MODERN PHYSICS

CATHODE RAYS
Cathode rays are highly energetic electrons moving from the cathode to the anode. They are
produced in a cathode ray tube.
Production of cathode rays

Cathode
Anode

Cathode rays

heater

-+
E.H.T

The electrons are produced at the cathode by thermionic emission and are accelerated towards the
screen by the anode which is connected to the terminal of the extra high tension battery. The
thermionic emission is the process whereby metal surfaces emit electrons when heated.
The tube is evacuated to avoid electrons interacting with any particle before they reach the screen.
When the cathode rays hit the florescent screen, the screen glows. This shows that electrons posses
momentum and therefore have mass.

Properties of cathode rays

i. They are negatively charged
ii. They travel in a straight line
iii. They are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields (this proves that they carry a
charge)
iv. They cause fluorescence in certain materials.
v. When cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals, x-rays are emitted.
vi. They are electrons moving with high speeds.

1
Verification that electrons travel in a straight line

Cathode
Anode

heater

-+
E.H.T Maltase cross

If an opaque object (Maltese cross) is placed in the path of the cathode rays, a sharp shadow of the
Maltese cross is cast on the screen.

Shadow of the Maltese cross cast on the florescent screen

Motion of cathode rays in electric field

uo

Consider an electron of speed uo entering mid way between metal plates P1 and P2 separated by a
distance d and across which a pd V is applied. The electric force has no component in the
horizontal direction. Hence, the horizontal component of the electron velocity stays constant at the

2
values uo. The vertical component of the electrons velocity at a time t, after the electron has
entered the region of electric field is Vy = ayt
But electric force in the vertical direction
F  Ee

ma y
 Ee

Ee
ay 
m

Ee
Vy  t       (1 )
m

The vertical displacement of the electron in the electric field

y  u  1
2
y
a yt
2
Ee
u y
 0 , a y

m
1 Ee
y         (2)
2
t
2 m

Horizontal displacement
X  u ot

x
t        (3)
uo

Put equation(3) in equation (2)

2
1 Ee  x 
y   
2 m u 
2
Eex
y  2
2 mu o

The motion of the electron in the field is parabolic

Y
1
Vy
θ
Vx1
θ

3
 l
The time taken by the electron to move through the plates t1 
u0

The vertical component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the field is
Eet Eel
Vy  
1

m mu 0

The horizontal component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the field
Vx  uo
1

The angle θ, the electron makes with the horizontal as it emerges out of the field is given by
1
Vy Eel 1
tan   1
 
Vx Mu o
uo

Eel
tan   2
mu o

Y
But tan θ =
D  1
2
l 
Eel y
Hence 
mu
2
o D  1
2
l 
The vertical displacement on the screen,
D  1
2l
Eel
Y  2
muo

D  1
2l
Eel

2K

Where k is the kinetic energy

Note: When an electron is accelerated by a pd of Vs volts, then the kinetic energy of the electrons
1
 eV
2
is given by mu o s
2

4
A beam of electrons of speed 1 x 106 ms-1 is directed midway between p and Q at right angles to
the electric field between p and Q. Show that the electron emerges from the space between p and Q
at an angle of 64.60 to the initial direction of the beam.

vy
tan  
vx

Eel
tan   2
mu o

 31
m  9 . 11  10 kg
 19
e  1 . 6  101 C
E v 12 1
E   2
 300 Vm
d 4  10
 19
300  1 . 6  10  0 . 04
tan  
 
 31 2
9 . 11  10  1  10
6

 18
1 . 92  10
  19
 2 . 017
9 . 11  10

tan   64 . 6

Exercise
1. An electron operating at 3 x 103 V is used to project electron into the space between two
oppositely charged parallel plates of length 10cm and reparation 5cm. calculate the deflection of
the electron as they emerge from the region between charged plated when the p.d is 1 x 103V.
2. An electron of energy 10KeV enter midway between two horizontal metal plates each of length
5.0cm separated by a distance of 2cm. A p.d of 20V is applied across the plates. A fluorescent
screen is placed 20cm beyond the plates.
Calculate the vertical deflection on the screen.

Motion of electron in magnetic field

5
Consider an electron projected with a speed V at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B, out of the plane of the page.

    

  F   
v

    

The magnetic force on the electron is F = Be  and using Flemings left hand rule it is at right
angles to both u and B.
The rate of change of kinetic energy of the electron is equal to the force x velocity
 
dk
 F . Where k= kinetic energy
dt


But since F is perpendicu lar to 

 
dk
Then  F .  0
dt

Hence the kinetic energy K = constant.

