c
lsÌry rnd lumino\ìty nxy ìnconecdy suee.sr conlecÌÌon. Lrre a
.f p.obes Íìclì .s Frrad!! cur\ in Ìlìe ÌÍÂrsì.nÌ. htleNonic c-
Jl,N of i l'fT aLsoiÌÌ!ircs di1Ículties ol inLeÍrieÌiÌloa,le.dirìg
pen,aps to .n,ions cor.Ìusìons, {Ì.ì r\ a ILN deg.ee of iÒri
zatl.n combnreLlwilli r hielì chargc sÌ!Ìe. \\ith rhe\È ca\eÍ'.
rre ìcviè* Úie e{pednìcnÌ.1 veìo.itl ie.nÌr: lÒf l'l'fs
 úgnnenÌ it was concludedthâ! üe bulk of the flow cons$eo Velocitydetemiranon from propagationof the sp.riâl disrri
of neulraìsnÌovirg âÌ a much iower speed. bütionof C' emissiongave 15 krÌVs.and udike somèobsen-
Thonâssenand Tong} xsed a nrultipÌepâssHe Ne lâsèr eN, abouÌ the samevaÌue fór C++ and F+. Thesevelocities.
interferometer ând Fdâday cup to meâsurerlre spati.t and rime and Ìnoseobtairedconcu.endy by Dópplershifr,nlso tj krt
dependeNeol lhe electrondènsíy in tlÌe Teflo! dìschârge s. weE concludedto be Ìow fôr reasonsrelaringto specjfics
!Ìasna. 1 26 mnr iD fionr of tbe :Ìblating süface. The toÌal
charso Ìreasured by úe Fa.aday cup indicâted rhat úe pÌâsDa Eclràn et al.' mâdedelliled plume measuremenÌs of ion
was 40./onhi?ed 3.5 Drmfrô'n the abÌaÌing eúface, decreasirg velocityin úe LES-6/9thnster, and fould thaLuE rors Lrav-
to 187. ionized ar 1ó Ìm. Assunins the exlatrsrgâs !o be n eled in a first waÍè ât 35 55 kn^, ald in a secondwavè at
drifìnA, expandingNlaxweÌlianwith Ìh€mal velocily rr and 2lj km/s.Ther sxggesred eirìÌermulÌipìoìorizarionor lhe stug-
dnii velocity ro. curle fits to dìe irteÍferômerer deDsiiy .lata reÍíLe-steady+tare mode of opeÍatiÒn of Turchi and Mikef
gâve rr = 9.3 k^ and ro = 27.9 kÌn/s. This themal velocÍy Ìides"'a! a mechanism. NeutraÌ!€locity anddensityweremea
cin be compded to Ìhe Telìon equilibrinmsoundspeedgiven slred wirn a tusi (3 |.s reslonse)iollzaLiongauge.iliLh tlÌe
in Sec.Xl (Fig. 16). Using the resuÌiingdensìlyatrdìo! tem- âssumprion rha!the DeuÌrâlrempeÌahrre wasequalio theTeflon
peranÌÍe(7.ó eV) ro predicrúe p.esure. Ìhèy concludedúât surfaceÌemp€.atuÌeof:120 K. The dersiLywas foulo ú Deon
the Sasdynâúicf.o.cesconrribure4E7oof rhe rh.u!r, and Ìhe the order of l0r0/m;,and io decãy dowÌy on à time sc.te of
nÌàgtretic forces comribute 52í..
Hirâlâ àDdMurakamiarpè.foned massspectromerer {MS) The complexityof plàsmamotioDsin rhe ppT inclÌr.lesrlìe
measuremenÌs rn a vacuumch.mbd on iìe residüâlerlÌ.lsr possibiÌit] of diffÈÉnr chargesiâLèsa sing .r djfièrenitilnes,
gas ll.om llÈ JapanesePPT flown on Ìhei' EngÌneering Tesi \ h t . , i r Fd j f f e r e|. . p e e J \o e c i L . eu t í ' h e r p r o ó s. â . , | Bo r
SatelliteIVli The lhrusterenergyw.s 2.6 J ar 3 pulses^.and âblìlion-a.cDìodesduring rhe dischârgepulse.When cunents
l0 /rg w.s ablatedper pulse.AlthoÌgh the DreasreúerÌ was are no iongefpresenr,rhe PPT exlìaüsrcornprises hor tlaena
not tinÌe resolved.the .âìculatedrime fÒÍ threebody ÍècoÌn rerlainiÍg frcn the dischafgepuÌse.followed b), colder Ìnâ
binrtion was very long cornparedto the meaDchambe.resÌ te.iâl thatleaaesat muchlower speed.Dnectionsfor iúpoved
denceüne, ând úe MS .eadingswe.e rhe.eforethorghl ro be peÍomance tlÌercfo.eÍequireguidince irom theoreÌicalmod-
characlerisÌicÒf lhe molecularspecFumof iìe exhaustgas. èlìng thar caDaccounLprolerly foÍ Íhe vlriety of speedsan.l
Theseshowedà ÌârgepeakcoÍespÕndingto the C!_moìecrle,
and snÌallerpeakscorespondirìgro C, F. CF,. ând CR. tr was
concludedthat â considemlrlefrâcrion of üe le0o. was XL Recent Advarces in PPT Modeling
ejecredrs a high Ìnassúolecule, ivlìich could haÌe ÌÌ.ppèned The problemof âssociatilgrhe mâssevolvedfrom the pro
late Ìn t|e cúen! pulse.The .Ìlho.s djd nor evaluàtethe pos pelìanisurfacewnh dìe irnpulsèdevetopeddürins úç operâL-
sibihy of waÌl reconbjn.L n. ìng pühe repEsentsthe prìÌcipal difficully in esrabÌishirgüe
Spârjen eLal.' ÌnvestlgatedÀ thruster(XPPT-Ì) simild to petformâíceof tÌre PPT ln lemN of its specì]ìcinÌpulseol
the LES 8/9, btrr wirÌr betÌerdiagnostìcaccess,âúd wúh arlal (average)exhauÍ speed.E'npincally,meâ$úenentofüe Ìolal
insteadof 30 deg-dÌgledtlÌ st. Time-rcsolvedelèctroDaM ìnas Ìoí by úe sudaceoveÍ many dischargespÍovidesrhe
neutraÌ densities $ ere measuredwilh à HeNe laseÍ inrerferoDì nrds loss per shôt.This value divìded nÍo the impulseper
èter The Ì.ser bean was reflecred thÉe tines pârilleì to rhe shot ofers the ivèrâgeexhanstspeed.ExlerinìenLâldaia sug-
rireì .od at a disÌanceol 8 nnn fron Ìhe face, creaiìng e ptasma gestthaldìernâssÌôsr is pfopoitionâlro the sioed energy(Fig.
lath Ìength of 7.5 cm, eí1èctivelyheâsuÌjng the chÀngein 9). This ìrÌultively tÌeasanrresull iDtlies ! consÌrnrvaÌuefoÍ
index of ÈÍìactjon causedLry the pre\enceof piisnâ. BoïlÌ the averageerhausrspeed.and a ieâ$nabÌe w.y 1oscaìenei!
neuÌÍãl and electon densitywere found ro yary lirÌeârtywith designstìonÌ existingdâ!a.At rhls leveÌ of discussion.how,
energyover a raneeôi 2-li0 J. with ihe neut.aÌdensjry,,, - erer, there is !o fuíher insleht to provide a firm bdsisfor
fen x 10'' cm :'. abo!Ì nle tinìcsthe mdimun eÌecbonden- iúproving PPT peifomúce.