Therefore the speed v is constant
This implies that the electron moves in a circular orbit.
m
2

 Be 
r
m
r 
Be

2 2 m
The period T = 
 Be

The kinetic energy

2
1  Ber 
1
k  m 
2
m 
2 2  m 
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 B e r B e r
 
2 m 2m

Motion of electron in crossed field (magnetic and electric)

+ + +
e

- - -
6
Consider an electron projected with a speed v at right angles to both electric intensity E and
magnetic flux density B.
The electric force on an electro Fe = Ee downwards. The magnetic force on an electron
Fm = Bev upwards. If the electron passes through the crossed fields undeflected
then Fe = Fm.
Ee = Bev
E  Bv

E
v  as long as electrons are not deflected
B

e
Thomson’s method used to measure the charge to mass ration ( ) of an electron.
m

Fluorescent screen
Cathode Anode

Y
P1
O
P2
D
l

Electron emitted by the heated cathode is accelerated to the anode. In the absence of the electric
and magnetic fields, the cathode rays strike the florescent screen at O. The p.d is then applied
between plate’s P1 and P2. The deflection Y of the cathode rays is measured. A magnetic field is
then applied to the plane of the figure by passing current through a pair of circular coil one on each
side of the glass tube.
The current in the circular coil is varied until the fluorescent spot is brought back to O. When
cathode rays are in the electric field alone,

7
 2
e Yu

o

m 
El D  1
2
l 
When the magnetic field is applied such that the electron beam is brought at O, then
Beu o
 Ee

E
uo 
B

e YE

m 2  1 
B l D  l
 2 

V
But E  where d is the separation of plates P1 and P2
d

Example

P1 10cm

P2
24cm

In the figure, p1 and p2 are metal plates each of length 2cm and separated by 0.5cm in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 4.7 x 10-3T.
An electron beam incident midway between the plates is deflected by the magnetic field by a
distance of 10cm on a screen placed a distance of 24cm from the ends of the plates. When a p.d of
103V is applied between P1 and P2, the electron spot on the screen is restored to the undeflected

path O, calculate the e of the electron.

m

8
 e YE

m B l D  1
2
 2
l 
3
V 10
E   2
d 0 . 5  10

2
10  10  2 . 0  10
5
e

4 . 7  10    0 . 24  0 . 01 
3 2 2
m  2  10

2  10
4

 7
1 . 1045  10
1
 1 . 81  10
11
Ckg

Measurement of electric charge using Milkan’s oil drop experiment

Constant temperature enclosure

Oil spray

A
X-ray tube
+
E.H.T
B -

Microscope

Two horizontal plates A and B are connected to an extra high tension battery E.H.T such that a
vertical field is created between the plates. The apparatus is surrounded by a liquid bath to provide
constant temperature, an oil spray is introduced into the field through a vent in the upper plate. The
oil droplets acquire some charge by friction. Additional charge on the drops can be provided by
radiating the region between the plates with X rays. X rays cause ionisation of atoms they interact
with. The chamber is illuminated with intense light and the oil drop observed through a short focus
travelling microscope. The drops are allowed to drop freely when the electric field is put off. The
terminal velocity Vo of the drop is measured by measuring the distance it falls through in a
measured time.
During free fall

9
 F(Viscous drag)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

F  6 a  v o

4 a
3

W  g
3
4 a
3

U  g
3

where ρ and σ are the drop and air densities respectively and a is radius of drop.
W  U  F .......... .........( 1 )
At terminal velocity, 4 4
a g   a  g  6 a  v o
3 3

3 3

9 v 0

2
Hence a
2 g    
Therefore determining terminal velocity of fee fall, the radius a can be got.

Case 1 When the p.d is applied such that the oil drop rises steadily,

Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

F’(viscous drag)
W(Weight)
At terminal velocity , v1
F e  U  W  F ..........
'
...( 2 )

Put equation (1) into (2)

'

Fe  U  U  F  F

Fe  F  F
'

Eq  6  a  v o  6  a  v 1

6  a  v 0  v 1 
q 
E

V
But E  where d is separation of plates
d

10
Case2 When the p.d V is applied such that the drop falls steadily with a speed v2.

F’e(electric force)
F’’(viscous drag) U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

'

W  F e  U  F .......... ...( 3 )
' '

At terminal velocity,

'

Fe  F  F
' '

Sub Eqn (1) in eqn (3) Eq  6  a  v 0  6  av 2

6 a  d
q  v 0  v2 
V

Case3 When the p.d is applied such that the drop remains stationary

Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

W  U  F e .......... .........( 4)

sub. Eqn (1) in (4)

F =Fe
6  a  v 0  Eq

6  a  dv
q 
0

11
After repeating the experiment for different oil drops, Milkan found out that the charges on the
drop were integer multiples of the value 1.6x10-19C. This value was taken to be the basic charge
and is the charge on the drop.

Exercise
1. An oil drop carrying a charge of 3e falls under gravity in air with a velocity 4.6x10 -4 ms-1
between two parallel plates mm apart. When a p.d of 4.6x103V is applied between the plates, the
drop rises steadily assuming the effect of the air buoyancy on the drop is negligible. Calculate
(i) the radius of the drop (2.06x10-6m)
(ii) the velocity with which the oil drop rises
( density of oil =900kgm-3, viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nsm-2)
2. A charged oil drop of radius 7.26x10-7m and density 880kgm-3 is held stationary in an electric
field of intensity 1.72x104Vm-1. How many charges on the drop (density of air = 1.29kgm-3)

12
 Positive rays
At low pressures, in a discharge tube, electrons from the perforated cathode ionise gas atoms in the
tube. The positive ions produced and accelerated to high energies are called positive rays.
The positive rays are related to the gas atoms initially in the discharge tube unlike cathode rays.
To vacuum pump

Anode Positive rays

Cathode rays
Perforated cathode
Properties of Positive rays
They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields to a lesser extend than cathode rays. This is
because they are more massive than cathode rays.
They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields in a direction opposite those in which
cathode rays are deflected. This because they are positively charged.
They exhibit a range of speeds because they are produced at various points along the discharge
tube between the cathode and the anode.
They cause fluorescent and affect photographic plates such as cathode rays.
Measurement of specific charge of ions using Bain Bridge Mass Spectrometer.

Momentum selector
(Evacuated chamber)
B2
S2 x
Photographic plate
- B1 +
Velocity selector

S1
Ions from
source

Ions from the source enter the velocity selector through collimating slit s1. The ions enter the
E
velocity selector and only ions with velocity v  pass through undeflected. E is the electric
B1

13
field intensity of electric field in the momentum selector, B1 is the magnetic flux density of the
magnetic field in the velocity selector.
When these ions reach the momentum chamber, they are deflected by the magnetic field of
magnetic flux density B2 and describe a circular arc and strike the photographic plate.
2
mv
Hence in the momentum chamber,  B 2 qv
r

q v x
Hence  , But r 
m B2r 2

Where x is the distance between a point on the photographic plate where the ion strike and slit s2.
E
Also, v 
B1

q 2E
Hence 
m B1 B 2 x

For two ions of masses m1 and m2;

q 2E q 2E
 , 
m1 B1 B 2 x1 m 2 B1 B 2 x 2

Hence the separation of ions on the plate

2E
x 2  x1  m 2  m1 
qB 1 B 2

Example
In a mass spectrum, two ions of mass 26,28 with charges +10e and +30e respectively. Both enter
magnetic fields B2 with the same velocity. The radius of a circular path described by a heavier ion
0.28m, find the separation of two images formed on a photographic plate by these ions.
q 2E
From 
m B1 B 2 x

q 2E
Hence x , since is constant
m B1 B 2

q1 q2
But  kx 1 ,  kx 2
m1 m2

q1m 2 x1
Therefore 
q2m1 x2

But m 1  26 , m 2  28 , q 1  10 e , q 2  30 e , x 1  2  0 . 28 m  0 . 56 m

14
10 e  28 0 . 56

30 e  26 x2

x 2  1 . 56 m

separation  x 2  x 1  1 . 56  0 . 56  1 . 00 m

Exercise
1. Ionised gas atoms produce in a discharge tube. They enter slits S1 of the Bain Bridge
spectrometer. The charges pass through B1 of 0.5T applied at 90 to the electric fields (3V, 5cm).
The ions then pass through undeviated. The beam next passes through B2 of 0.8T and moves along
the two circular path. The radius of the small path is 18cm. The separation on the plates is 6cm. If
the charge on the ions is 10C, identify the ions ( m1=12g, m2 = 14g, hence ion is carbon).
2. A stream of singly ionised magnesium atoms is accelerated through a p.d of 50V, and then
enters a region of uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.08x10-2T. calculate the atomic mass of
the ions. (24U or 3.987x10-26kg)
3. The mass of the singly charged neon isotope 20
10
Ne

is 3.3x10-26kg. A beam of these ions
enters a uniform transverse magnetic field of mass 0.3T, and describes a circular orbit of radius
0.22m. What is (i) the velocity of the ions
(ii) the p.d which has been used to accelerate them to this velocity?