siry. AfteÍ .dopúÌs prcvious resulrs lor tast (:10km/t and slow Ir is necessàry to delelop theÒrcrì.almodeliíg nar can ú-
(3 kftA) veÌocityrneasrrenrents.r3 ir wâs concludedüar iìr a corporat€physlcalprocessesnol câpÌúredby Ì!Ìnped,cn.cuiÌ
25 J dischaÍee.üe kinetìcène.gyof the fâst particFsçrs 4.o relresentalìonsand enpnical scalinglâws. For example,ihe
J, inÌplying a thrustefeffciency of DedÌy t9%. dìscharyecuÍert Ììust lì.ve Lhe opporruniÌyro florv borh
I " ì " f , r v o r l , n , h e, . n r er l r r u l r , r e , r o , d c n , ) u . . e a , tbroughpatlìsprôpâga!ìng aÌongthè âcceleraror elecbodesald
ily detectedeârly in rìme.fàÌlìng ro zero at allroxiôalely ttÌe througha pathÍe èinnrgDearthe pÍolellaDÌsurface.This re-
end of tle cürent pulse.irNeuÍrl densìrywas observedfor quircs a fomllatìon ar Ìeastat rhç leyel of MHDS b obÌaln
tinrs much longç. than the end of rhe curelr pülse,ard Í tìe distribuliorolcunenr densiryvirhir rherhnsteÍ.An efforÌ
was conclDdedthat tlÌe neutâl dersjry was aboútfour rìmes ro extôndPPT opeÍxtìonto dìe millipoúndÌevetnBr xrb)Ìlted
tle densiryof dÌe ionized sl)ecìes.LaÌe tlúe âbìationof 3(10 sucha! approâch,8J At ihe time, however,compurâriorllsim-
m/s macÌopaÍicles,hypthesizedrc be ftemalÌy expelledTetr uÌation of plasrnaaccel.râÌiÒnwas too difficÌlL rc acnleve
lon eftpling tìon the süfâce, wd obseNed.IncreaslngÌhe withÌn a prograÌr largely deyoredto experimenÌdexpìorarion
storcdcnergyp.ódtrceda propoÍÌjônalìncrcasein abláredmass and development.Over rhe pãst decade,the MACH2 code,
úd in eìectuonand nÈuLraì densìties- crcatedto suppoí expefimenrswjlh powedul p1astua-guns,!!
Using LhesaÌnethrusreÍ,Msrkusic and Spô.esN1 srudiedLhe has been applièdto €lectro!ìagnelìcrhrusrefprobleÌ)ls.These
time-resolved specrrâlemissio!ofaTellon llume in rhevisibte aplJÌicaiìoísln.luded quasisieâdyNIPD arcjeÌs3rand \!eady,
-50
í1:0 nn\ ÍJ, . ".
" 1 . ( lr l d r eP P . . r r e . r p J . . o , . F , g ) srâLe,apllied field N1PDthruslers.'"ând mo.e recenÌtyrhe
wìs 15,30. and 45 J, ând tlÌe spectmú was fesolvedât nre
horÌzoDtaÌdidplânç eÍher wirh â chargecoupÌedde!ìce amy The MACH2 code calcuÌaiesrlìe behaljor of unsÌeady,
oÍ for a predetermined spècrraÌline wirh an exì1slìr .!d pho- MHD flow in comllex geonetries.The florv may have rwo
todiode.fo. a tiúe pèriodup io 75 lis âlìe. terminâÌlonof the direcLionsof vtuiation ân.l ürce directiÕn\ib. vecÌoÊlìeld
ctrrent pulse.SpeciesidenLìfiedscre F. F'. C'. C' ân.j Cr. componenrs.For exanìple,MACH2 coÌnDuÌesthe uDsÌeâdy
b u r ' o rc o a f s h r . ( . , c . L r - ^ u . i . e . f e { . e r r ( B o . evohúionof aÌl threecompoDeDuof nagneúc field and flow
PloÌsof spectraDoÌÌallzed Ìo üe iDtensityof the 427 ün C* rebciiy in the phne côntlinlÌìg rhe axis of symÌeÌÍy of aD
line wère st.ìkirgÌy indeperdçntof sroÈd en-gy_ as was lhe âpplìed-fieÌd.r\'IPDÌhflNler The code âllorvsthree rempera
erectÍÕnteììpefatureâi leâk curent, detenniredLrythe ÍetÀ, tures (heâvy-paújcÌe. elecÌron.and radiâÌion)ând coulles ro
tive inlensityoíC'excited states.The spâÌjxllyavemgedelec- the SESAME t.Ìblestbr coúpÒsilioÌ, equationot:\rate. ând
trotr tempeìarurewas ioÌnd to be l.:1 a 0.2 ev i! rhe arc, tmnsportprÒpe.he\oi nìanyúaLe.iaìs:ideal gâs ând cìassjcal
plasma options Àho exÌst. F.râday's Ìaw ard a generalized 70
Ohm s law (ìnclÌÌdingüe effeca of HaÌÌ neUs úd eÌecrron . ExpeÍmênt
Piessureg.adients)coúbine to comptrtemagnericconvection 60
ard diffi$ìon. basedon !hè eÌectricâlÍesistivily of ptâsha ìn - MACH2
tlÌe pesence of eÌectrjc ând ftagneüc fieÌds. For sluaúons oÌ
hìgh curent densityand lôw palticÌe density,oplronsexis! Ìo
ìnvokephenônenologicaÌ noLlel$of eomaloüs resisiivirybe-
cÀuseof nicroinskbjlities. Optioús tò. anisorropicrherDal
corduclionby both he.vy parriclesald electroìsin mâgnetic
nelds also exisr.Choicesfor r.diàrion ÍaNport inchde opri,
ãzo
cÂìly!hìn. equiÌibriuú and noleqxilibnum dìffusionnodeÌs. 1o
Th€ needlbr seÌf consjstenr addlrionotma$ duringÌh€ dis
ch.rge pulsemakesnuúeÍical sinÌularionúuch nÌoredifiìculr 0
t o h e P P Ì ' h d nf o r d B " . . t . , l t l , . r m . i , J { r ' . N I A a H 2* . . 0 0.5 11.522.53 3.54
ì , o d f e d . " ' u , n . n | | . . o r r i n r u n . o - r l ' , , o n r , . . \ e . h e- q u i . (J)
CapacilofEnergy.1/ZCV2
Ìibrium vapoÍ prcssureof the prupeÌlanlmaÌeíaì líee Eq. (t ).
sec. II)1, basedon rhe surlaceteúpe.ature,for thè boundart Fis. 18 compadsonof impuls. bii predicredby rhe MACE2
value ol' pressure .t ihè prol'ellüÌt sürfâce, The nomâ] aìgo codeÌiih êxp€riDent.
rithms in MACH2 the! calculâÌerhe morion of vdpurnno ne
conìputational domain.A sepdate.oulinefor i$'o-dimensionat, cürenÌs ìn a given widLh.denrandhigher massflow rares(for
unsieady heat lÌow iD üe solid lropellanr ir€rareswith an e\haust sleed thÀ! remainsrâLherconsianr).This Ìneâns
MACH2 to compuleihe sudaceÌemFraiureinielponse ro rhe highervaluesof the equilibrjumvapor prcssxieâr the surface
nèLenergy flux (cÒnduction, radlâÍtun.dd convecÌion)ftom and highervaluesof srface temper.lure.For pulsedhearcon
ductioÌ in the solid propellant,rlìe ÌotaÌ heatdelilered ro rhe
MACH2"' providèslhe disrribxrioDsof plasmà disclìarge propellan!scaleswiú the sud.ce remperahte.The sufacej
côndilions,slch as nass densny.rempemture,dd cuüeDt uÌereiore,tendslo rernaìnai elevaÌedlemperatuÍes
noa, ds functjotrsof posjion and tlme. ExamilaÌjon oï rìese for tonger
nmes âlter the dischâÍgèpuìse, ev.porating !Ìorè materÌal
disÌribÌtiors lermìls delìnerìtionof physicôlmecnansús!l a wjlhout the benelì1of ele.lroìÌagneticâc.eleration.The nrio
leveÌ of dehil that remainsbeyondpresènrdiagnosrlceftoÌrs. of DraÌeriâlèvÒlled after the discìafgepüÌse ro rhât creàred
Comlarison wjlh avajlable exFrimeni.Ì dâLacan lrovide durirg the pxìsetendslo a consÌanro! the oÍder of ive. The
someirsight on PPT behâvioroflèredby Ìhe relarivelysnnple ânaÌyticmodel süggeslsthat by âllowilg the cnnent pnlse Ìo
processes modeledby MACH2. F{n.exuÌple, aLvâ.iousrines declinegEduaÌÌy rs úè pnpcllarÌ $í!ce coois.eledromag
and locationsdurlng the dischargepnlse in LES 6. calcuÌaÌed neÌlc acceìeraiioDto ììigh sFed mighr contjnue.rheÍely de
plamâ speedsrangelrom neariyzèro,âdiacenrro the propeÌ
lant làce,to valuesexceedìns15 km^. Hìghe.speedscorelate HiglÌer slrfâcè tempcntÌìres dúiDg the dis.harge also per-
with regionsofÌower densiryand higiìerchaÌsesrate.ExpeÌi nit decomposition or plìasech.ngèat greâÌeÍdepthin rtìesolid
merÌal dân (sec. x) conúecÌinehigheÍ speedswiü hìgher
charge4laÉsmight snggesÌsubítarti.ì slip bènreeDspeciesof !ÍopeÌlaDt.The resullingejectìotrol Ìírw speedfrlcrolaÌricles
could burdenbÒLhrhe speciflcnnrulseand rhturt efficiercyoi
ditrere.tchâ.se.a fesuÌÌar vanancewlÌh eíimaresofcoltistuÍ the PPT,as weÌl âs increasilgconcemlbr spacec.atìconÌ.in,
nìe.n iiee'times.MACH2. shich corside^ oniy a singlefluid
ìn local lhermodynâmicequilibrium,insre.dindicâre\ihafihe Accunre valuesfor rhe plâsma conpÕsirìonand rrân\port
dâtacould resxlt sìmtly liom spatiâ]and remloral vanations coeffcienrsremainüirical loÍ derailedlimularioDof Íhe ppT.
of ionÌzationh Ìhe lcceleratingflÒw. For equilibriun plasmâsrhèLos AÌamosSèsamecodeh .!ail-
Ál ìndi.atedin Flg. 18, thesesamè.àlcutaiions*fÒr LES-6 able to predictglobaìiÌÌei!ìodyna!ìic and trnspÒú pfolerties
capturedboÌh úe magnìlude.nd variationof úe nnpuÌsebjÌ such xs elthalpy. erÌÍôpyj mean chdge s1aie,eÌeclícâl con-
1ô. Lheavaiìablev.Ìues ôf experinenraldata.SucÌragreemelt ductìvity,ard somd \peed.vrASesan. codelre.ìiclion ofrhe
mDSibe cÕnsidered somewhâlfoÍuitous. lle .esutrof coú- Ì.tÌeÍ iòr Tellon and pÕlyethyleneis shonn in Fig. 16. Fol
pensatmgeüors, be.âuseof severâllinilarÌoN. ThesèincÌude noneqnilibÍiuniPPT plasmrs.lhe deconìpo\irionof â poÌyner
fte use of a Ìwo'dìmensÌolalcâlcnlâtioD{jn Ìhe planeof ihe srch a\ Telìonì o corsriluenratomsand molecnles.and úe
cuent flow) fÒÍ a th.eedìmensìonâlprcbÌem.ãn.l approxi subseqüent creationof vúiÒus ioiized sp.cies ceÍâiúty Í.!-
nrarelbrÌnrlations fÍÌ plasna cohpositio! .rd r..nsporrco resenÌsâ lômidabÌe !rÒce$ lÔ an.lyze.even wiihouÌ the ìn-
e1ïcìents.The càlculatedvalneofma$ abÌateddunngÌhe dis- terplav $iLh a MHD flowneld. Sonìe progresçoccnÍed rè-
chargepulsejs lessÌhln the experjnìentaÌ vrluè D)' aDouran cently with the completion Òi a model io. Teflon jn
ofder of nìagnìtude.TlÌis disrgreemeDr led tÕ \peculaiionrhâr lwo tenìpemtÌÌre(heaw laÍicle ând elecrron),local üermo
úÒsÌ ol the propeÌlantnass evolvedüfler compterioíof the dlnamic eqüjlibnum." This mÒdel ircorporârès25 species.
cunentluÌse asthe surfacecooledberwecnnrnrgs.sÌStuhlate and allows a pârametrìcvariationof equilÌbdumberweenvi
rifte evolutio! coxld âlso explaìnrhè eÌpedÌÌelral obseNa bràttunalshtes and LbÈtraDslarional Írìles of eitÌìerelecLrons
liÒnsoI lìow speedsgÌeady exceedingrhe averageèÌhausi or hêayy paÍicles. ligure 19 dìsplúysÌhe predicÌedtarriaÌ
speedas represented by the specjncìmluÌse. C.lcülarionser prè$úes of F and F' ìn a Teflon plâsúà iof rhe indicàted
tendedto esiimâresof the baseienrperaiureof the pÌopelÌart valüesol hè:Ìvy paÍìcle .nd ele.roD temperatures and rotat
Decessary lo accôun1ior rhe m.ss nrssai ìow spèedand the planna pressrres.'rhis nìodelnow proyidesÌlìe basir for caÌ
consequelcesot \uch masslo* on PPT perfo.mance.'Tlìe culation of $ânsl)orrpropeÍìes in u Te1ìonfueÌed. ppT dis
qresrõn oï propelladtÌemteürufe led Ìo clos€. experjmeÍnl charge.The contìruuD1, LrE nairÌreoí rhe modèl cÌedly be
examinadonof PPT systemternperÍures(Sec.VID. comesiDâptrop.ialeíÌ the loiver-densitihigher*peedregÌons
ln âdditionio nunreÍicâtsinulciiors. Ìhe behaviorof â ppT ol tle 1iow.Coülpà.is,r ofresuÌrsfron MHD codesinüìalions
has b€en rnodeÌedanaìyiicaÌlyas a qÌrìsisteldy,abÌaÌion-fed üsirg 1lìismodel with lìmited anâÌtsisbasedoDklneiic rheory
ÌhrusÌer._This nodel nÌvokesa hagnerosoniccondìrìonas rhe cân theDâllow âssessment of rhe imloÍance of rhe rwoìen
now exìls thc ablationarc. Ihe pressureând remperarure neâ. pe.alure,LTE appÍoxìmationÌÌì differentregnes of PPT op-
the surlãce then .ssume valuesrhâÌ proli.le ihe lrass tjrrï