15
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

When some metals held at a negative potential are illuminated by electromagnetic radiations,
electrons are emitted. This process is called photoelectric emission.
Demonstration of photoelectric effect
Light

Cathode(alkali metal)
Anode
Evacuated tube

When light falls on a metal cathode, a galvanometer shows a deflection, indicating flow of current.
However when the plates are covered, more current flows. Energy of the incident light is absorbed
by the electrons and instantly an electron jumps out. Such ejected electrons are called
photoelectrons.
Experimental observations on photoelectric effect.
1. There is negligible time delay between irradiation of metal surface and emission of electrons by
the surface.
2. The photocurrent( number of photoelectrons per second) is proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation.

Photocurrent, I

Intensity

3. The maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation but is independent of the intensity of the radiation.

16
4. For each metal surface, there is a minimum frequency, f0 of the incident radiation below which
no electrons are emitted however high is the intensity. This frequency is called Threshold
frequency of the metal surface.

Max. Kinetic energy

f0 Frequency

Classical theory and photoelectric effect

According to the classical theory of radiation, radiant energy is evenly distributed in a wave front.
If the radiation is incident on a metal surface, the surface electrons should share equally the energy
delivered to the surface by the radiation. Photoelectric emission should occur when electrons have
gained sufficient energy from the radiation. The order of magnitude of the delay time predicted by
the classical theory is approximately 103 seconds which contradicts with the observed 10-9 second.
Hence the classical theory is not correct.
However classical theory explains that photo current is proportional to intensity because the more
energy carried by the wave front, the more energy will be absorbed by the surface electrons; and
therefore more electrons will escape from the metal surface. Classical theory fails to explain
experimental observations 3 and 4.
The quantum theory of photoelectric effect
Einstein postulated that light is emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts of packets called quanta
or photons. The energy of each photon is hf, where f is frequency of light and h is Planck’s
constant.
When light on a metal surface, each photon of light interacts with one and only one electron in the
surface of the metal giving it all its energy or none at all.
If the photon energy, hf, is greater than the work function of the metal, 0, electrons are dislodged
from the attraction of the nucleus of the metal.
Work function is the minimum energy required to overcome the attraction of electrons by the
nuclei of the metal surface. Different metals have different work functions. Work functions can be
expressed in electron volt (eV).

17
Note: Electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by a p.d of
1V.
Hence kinetic energy = ½mv2= eV = 1.6x10-19x1 = 1.6x10-19J
1eV = 1.6x10-19J
Electron emission occurs only if hf > 0
The difference hf - 0 is available to the emitted electrons as kinetic energy . The maximum kinetic
energy of photoelectrons is given by
1
 hf   0
2
mv m ax
2
1
 hf    0 .....( 1 )
2
mv m ax
2

Equation (1) is called Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect.

0 =hf0, where f0 is the threshold frequency of the metal surface.

1  1 1 
 h f  f0  hc   
2
mv

 0 
max
2 

where λ is the wavelength of the incident photon and λ0 is the threshold wavelength
Experimental investigation of photoelectric effect

Monochromatic light Anode

mA a
b
d
c V

Cathode

Evacuated tube
With a connected to b and c to d, the photocurrent I is measured for increasing values of V. A
graph of I against V is plotted and has the form shown below;

I Increasing intensity
Is

-Vs 0 V

18
The curves saturate early meaning that a small voltages is sufficient to collect all the electrons
emitted. The photocurrent is not zero when the voltage is zero. The photocurrent persists even
when the anode is negative relative to the cathode. This is because electrons are emitted with
sufficient kinetic energy which overcomes the opposing electric field and reach the anode.
If the anode is negative with respect to the cathode( i.e. when a is connected to d and b to c), and
the applied p.d across the anode is varied, a stage is reached when electrons stop reaching the
anode, hence no current flows. This negative potential at the anode at which the photo current is
zero is called Stopping potential (Vs).
1
 eV
2
Hence at stopping potential, mv max s
where Vs is the stopping potential.
2

Hence eV s
 hf   0

Experiment to determine Planck’s constant

Monochromatic light Anode

mA

Cathode

Evacuated tube

The anode is at a negative potential with respect to the cathode. The pd between the cathode and
anode is varied until the photocurrent recorded by the ammeter is zero. The value of Vs of the
voltmeter when this occurs is noted. The experiment is repeated for monochromatic light of
different frequency, f but same intensity. A graph of Vs against f is plotted

Vs

Slope, s = h/e

f0 f

19
The slope of the graph, s = h/e, where e is the electronic charge
Hence Planck’s constant, h = se.
For different metal surfaces we obtain,

Metal 1
Vs Metal 2

f01 f02 f

Examples
1. the minimum frequency of light that would cause photoelectric emission from Potassium
surface is 5.37x1014Hz. When the surface is illuminated by another radiation,
photoelectrons are emitted with a speed of 7.9x105ms-1. calculate the:
(i) work function of Potassium metal
(ii) maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons.
(iii) Frequency of the second source
(h = 6.625x10-34Js, mass of the electrons = 9.11x10-31kg)
solution
 34  19
 0  hf  6 . 625  10  5 . 37  10  3 . 558  10
14
(i) 0
J

 7 . 9  10 
1 1  31 2  19
  9 . 11  10  2 . 84  10
2 5
(ii) Kinetic energy = mv J
2 2

1  19  19  19
hf    0  2 . 84  10  3 . 56  10  6 . 4  10
2
mv J
2
(iii)  19
6 . 4  10
f   9 . 66  10
14
 34
Hz
6 . 625  10

2. A 100mW beam of light of wavelength 400nm falls on a caesium surface of a photocell.

(i) how many photons strike caesium surface pr second.
(iii) If 80% of the photons emit photoelectrons, find the resulting current.
(iv) Calculate the kinetic energy of each photoelectron if the work function of caesium is
2.15eV.

Solution

20
 hc
(i) power = nx( energy of a photon) = n  hf  n  , where n is number of electrons emitted per


second
 34
 6 . 625  10  3  10 
8

0 .1  n   
 7 
 4  10 
n  2  10
17

80
 2  10  1 . 61  10  n
17 17 '
(ii) number of photons which produce electron emission= , number
100

of electrons emitted per second.

 19
I  n e  1 . 61  10  1 . 6  10  0 . 026 A
' 17
But
 3  10 
8

(iii) Kinetic energy = hf   0  6 . 625  10

 34

 7

  2 . 15  1 . 6  10

 19
  3 . 46  10  20
J
 4  10 

Exercise
1. The work function of a cleaned metal surface is 4.5eV . calculate
(i) the minimum frequency of the radiation that will cause emission of electrons
from the metal surface. (1.09x1015Hz)
(ii) The maximum energy of the electrons emitted when the surface is illuminated
by radiation of frequency 1.2x1015Hz. (7.5x10-20J)
Application of photo electricity
A photoemmisive cell consists of two electrodes enclosed in a glass tube which may be evacuated
or containing an inert gas at low pressure.

Cathode

Anode

Evacuated glass tube

The cathode is curved metal plate having an emissive surface facing the anode. When
electromagnetic radiation fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted and are attracted to the

21
anode if it is a suitable positive potential. A current of few microamperes flows and increases with
the intensity of the incident radiation.
This photocell can be used to detect intruders. The intruder intercepts the infra red falling on the
photocell. Hence current is cut off. The interruption therefore sets off the alarm.

22
 Atomic Nucleus
Rutherford’s model of the atom
All the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a small region called the nucleus of diameter
less than 10-10m. The negative charge surrounds the positive charge.
This was verified by Rutherfold and his team. The experiment involved the scattering of thin Gold
foil.
Alpha particles emitted by a radioactive source were directed towards a thin gold foil. The
scattered alpha particles were observed on a fluorescent screen on the focal plane of the
microscope. Scintillations were observed on the screen whenever the alpha particles struck the ZnS
scintillation detector. The microscope was moved to different positions in order to detect the alpha
particles.
Observations
1. The majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected.
2. A few of the alpha particles were scattered through small angles.
3. Very few alpha particles were deflected through angles greater than 90º.

Alpha particles

Gold atom

Conclusion
1. The alpha particles being positively charged, their scattering must be due to the positive
charge in the gold atom.
2. Since the majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected, most of the space
inside the atom is empty.
3. Large angle scattering occurred whenever an alpha particle was incident almost head on to
the nucleus.
4. Since very few alpha particles were scattered through large angles, it follows that the
probability of a head on collision with the nucleus is small and it follows that the nucleus
occupies only small proportion of the available space inside an atom.