neededto supporÌthe úagretic pressuÍèg.âdjentaúoss Lhe Consideration of nÒn.ontintrnnì
flo! processes
requj.esLhe-
dischdge.LaÍser differercesin Dragneúc pÍesÍrc, i.e.,higher orelic.l te.hniquesbetio lMHD codes.For èaâmple,nunìer
 Ìes úan üe dynmic impedanceof lhe PPT.evenin a coúiaÌ
arangementwith a modestradiusü1iÒ.The coDcemwith the
vaÌue ol the ESR rclâlive to the lotâl ciÍcnit derives lÍoft its
eflèc! on c]Ìcuit eflìciency and !h€ decreaseof calaciÌor life
e r . ' d b ) r n € m d .I ' , n e
L Í Í e u i ú h i g h e r ê n p e r a . L r' á
Thè oscilÌaiory beh.vloÌ of the discharge in the tÍadìlìonaÌ
PPT deDonrmresthe jnpedancemismalchbetltee! the LRC
circuìr and the PPT, indicaiing pooÍ effciency for elecÌncal
energy hansfer. This impedÀncemismatch êrisès from design
constrainlsoú the values of capacÌtance.inductdce. â!d
chdging voltage.Ar energylevel! of severaÌjoules. the Pt'I
capacitanceof Ì0 30 pf cônbines with çircuit nductances
exceeding 50 100 nH to Provide an inpeddce for cüìcâl
damping nuch greate. than the PPT jmpedân e. AÍtemP!í 1o
design a puÌse fonning network (PFN) with d imPe.lan e
nadhing ihat of üe PPT succeedat hundredsof joules.'L'"
but 1àil a1. few joules becauseof !h€ püâsitic inductânces
To avoid the ditìcuhy of PFN design. a ditrercDt circnit $'as
n , Ò p o . eJdn do n e d r e d . "A r $ o ^ r e pp r o c e * o i t , . ì r e n e i e r
i o n r \ e . , p " c ' o r o a r i n ô ú . r i \ cq o r e . l o . l . w e db ) e n e ' È r
t.ansfer from the iíductor !o the PPT. Düine tlè secondsreP
(slightÌy after perk cürÌent), d second PPI 1ìres,shorrly lfter
úe capaciloÍvôltager€verses,I'he secondPPI servesas a so-
caÌÌed ciowbar'' swilch on the cafacÌoi. resficring the volr
age Ìevel io which lie capacitorcan Íecharge Thú Plrsma
crorvbü switch can literally opeÍaieas a secord PPT,igliied
by a sepdalejgniter orby Plâsnaftom the nrsrPPT (Fi8.2{ì)
In tlÌe nosl Íecent arÌúgèmenls, ìt has become integ..ÌÌ with
rhe n6i PPI. and fires aulomâticalÌywhen the calacilor lolr
Fig. 19 1tíorcúperârure code-predict€dpâÍiial pr€ssureof â) F age reverses.AÌthongh the cxrenr wavefom (Fig 21) no
âDd b) F iD ! TeÍon plãsma
longer h6 lhe consta.oyÕf i PFN-drivensystem,vaÌu€sÒr
coDÌpo!€ntcapacitanceând inductancèÍeadily match design
ical úodeìing oïPPT exhausts,"usingcombirâtionsof.lirect- needs,RecenttheoreLicaÌ work" sulgestsüat a cúÍeúr wale
simüladoD Morte CdÌo (DSMC) dd hybrid particÌe/fluid fom that declined roughÌy exPonçniially wilh tirÈ woul.l lro
teclDiques, may help to quúiiry condiúons in the PPT Phfte, vide elecrromagnelic accele.alioúof lfoPellànt evaPoÉtedâs
at ÌeÀ\t Ior easeousconstitnents Such caÌcuÌations have al the surfacecoolsÌate in the pulse.Extensionolüe lulse úme
ready ieceived inpür data ftom MACII2 caÌculâtions. bul tur_ pennils the designol quasisteady. two'dimelsionàìchânneÌ
lheÍ work is needed to handle the possibjlíy of siSnificânt flovs," $àich Dray offer additional improvements in PPT ef:
n c 8 n e j c ( r e r g ) n . h e Ì l ô e q h e n r h ec J n r r n Lnl a p p r o \m r
Solid statediÕdesinstalledin !úâlÌeÌ wìth Lhecapacitofmâv
offer more conlenience than a pl.sma crowbâ. sq'itch A tech-
XII. ElectricâlCircuitDevelopments niqre for lre!ènting curent Èversal was uchievedby KnÌura
Substarlialswings in the capeitor lollage associated with et a].,r!by ins€ÌÌingdiodesin pàraÌleÌvì1h the capacìlorsin a
the oscillâÌirg.reversingwavefom in the nsuaÌPPT cncuitry 6 J capacitôrbanÌ. Thç diodeseliDjldted cuÍeni oscillÀtions
exacerbâte a lrincipal design difficulty: capacitoÍ lifetime at in an atteúpt ro enhancethe etrect ol â tansveNe âpPliedneÌd
high'ènèrgy delsity. The cnefgy'sÌoÍaee calacitor Íepresentsa
mâjor poúion of the dry-frâss of ihe PPT. an.l úe lnmàry
determinànt of the speciÍìc po$'er of lbe tbnster system Op
ljmization of electric thÌuslen often dePendson üe lroducl ôf
. p È c r n rcc ú e \ \ \ / l g , d n dr h e . l x a . t J r ' 1 d o ní ì F o r p d ì ' e d
ú r ' , r e r ' . s c h ' . I ' e P P I . . l -! p J o u L .e q J c l .ú e P o d u c ro .
speciic energy (J/kg) aDd the nnmber of lìrings duriDg lhe
;lssion. The specific eDergyôf úe capacitôi and tlÌe caPâcitor
Duhe liíelime llnit üe và1ueof üe ÌatÈr pÍôduct For nigh- R2
-voltaee
enersy*roragecapacilÒrs, ÌifetiEe tendsto scde in-
'. andâlso PPT1 PPT2
vemú as chrcine voìtagóto a lÌish porver,e s. V
decreases stÍongÌy wirh úè tolal, Peakìô-Peak voltage revesal
exp€ri€ncèd düring an osciÌlatory waveform. The lifètime of
the capâcitor diminishes turther by opeÍating ai !€úpeÍatues
PÍíT
above manufactureÍ's slecification.
A1úough tne exlerience wjú respect to cãPacitor Ìife lb.
rheMiÌlipoundTbnsÌer wâs very !oor, câPâcitordeveloPmènt
Droaresed in othe. Iìelds to the benefit of the PPT-ln the earìv
ì9?0s. üe GenèralEÌectriccompuy develôpeda Ìowloss ci
pacitor foÍ üìe Stdfo.d Llneü AcceleÍator (SLAC), {hich
p ü | , e . l 8 ^ H / J r d h a . ' i ' c . a c c u m r l , _ eod\ e r 2 5 ) e , r . o f
"r
ò o e n u o n .C o n n e ! i a \ e ! , o n . o f ú r s , J p o . i r o - $ r r h 2 - : ì Ì
sioraeeand an equiralert seriesresistance (ESR)of -30 nO
aÍe aÌaÌlàblefor PPT alplicârions. Ar tÒtaì eter€iesof 50 J,
corespoDdiúgro a lower of 50 W at a rime betweeDPulses Fig. 20 Use of tyo PPTSto indudively síoÌe energvând Drcduce
of 1 s, úe ESR of úe capacitorein pdâllel would become
 capacitorând increasirgirs lìfe. by redücingvoÌragereveNals
ud opèiarrng rempenrure, combine ro expand the range of
velocity châng€s accesiblè wirh the PpT. Such inpÍovement
does not dependcÌoseìy on Ìhe deiails of rhê pÌasmadynamics
within a PPT.