23
Closest distance of approach of alpha particles.

+2e
Alpha particle
+Ze

Where Z is the proton number or atomic number of the atom.

At closest distance of approach , all alpha particle’s kinetic energy is converted into electrostatic
potential energy of the alpha particle or nucleus system.
Hence
2
1 2 Ze

2
mu
2 4  0
b
2
1 Ze

2
mu
2 2  0
b
2
Ze
b 

2
0
mu

Example
A beam of alpha particles of energy 4.2MeV is incident normal to a gold foil. What is the closest
distance of approach by the particles to the nucleus of the gold atom?
( Atomic number of gold = 79)
2
1 Ze

2
mu
2 2  0
b

 
 19 2
 13 79  1 . 6  10
4 . 2  1 . 6  10   12
2    8 . 85  10 b
 14
b  5 . 412  10 m

Summary, the atom consists of the following main particle: (i) the protons which are positively
charged, (ii) the neutrons which carry no charge and the electrons which are found in orbits around
the nucleus. The neutrons and protons make up the nucleus of the atom.

24
The Bohr model of the atom
Bohr postulated that:
(i) Electrons in atoms can exist only in certain discrete orbits and while in these orbits,
they don’t radiate energy.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from one orbit to another of lower energy, a
quantum of electromagnetic radiation is given off.
The energy of the quantum of radiation emitted is given by E  hf  E i  E f
, where Ei is

energy of the electron in the initial orbit, Ef is the energy of the electron in the final orbit, h is
Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of emitted electron.
(iii) The angular momentum of an electron in its orbit in an atom is an integral multiple of
h
2

nh
i.e. mvr  , where n = 1, 2, 3 ……….
2

The orbit with the lowest energy is called the ground state. All physical systems are in physical
equilibrium in the lowest energy state. Other high energy levels are called excited state.
Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom
Consider an electron in a hydrogen atom to be in a circular orbit of radius , r, about the
nucleus. v

+ -
r

2 2
mv e
For circular motion, a centripetal force on an electron is 
4 
2
r 0
r

2
e

2
mv
4  0
r

2
1 e
T  
2
Hence kinetic energy, mv .......... ........( i )
2 8  0
r

 e
2
e
The electric potential energy of the electron, V r     e   .......... ......( ii )
4  0
r 4  0
r

25
  e  e
2 2 2
e
Total energy, E = T + V(r) =   .......... ......( iii )
8  0
r 4  0
r 8  0
r

nh
From Bohr’s postulates, mvr 
2
2 2
n h

2
Hence v .......... .......( iv )
4 m r
2 2 2

Substitute equation (iv) in equation (i)

2 2 2
mn h e

8 m r 8 
2 2 2
0
r

n h 
2 2

r 
0
Hence .......... ....( v )
 me
2

Substitute equation (v) in equation (iii)

 e  me
2 4

E  
8 0 n h
2 2 2
n h 0 
2 2

8  
0 


  me
2


Hence the allowed electron energies can be obtained from the equation
 me
4

En  , where n is the principal quantum number,; n – 1, 2, 3, ……..

8 0 n h
2 2 2

Note: (i) The energy of the electron is always negative. This means that work has to be done to
move the electron to infinity where it is considered to have zero energy. The electron is therefore
bound to the nucleus.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level, ni, to a lower energy level,
nf, the energy of the quantum of radiation emitted is

 me
4
 me
4
me
4
 1 1 
hf  E i  E      2 
f
8 0 n i h
2 2 2
8 0 n f h
2 2 2
8 0 h
2 2  n2 ni 
 f 

 me
4

Energy of the ground state:- E0  , since n = 1

8 0 h
2 2

 31  12  34
But m  9 . 11  10 , 0
 8 . 85  10 , h  6 . 6  10

 18
E 0   2 . 18  10 J

E 0   13 . 6 eV

26
  13 . 6
Hence En  2
eV
n

me
4
 1 1 
E  hf    2 
8 0 h
2 2  n2 ni 
 f 

me
4
 1 1 
f    2 
8 0 h
2 3 n 2
ni 
 f 

f me
4
 1 1 
The wave number of the radiation emitted is      2 
8 0 h c  n f 
2 2 2
c ni
 