To impiÒve rhe PI'I in Ìefts of ils acrúal bebavior, we have
10 undemtandúè severaÌfaceÍs oï pÌasmamorion and mass
evolutiôn.In particuiú, ár leasiiwo úain conponúts appeü
to exist in mosr PPTS:a fasr cohponenr assÕcjatedwirh pro-
cesès duÍing ihe discha.gepulse.and a sÌow cú!Ìpon ! rc
sulring from úemal exparsion Õl matedal w]úout rhe bènefit
or electromagneÌic âcceleranor. The ibrmer comloDeú mây
n c l ü d e( o n l r i b u r i o nb. ) o o r hm r g r e r r (o d F J . o ) r d n l cp e 5
5 ú e g r o J j e r r ìsn ü e d i . ( h d e e f f o w l ì r e r r e r n â r c o m p r . e
10 20 30 40 50 60 a proúpt componenrbecnuseofplasnà leared during the dìs
gsec charge,.nd â iète-timelortion rçìatedÌo the evolutior ofúâss
Fig. 21 Nonreyeniíg cunetri pmduc€d by two PPIS in àtr iD- tiom suifaces hêaredby üe discha.ge. Speedsir rhe fasr côn-
düctiv€ íomge circuit. lonent. which ÌnÌìy co.respond !o eirher propâgatilg or ablâ-
hon-dc modes,car exceed30 kn/s in boÌh exDe.imenrs ând
MHD caÌc ations. The slow componentshouÌd scale wjú
on lhe lôrce. They \reie found ro dedeâse üe impulse bir thermal speèdsbasedon Ìempemluresrhat râlge frcm the base
about 10% with zero appliedr'ansvereefieid, and were not leúperatureberweenô.inss (>370 K) io rhe pl.smà rempera
üsèdwjü ,ìnite appliedneld. A diode hâs also beennsedon ture ar Ìhè end of ihe dischirge pulse (-3 eV). For Teflon,
r l 0 J ! o . ú . 1 P P | ' o p r e \ e n rP P I \ u r R n rr v e r q , . e ú a n L i n g these speedswoxld Íânge ffom abôut 300 mA (1br C,Fa) ro
! d D r i r o r ì ú e . " ' T h e r m p r o \ e dl i t e á r f o r c e dr l e c â p a co r e i abou!7.8 km^ (fôr C).
ther by ihe diode Lechniqueor by â pÌasma crcwba. swÌich, The perfomânce of â PPT in rerns of efficiency .ìnd specific
can âÌso aÌÌow expânded desìgn flexibiÌiry for highèr-ene€y impulse depeDdson thè massesassociaÉdwÌlh ihesè very dif
density dd higher-remperatnrcoperâtion of the capacitor fèrenÌ speeds.CÌeúly, ân eflìcìercy prolortionâl rÕthe square
Addirional improvemeits to the eÌecnical circuitry of rhe of the iDpuÌsebii divided by rhe nass loss per sho!. whìle
Pt'I have been @hieved by the subsritnrlôn of modern elec- possÌblynsefulfor somesystemcalculaÍÌons, hâsno utiÌity jn
tronic coúpolents in the charging system and the spark plug guidirg improvemenis basedon detaìÌedpÌasmadynanics.In-
igritior systèm.Thus. for exaúple, rhe EO,l rlruster incor deed.tbe raüer low vÍLlue1òrslecinc ìmlulse ofsomedevrces
porates improveúents over the LES E/9 sysrem by facrom of coúparedio vaÌnesassociâted wÌdÌ neãsuredflow speedssug
nore than 2 in weighr ànd volume for !r€ eÌecrricatcircuits.LÌ geslsüat most of the mâssin thesecasescon.esponds ro rne
FuÍther improvementsin circnir.y and compÕnenrs. e.g.,en- slow component.This corelates weìl wiú esrimaresof rhe
ergy storaSe.de nighìy desirable to ìno.easeihe porenlial of ratio ofhasses lor the slorvvs fast conponenlsof5 10. from
the anaÌyticâlniodelingl and MACH2 slmulatìonsof LES,6.31

XIII. Prospects for the Future F r o / e nn u k . , . r e p r e \ e n rd, I i r c . p J l . e . r i e n ( r i n n Ò . 1

The lext flight opportunity for úe PPT occu6 in 1999 oú plasmathrusters.but is üe cosr of achievinghighc. specífic
the EO 1 satellite.rrNearrlÌe end of the misloq sôfrwâIewilÌ inpulse tìrouglì an electdcallyactivewoúing fluid. This cosr
disabÌe rhe pitch-âxis wheeÌ, and a breech fed PPT will iake can be amoÍized by opeútìng at a high exliaüsrsleed_Higher
over for three dats, (corcsponding !o abour 200,000 shors). thrtrs!eilìciercy incrediesrlìe valueof velocirycllJlsç auuús
'Ihê sibie fo. d avaiÌabÌeproduc!of specincerergy and llferine.
stored energy lrill vary from 5 Lo 40 J, and rhe iftpuÌse
bit flom 100 to 700 &N-s, at a specilìcimputseofâboüt 1100 Thus,increasingthe relâlive mss of rhe tìsi conponentrep
s. The proposedDeèp Space3 missionundef NASAS New resentsá usefuldireclionfor PPT improlemenr.Equivalerrìy,
MilÌemiuú Prosúìn for "exoplân€t" imaging ârd spectros the massúal es.âpeswithout íìe benefirof rhe eÌecr.icaÌpro
copy outside the solàr system epiesè.ts d oppoíDniry for cessesin the dischâigeshouldbe !ìiniúìzed. The healdèpos
âctuâlmissionuse of PgIs. This use occurcin Lwo mooes: iied jn th€ prolellant suÍface. however. will dÌways causenü-
spierdins our the three spàcecraft("apenDrc ÊÌljng, ) by a s€t teri.Ì ios for some time. A sôlutior,I rlerefore. coDsisrsot
of nrc, coast and nre sequencesimd staiiorkeeping and arÌi maintaininethe elecnicaÌdischareeâr tìÌe surfacecooìs.
tudecontroÌof the deployedda} The nissio! may use up Ío In the neú future,we may expecìrharunderstandjng of the
12 PPIS per saielÌite. alrhough ditreient designsatlow vaíous pnysicalposibilities i. âblatioDfed. PPTSwiÌÌ overconelìm
degreesof comporent sharing. Each PPT would nave arì Ìm llations drat have renained uÌLesolvedafÌer many years of
prlse bit of 50 &N+, and fife up Ìô 25 milÌion times.ra empidcalshrdies.Progressitr the !àst was accoúpÌishedin ar
whiÌe rhese missiôns cên be perfomed with PPIS of the empincalfashion.(For example.as wìrb rhe automobileen
traditionaÌ design. leveraÌ areasof improvemenr offer lhe pÌos gine,detaiÌedxnderstandjng of rhe spark!Ìue was not requted
pect of BreateÍ oppoÌtunity for PPT applicarlon. These üeas !o developa practicalsystem.)Fülure improvemenrs wiÌl de
incÌude enlìanced ôapaciror Ìife. hisher rhnsr eficie.cy, and maDdquantitâtivecoìrparisonof expedmentsand theorericat
highè.specìlìcinpulse.The first ofúesè dèrivesffom rhè use models.Much of oür porenriâlundesrandingÒf the ppT has
of induclivèío.age circuiÌs(Sec.XID üar substaÍtiâlÌyFduce beenlimlÌedby the compÌexityôf the disclÌügeflowÍìeÌd.Wiú
üe levei of loltage rcveBal on úe calaciror IúI)roved ca, presentexpenmenlalod nuneÍicaltooÌs.o!Ìy coaxiâlsystems
pacitoi dèsignalso heÌpsby rèducingÌossesin the capacitor, s i l ì , ì o { . ú , h , u n r t J r . o rF
. \ r e n . r oon r l e l o n el ì r p hht 6
tlÌereby edxcing inremaÌ heating ând increasing thè eÌectricâl tory of Ìhe PPI to future applicârions will, therefoÍç. nÌosr
€tÏcìency of the cÍcuit. In mission araÌyses, the needed ve lftely combinenonreversinginductivecircuitÌf wlth coÀ\jal
ÌocÍy charge deteminesthe necessdyproducrof thrusreffl elecÍodesand nozzles.
ciency, specific power, dd rhnsÌ lime. To the extení rhat the
catacitor massdoúinâles the poweÍ syslemfor the PPI. the Appendix À: Th€oretieal Formulations for
pÍoduci of ihe last Ìwo factoÌsequalsrhe pÌoducrof slecjtìc Electmmagnetic Forces in the PPT
-ergy of the capa.jror and the nunber of firings allowèd fol The abillty of Ìhe PPT to achieveexhâustspeedscoÍe-
its hirsion life. Thxs. improvnre úe specìlì. en.rgy of rhe spondingto Ìnretic energiesa huDdrcdrimeshighorthd elec
132

ron temperaÌwes in üe plasma emphasizeslhe doúindt role based ln Dart on the dhtributions of Íesistivjly and velocitv Ìn
of electroúaeDetic forces in PI'I operation Thes€ lôÍces a'e tbe plasma. Thus. foÍces coftputed 1ìÍ three-diúensional ü
meieÌy comp;nelts of the Loreniz lorce densitv in the pÌasma , , " g " . . " . ^ n g n d J L . r n . eo Ì r l r ' I d l b * d n P t ' e d c ' I
renider.irr dsLrru:o , r ' m , r . b e r ' e d u r r n c a u r r o nU d e t
somecncimstancesconespondingto the usuâlmode of PPT
ÒDeÍation.the Dlâsmadjscharge reúains adjrcent to rhe abìat-
wheieiis the ìocalcurent densiÌy andt istheloca'imagnenc r n c , U a . e o r r h ep r o p e l l m lU . h e, r Í e Í l d ' h b L i ' 1 s h n
field. I;teqmiion of the axial coDrponentof the force deNitv 'nãnr,.'co"e.nó.cioee.rrh ne rhe'negr"'olLq'Arl
prôiides an excelÌenÌbasisfor comPuÌingthe elecÍomâcnerjc
over the volume of rhe plNma pÍovides the totàl electrcmâg-
n€tic contlibution to the thnst Figure 4 displays a skètch of e cd n e | ' c o 1 d u '
i r . . , n d u c L , " coef d . , o s e o, i , . J i r o
üe basic geom€try of the cnrent jìow and magnôric lìeld in
the PPT-ú rectanguld fornr, lhe dischúge has Ìengú /], wìdth
v- thickness .L and m instantaneousposition, z. downslrem luI
ôf thè r.tum condüctor. Tso approàches1Ôinreg.aling Eq , . H , - 0". 4 1 1 / "t r t l \. b- ' l , r
r' P d 0.22'r íAr)
íAl) Demit calculatio! of mÔstof lhe eÌecLomagnetccontn- 12 "ìl I
t'úio; ro thrust wilhout needing 1ô kìos this cuúeút disiÚ-
bulion. The fieÌdìheoretical apProachworks dtectly wilh the
mâ':netic ôeld disúbutions i! thè PPT, Íhereas lhe circuil-
ú;reticâÌ aDproâchuses üe intermedìarf of inductance for
úuìas to deal with a mÀgnerìc neld dislribution whose úâg r,'=0.6+ oa {' l-+). i,H/m (45)
\D+L/
nitude scales with tìe cAcuit cÌÍent.
For LES-6. ,' = 0.93 pHlm. close to the cufle-iìÌ laÌue Ôr
Field-Theoretic ÀPProàch
Bv reDlàcinEihe cunelt deDsitv wirlÌ úe curl of the locàl A second.ÌDproach to ,' i\ the detailedcalculatioDof Ker
m . ' g Í e r ' in e t Aú, ' e r o r c eA e i r ) i Ó o e a ' i r r e n ' Ô l'dmf a
r ar fdernr nLl !,r'rorndillel re.rrgulâ ondr.ro' ü'rn6henJf 'eri'
or ihe ìJ8ìeuc pe..L,e 8,2p rnd úe 'o cdlled r e i r o r o o r i n r : . r I1h. - e . r l r . l o r / a e i r c r P o r 'e d r J l r - b l e.
. , c " l c r l d Ì e dl r o m 1 c u r \ ( h e q L r r r ^ n l J r ' n e L r S _ 6 h r
(A2) approâchgives t' = 0 871 É.H/m Thesetbreemerììodsave'
Fd= -1B1l2p Bltt,tz
l - o r n o r J o ì ! e r t e o nr Ì Ì ê e g | - e d o r d i \ e € i n g c L
rlr'1 = -(R Y4)l4'zdelìnesan effeciiveradinsof cüÊ
.ì,tt\eÍe , . n ^ , t d re t e . r , o d e ./ . . . I r . , l a r e r o h e . , c u l d , e dl Ì o n l h e
vature of üe úagneiic neld lines Th€ notion of magnericpres Ke;isk vecior potenÍa] method or from 1,' = ó'. where dre
su.e acting in üe údner of 8as pressure is aÌwavs quaÌira- flux sr.dient é' is delermined ât th€ Plane of svmmetrv Ìrom
úveÌv us;ful in considering PPI behavioi Quantitdtive magnetic probe ÌneasueftenÌs
caÌcútatiors using Eq. (A2) need computer âssist'nc€' excePt F_.rcoaìiaÌ tiflsÌers, the inductâncesÍadientis ÍeadiÌvcal
in speciaÌ siruarions. cuÌaled if tlÌe cnrent dènsiry is axisymmeÍic Fôr rhrusteB
with an annular elecÍo.le of rèdius r. and a centrâl eledÍode
CiÍcuir-Th.oretiol APPrcach of ra.lius /.. the irducrÂrceerâdientL' is deteminedbv as
B v . r o i d r n Â' h e p l a . m dc. . n . d e - " l r o no f ú e e \ e " n l l' i n _ r l snnún! úimuthal cunent svmftetry and unÌform âxial curent
o r r e i ,s o n e r . c < . s . a l b e i rs , r n ' o m e l o * o l d . . ü r o c ) i n d e densilt ro rhe cetrt.al electÌode Fo. this caset' h i'1enlical to
* ! t , i l e P P I ó e f a \ : o . T h e r . , c e I n 1 5 "p l r . m J r e a . r i . r . ' i n r rhârcàlcuhiedfor the MPD ütustei'
ú e c r ã e r r s a , ' e l i r g i _ J ì c r o i d c o n ü u c ' o rosl l ' e P P l c
cuitrv. Calculatlonof the net axial forcè aciingon thesècon ../ '"' r\
:
rluctors, therefore. also provides the eÌeciromàgnetic thflsi / t,H r) =:" lra r I AÕ'
2n\ +I
Over nuch ôf lhe circuitry this calcuÌalioD mereÌv requiles
knowìeitge of tlìe vâriation of cjlcuit induclânce with displace-
ment in the ariàl dAçcrion For rhe Illinois coaxial PPT.'j' r,//. = 12.8ãnd Ã' = 0 66
'oud |f'I
'! l l r . - o m a ü " b . er o r \ e \ r l l e f u . '
(43) Fôr i íxed circuit inductance. the squde of lhe clrert am-
F = (J12)\L
D , , ro e u , r l. r m r i * J l e s , r \ , 1 , e - e r B )J o r e d i r ' ' 1 . i n r e
i r n . r r L o rT . h u ' , , ' D t , ê b r r' l o u r d \ r r ) I n e a r l ) s r r h e e r g )
wheÍe "r is lhe thrusteÍ cnnenÌ. ald tr is the thíÌster inductance'
'Ihe axial comoonent of electÍomagnetic ibice dePendson the p e : p r ' . e . t e u r ed a i . p t , ' . . , ' . l ' b e n dr\ u r l e n J r n !c e -
à.ni. ro .t. r"dP In rde ro r'e I LI Aìì rJl
{lerivatÌveof inductancewlth respeclto the axiâl size of Lhe " . u .oi
1 rnass
' o ' " loss per shotas â fDncliot of stored
â ìined variâtion
circuii Dath(seeSec.III]. The applicalior of Eq (43) must
wìth câutionif usedwhere muÌual iíductdces exisi energ) '\ 'rda'Jed b) fC ' r\e PrI ìo Ìd \c\e cr--lrrl