4
me
The term  R H  Rydberg constant
8 0 h c
2 3

 1 1 
  RH   
n 2
ni 
2
 f 

Spectral lines of hydrogen atoms

Energy levels are grouped into shells. Electrons in one shell have nearly the same energy. The
shells are denoted by letters K, L, M, N etc. where K corresponds to n = 1, L to n = 2, M to n = 3
and so on.
Transitions of electron from a high energy level to lower energy level cause electron to lose energy
hence producing electromagnetic waves. Transitions from other shells to K- shell emit spectra of
wavelength grouped into what is called Lymann series.
Lymann series lie in the Ultra violet region of the spectrometer.
 1 1 
  RH   
 12 ni 
2
 

Where ni = 2, 3, 4…….
Transitions from other high energy levels to the L- shell ( n = 2), emits spectra of wavelengths
referred to as Balmer series. Balmer series lie in the visible spectrum.
 1 1 
  RH    , ni = 3, 4, 5…
 22 ni 
2
 

Transition from other high energy levels to the M – shell ( n = 3 ), emits spectra referred to as
Paschen series which lie in the infra red region.

27
  1 1 
  RH    , ni = 4, 5, 6……..
 32 ni 
2
 

n=∞
n = 6 (P shell)

n = 5(O shell)
n = 4 (N shell)
n = 3 (M shell)

Paschen series n = 2 (L shell)

Balmer series

Ground state n = 1 (K shell)

Lymann series

Note Bohr’s theory is to simple to explain spectra of more complicated atoms however, the
following remain valid:
(i) electrons exist outside the atomic nucleus
(ii) existence of energy levels.
(iii) Emission and absorption of radiation occur in discrete amounts called quanta.
Line emission spectra
When atoms like H2, neon etc. are excited due to some form of heat from a frame or electricity,
electron transition may occur to higher energy levels. This makes the atom unstable since energy
has increased. Electron transition may occur to a vacancy left in the lower energy level and
radiation of a definite wavelength or frequency is emitted. A line appear bright against a dark
background. The lines are separated which give evidence that energy levels of the atoms are
separate.
Line absorption spectra.
An atom’s energy can change by only discrete amounts. If a photon of energy, hf, is just enough to
excite the atom, such that an electron can jump to one of higher energy levels, the photon will be
absorbed. The intensity of the incident radiation is reduced since it has lost a photon. A dark line
on a white background is observed, whose wavelength is that of the absorbed photon.

28
Example
1. The figure below represents the lowest energy levels of mercury.

n=6 -2.71eV
n=5 -3.74eV
n=4 -4.98eV

n=3 -5.55eV

n=2 -5.77eV

n=1 -10.44eV

(i) Calculate the energy and wavelength of the photon emitted when the mercury atom’s
energy changes from E6 to E2.
(ii) Determine which energy levels in the mercury atom are involved in the emission of a
line whose wavelength is 546nm.
2. The figure below shows some of the energy levels of a neon atom. In what region of the
electromagnetic spectrum does the radiation emit in the transition E3 to E2 lie?
n=∞ 0 eV
n=4 -0.81eV

n=3 -2.77eV

n=2 -4.83eV

n=1 -21.47eV

29
 X – Rays
X- rays are short wavelength electromagnetic waves which are produced when cathode rays are
stopped by heavy metals.
Production of X – rays

Shield
Cathode Vacuum
Target ( tungsten or Molybdenum)

Filament Cooling fins

supply

X- rays

E.H.T Voltage
Cathode rays
Copper anode

Mode of operation
A low voltage is applied across the filament and heats the filament. Electrons are emitted by the
filament by thermionic emission. The concave focussing cathode focuses the electrons from the
filament onto the target. A very high alternating voltage is applied between the filament and the
anode. During the half cycles when the anode is at a positive potential relative to the cathode,
electrons are accelerated across the tube. No electrons flow to the anode when the anode is at a
negative potential relative to the cathode.
When the cathode rays (electrons) strike the target, 99% of the kinetic energy of electrons is
dissipated into heat while 1% is turned into X-rays.
The heat generated at the target is cooled by means of the copper cooling fins mounted on the
copper anode. Heat is conducted from the target away from the tube by conduction and radiation.
The electron current, I in an X-ray tube in operation is given by I = ne, where n is the number of
electrons per second and e is the electronic charge.