Drocee.l_
, p e . i r , . i T p , l ' e . L " e r i T e l ' . l o u . e í I n d' r r e ' n í e v r n ' _
È e L u e epno n i o n so f l l e ' , f t e n r ò s t r i b u h o n '
T h e\ i ; r u eo l l 5 ec a u , r . p p r o â . 1r o c a l c u. Ü o r )o i r \ e e l e ' ' t;ns of sDecificimpulse ând nÌassloss Per ioule of stored
e n e r r \ . T o r .h, e : e 3 ' s r m P onsd'no.srrue'llÒtr\ePr)-
troúasnetic thrust stems from thê insensiúvity of the result !o
i c ' Õ - r . hPeP Ì .b d o r l r eer l r L r i ' d r ' ' í d I n r m : ì D r ' c e " e ' r ' l
. h , n s ; ' I n D l d . n , d i h r s e ( o n d i r i o r ' 'l n c o a i t P P l ' Í o r
er:mo,e. , ion.o" rre I led\erhecuF
Íent àisdbutions unchanged at the èlectrodes do !o1 siSnilì-
ThrusteÍ DyMmic Impedâoc€
cantlv aÌter thè eÌectr'omagneiicthnsr In rec!ângula' geomely
how;ver the position of cunenls in the !Ìasúa detemines dÌe The Íâ.litioDâl PPT uses a singLecap.citoÌ to Power the
d , . . 1 x r t s$( h . ú í e r r \ ' n g l r o J f ' Ì h e i r ì r 1 ' m ' ' Í | c
maEnetic nel; al the circuiL elemenrs and the cNent distfi
buiion wiúin theíe elementsVadàtionsof lhrusteroperaiìon c rr','"., . ,", r) 'nd oroJ'edor e r' r'e' in
"rhe n . i " and rhe e{Ìern!Ì circuìi jnclÌrdingthe equlralenl
r , " .pÌasmâ
thât âffect the cunent dis!Íibutior in th€ plasma. úerefore,
chanÂethe electromagletic lhrost as weÌÌ senJs resisrarce(ESR) of the capacitor If the Plaím' Path
Ex;eDtjn sDecialcases,LhecureúÌ distribulioni! the circtrir fâveÌs Ìhrougha sÌlg of malerialor give
."narciors aães noÌ satislr the conditionsof unilormitv as b! the elecí;maen€ticforce LEq (A3)1,two. lÌ$t-or'ìer' of-
sumedbv availâhìeinduclanceformxlas.The &!üal disttibu dinarv .liftè.eniiaierruâtions Pro!ìdèihe vâloesofplasma ro-
sitio; and speed. MÒtion of the cuÍent palh çith LhispÌasmà
rior for ; puÌsed .lisclÌa$e requires a PoleítiaÌ-tìeÒry solÌrtion
introdDcÈsa resisÍance-like tenn, eqDâl to rhe rime derivative and Roncbi ruling to producea squaÍewave sjgnaÌ fÌom a
of lhe inducrance, which modinesèn orhetrisè íandard LRC
circuit. Tbe positionand sleed of Èe plasmadeleminesrhe 5) The NASA GoddnrdSpaceFlìghr Cenrer
instântâneôus circuit inductancedd ils rime derivârive.SoÌu thnst Íúd resolurionwas 20 pN. and ws simitú in coDcepr
tion of the dìffereniial equãtions for rhe circuit cuÍert and to the FairchildIndusrriesdesigr, usingã diffefenriâ1. apacitor
câpaciior voltage compÌe€s the descÌipúon ôf the electicaì drplâ.melt sensôrThe srandwás operaredjn a closedloop
power pü1sein rhe PPT. (null balance)nrode,ard was caìjbratedwüh ar ele.aomag
Alremarivesto úe singteloôp. slug desoiprion include
modèls that Iìx the plasfta dischdge àdjacent to Ìhe Ììblaring 6) Pt/I th.us!on the 638,ks JapdèseEngineerjngTesrSaf
propeÌlot suÍface.The elecÌriclìeld in rhe plàsnraflow pro- ellÍe-Iv was mea$Ed in orbit by measDrirAthe etrecr ot
üdes the Ìoad voltâgeseer by the exlematcircuit. ADaÌyÌlc úmst IÌom a pair of PPTSon ihe spacecraftspin râte.'.: The
evaluâiiônof this eÌecrncfieÌd,which includesborhthe resis PPTSwere oúented wú rhe thnsÌ vector ar 39 deg !o the
tile andeÌect.omotive leÍms,.eqtriresapproximarioísandcon údius vector.This meÌhodrequi.esâccurateknowledgeof rhe
ditions,suclì as high magneticReynoldsnumberand magne- slteìlite monrerrof i.èíìâ,
tosonicdow at the chânneÌexit.:r AltemptsÌo combiDeboth 7) A siÍÌple pendllum Èrusr srmd was develoFdro,ar To-
propagating and fired curent pâths ttuough the !Ìasma can hokÌ Uniyersityand rhc Unive$iry of Tokyo. wirh a 500 /aN
readily becomeraÌher èd hoc. Sucb combilarior achìevesrigor rcsolution.The resolxtionof üìs type of srandis Ìinited by
rnen peúbrmedusing a rine dependenr, MHD ânatysis.This ffiction in the pendllum süppoìÍbedjngs.
s e n e r o ì ìr)e q u je . n r m e r i ! . '5l o | | r o nb ) n e a n .o ' d c o d e!.r i 8) A Unive6iry oflllirois r|nsÌ srand6with.50-kg capaciiy
and â sènsitivìtyof <10 pN uses a JamesWâÌr srraightlift
slean èngi.e linÌage inle.tçd in 1784.The designNes eight
Appêodix B: Thrust Stand Designs Íor ppT flexuralpivoÌsandan LVDT displacemenr sensof,andemploys
a câlib.atioDsysreú devetopedby Haagal NASA.S The long
Performance Measurements
peiod ôf the system,!p 10 30 s, isotãresihe plÀLfom lionì
The lwo fundarnentàl measurcnÌenrs madeon a ppT â.e üe ouhi.le nrechani.aìdisturbances. Veíical dispÌacènrent
of ihe
urrustând the abÌâlivemass1o$. BecauserÌÌe rime scaÌeof c . n . i s a s s m a l la s I 0 " ' m
the pulseis a few r.s, lime resolvedthrusrand massrow mÌe
measurements are not possible.and the measurement mustbe AcknowÌedgments
madeoí üe tine-iDlegraredthnÌsl or "InÌpuÌse bir,' 1ú,=.f ? dl
ty!ÌcaÌÌy seve.àl hundred micro,Newron seconds.TnnsÌ sra.d The èuthorswish 1o acknoçledgeF. CurÌan ând E. peDcil
desiensfor lnpuìse bit rneasureme.ts of Ìhe NASA Lewls ResedchCenteÍ,M. BllkÌn of rhe U.S.
are discÌssednext. Ei- Air ForceOiiìce of ScienlificReseüch..nd R. Sporesof the
ther â sirgle pulsecan be usedas rhe bàsisfor measuieherts,
or the averagethrustat a pulserateNcan be Ìnedsu.ed, U-S.Ai. Fo.ceResearchLaborato{/lìr coDrÌnued supportand
giving
I'" = T/N. colÌaborãtìon on PPTresedrch.Tlìey.re irdebtedro R. Vondrâ
The àbldive massrneasuements and N. -{ntÍÕpÒr and to V Khrâbrcv,developerof rhe iì.st
areúâde ovef al.rge nuo
ber of puises,say 1000, ard úç massÌoss Â,, per pulse is RussianerosionPIIT,fôr making infÕmrationavâilàbleon tÌìe
câlcuìatedfrom thè measuredtoràl nass los. I'hìs nenìod PPT flown ú zond 2. They a.e also gÍâÌetrì fof infoÍnltion
thèn govides an rcurate determiÍâlioDof rhe specificim supflÌedby G. Spanje6of rhe U.S. Aìr Force ResearchLab-
oratory and M. wjìson of PrimeÌ AercspâceCompany.R. L.
PÌlte fìom 1,. = 1",./sÀn.From thesèlwo measurènenÌsan BurloD wishesto tha* P Rnstân.Olïce of the SecfeÌaryof
unambiguousPPI peúonnâncepÌor ca! Ìhen be made fron
the U.S. AlÍ FoÍce, and M. Osbom and P Lyn! of the U S.
4i vs 1,p. Navèl Reseüch Lâboratory foi suppoÌr o! PPT deveÌopmenÌ.
A vanely or dnsÌ standdesignshavebeenusedfoÍ únÍ
P J. Túchi acknowÌedees U.S. Ai. Force Office of Sclenritìc
R€searclìfor iLs suplon of the developmenlof equarionof-
1) The FâirchiìdIndusÌriesveíical axis 'twingíÌe gare.,
stat€and transpo.tl)ropeltiesof noìeculaf plasnas.and rhe
thrust stand."' larçr used for MPD thruster meâsDrementsâr
Ohio SulercompurerCenter,Coluúbus, Otìio, for supponof
P.Ìnceto! Univèrsiry,:5ór has â verricaÌswing dis with two nurneiicâlcomputarìors.He ex!rcsseshis gratiiudeÌo R. E,
ro6iÒnalflexurai!i!oÌs .onnectingâ bâlancearm to â suppoÍ
Peterki! Jr.. for cÒrtinuedassisÌancervìilì üe MACH2 code,
frme. Am dispÌacement is m€asuredby a Ììnerr vúiâble dji: and ro P. C. Mikelìidesfor coltaborâriônon ppT sinulàLions.
ferenliâl traNfoÍmer (I-VDT).6Ì â Benrly Nevada inductive
se.sor.^ or by â laserintederomeLer proximereÍsystem."'All
of thele cân measxredìsrìacementh úì..oDs. CalibrâÌiônìs R€fereÍces
'Cumaì.w J..and\lilliams.T. E.
doneby rolÌing a bâll down a ramp or by an Ìmpacthanmer tulsedpìâsnaN,ticrct[rusÌcr
tbr Synclìronous
llcÌeÒrolosi..lSateniiè(SMS), 4ÌAA hper 73-
2) A NASA Lewjs ReseafchCenLefs ÌnvefiedpenduÌum., Ì066,Nov.1973.
thnÍ srand"cln be usèdfor high energy(>100J) PPTS.The rEbeÍ.w L. Kow.l, S. J.. and
Sìo!n,R Àì, ,ote.âÌionalNora
devìcesulporÌs a plaltomì wilh â stàinÌesssteeÌfoil lìexurc SìrrcccnlÌTêffÕnPuhedPlâs!úThrüslerSysÌcm,,, A]AA loper 39
loclted below eachconÌeÌ.so rhâlúe pivoringaxis ìs tocated 2.19?,
July 1989.
'KÕwal, S J. (ed.). Pon Íaunch
beÌow the cenleroï mas. reqDinngthe foil sÌiffnessfor sra R.i1b! aÍ ,re Trp SpakcúíÌ
bÌlÌty. The thÍust is neas!red eiÌhe. wÌü an LVDT, or by sra Pul!?d PlasmaMnfÒthhúe's. V)1. 5, AppÌied PhysicsLab. M..1è
bilizing thè plaúorm with a feedbacksoleroidúd measuring rey. cA. 1980.
'8.i11,Y. Eisner.A. and
the curenÌ. Càlibrationof hÒízôDraldisptacenenÌis achieved Osbom,L.,'The FliEhÌAppìiúarionofa
PulsêdPlasmâNlicrôdìmslerThe Nova Sarèìtire,"ArAA pâ!èÍ 82
by small weishts on a flexible fiber run over à lÌìcrio!Ìes 1 9 5 6J, Ì l ] 1 9 8 2 .
pulley to the plaÍom. 'Cunân. w.
J., lnd Naihanson.D. I{.. .,PulsedplasDÌaMi.ro
l) A NASA Lewis ResearchCenleÍ'slorsionaÌt),?erhrusl thmsÌcrPropuìsninSysten lòr Syn.hronolsOrbn Sâtllì te...Jrffral
stand" can measnrelow-energyPPT luìses, and is siúilar Ìn of Spõce.Ìali.ntt Rockús,\,/al.7, No. ,1.1970,pp. 409 415.
'v(,ndÍ!- R. J., ard Thorì.ssèn,
princille to dÌe F.irchild IDdustriesÌhrus! stud. The \!and K.1.. .,FliphiQualilìedpxìsedElec
opentesin singlepulseorrepetitìveolerarìon.nd is calibraÌed Ìnc 'fhruster for SaÌeÌÌnè ConrÍa1, JÒurnut o:f Spac..raIt ant Rock
wiú ân impdr pendulnú. rir. vol. lr, No 9, r9?1, pp. 613 617ì aho AIAA papêr 73 106?.
4) A CT-Devices.lnc.. ìinea thnsÍ srand'{'io neâsüÍèrl ìVordm, R
J.- The MIT L!ì.oln LaboraÌory PuìsedPlasmr
high'ene.gy(-Ì U) impulsebits for â sinsle !uÌse, using a TlmsÌcr A Final ReporÌon the LES 8/9 hlscd PìasmaTlmsÌcr,-
cmaSe oú a linèa. rail with bâlt bea.ìngsulports.caribfailo! AIAA Pâper76 998, Nov. Ì976.
was achievedby ân impaci pendÌlum using ! focusedìaser "LlRocca,A v', luì:ed Plasmi ThrüÍer SyÍenì ibr ÂÌrìtudelnd
StâtionContrÕÌof Spacccmft, Fírú |Lstem SpaG CmBres,1970, "B!rÌôn. R. L., and Tiliakos, N., lnjected lropellmt lonizâiion in
'fhrusÌers." Jdrftdl oJ Propulsìon and PoweL \.1. 9. No. 5,
pp. 688 ?02. MPD
'aÌhov, v', Nasel,Ì., Oglôblinâ.L. anlrcpov, N., Pokryshkin,4.,
Popov. G., aúd Rudìkov, 4., "Anaiysis of PPI PôÌentìâ,liricsin SoÌ!- "Tiliakos, N,, A Thêoretìcâl studt of Propellant PEionizâtion in
i.e úc saiellite orbil conúôl Tasks. 25ú lnbmrionaÌ Electric Prc Seìf fieìd Mâgnetoplasmdynamic ThnsÌers, ' M.S. ThÈsis.Unìr. ôr
pülsionCoú., Peer 97 146,Aue. r99?. Illinois aÌ Urbâna-Cnam!âien,lL, 1993.
''Janson,S. W., Thè on orbit Rolc of ElectricPrclulsion,'' AlÀA "BuÍôn, R. L., Clârk, K. E., !.d Jahn.R G., MêâsuredPeíbts
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