30
Intensity of X-rays (Quantity)
The intensity of X- rays in an X – ray tube is proportional to the number of electrons colliding with
the target. The number of electrons produced at the cathode depend on the filament curret. The
greater the heating current, the greater the number of electrons produced and hence more x- rays
are produced. Therefore the intensity of X- rays is controlled by the filament current.
Penetration of X – rays ( quality)
Penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the target. The
higher the accelerating voltage, the faster the electrons produced. Faster electrons posses higher
kinetic energy and shorter wavelength x-rays of greater penetration power are produced. Hence
penetrating power of X-rays is determined by the accelerating Voltage across the tube.
Hard and soft X- rays
Hard x-rays have a high penetrating power. This because they have very short wavelengths. They
are produced when a high p.d is applied across the tube.
Soft X-rays are produced by electrons moving at relatively lower velocities than those produced by
hard x –rays. They have less energy, longer wavelengths, hence less penetration power compared
to hard x-rays.
Hard x-rays can penetrate flesh but are absorbed by bones. Soft x-rays are used to show malignant
growths since they only penetrate soft flesh. They are absorbed by such growths.

Properties of X –rays
o They travel in a straight line at a speed of light
o They are not deflected by both magnetic or electric fields. This indicate that they carry no
charge.
o They penetrate all matter to some extent. Penetration is least in materials with high density
and atomic number e.g. lead.
o They ionise gases through which they pass.
o They affect photographic plates just like light does.
o They cause fluorescence in some materials.
o They cause photoelectric effect when they are illuminated on certain metal surfaces.
o They are diffracted by crystals leading to an interference pattern.

31
 Examples
In an x-ray tube 99% of the electrical power supplied to the tube is dissipated as heat. If the
accelerating voltage is 75kV and power of 742.5W is dissipated as heat, find the number of
electrons arriving at the target per second.
99
 power  742 . 5W
100

742 . 5  100
Hence power supplied =  750 W
99

But power = VI
Hence 75000I = 750
I = 0.01A
But I = ne
0.01 = 1.6x10-19n
Therefore n = 6.25x1016 per second
Exercise
1. In an x-ray tube operated at 5x105V, the target is made of material of specific heat capacity
2.5x102Jkg-1K-1 and has a mass of 0.25kg. 1% of the electrical power is converted into x-rays and
the rest is dissipated as heat in the target. If the temperature of the target rises at 8Ks-1, find the
number of electrons which strike the target every second.
2. The current in a water- cooled x-ray tube operating at 60KV is 30mA. 99% of the energy
supplied to the tube is converted into heat at the target and is removed by water flowing at a rate of
0.060kgs-1. Calculate: (i) the rate at which energy is being supplied to the tube. (1800Js-1)
(ii) the increase in temperature of the cooling water, assume specific heat capacity of water =
4200Jkg-1K-1. (7.1°C)
3. In an X-ray tube, the current through the tube is 1.2mA and the accelerating potential
is 25kV. Calculate:
(i) the number of the electrons striking the anode per second.
(ii) the speed of the electrons on striking the anode. Assume that they leave the
cathode with zero speed.
(iii) the rate at which cooling fluid entering at 12ºC must circulate through the anode
if the anode temperature is to be maintained at 26.7ºC. Assume 1% of the kinetic energy
of the electrons is converted into x rays and take specific heat capacity of liquid is
2.0x103Jkg-1K-1.
4. An X-ray tube is operated at 75KV and 10mA. If only 2% of the electric power
supplied is converted into X-rays at a target of mass 0.30kg and specific heat capacity
150Jkg-1K-1, at what rate would the temperature of the target rise?

32
 Diffraction of X-rays by crystals
Consider a beam of X- rays incident on the crystal.

Photographic plate
X-rays

Crystal

Lead shield for collimating

After long exposure
thetobeam
x-rays, the photographic plate is developed and printed. A regular pattern of
dark spots called Laue spots are observed around the central dark image. The pattern is due to
scattering of x-rays by interaction with electrons in the atom of the crystal. The regularity of the
spots implies that atoms in the crystal are arranged in a regular pattern.

Consider a beam of monochromatic x-rays incident on a crystal such as KCl at a glancing angle θ.
Let d be the interatomic or interplanar spacing and λ the wave length of the x-rays. A small
fraction of the incident x-rays is scattered by each atom. The scattered x-rays interfere
constructively in those directions for which the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

A d
C

The path difference between x-rays scattered by atoms in two consecutive planes = AB + BC.
But AB = BC = dsinθ
For constructive interference path difference AB + BC = nλ,
where n = 1, 2, 3, ….. is called the order of diffraction and θ is the glancing angle.

33
Hence
2dsinθ = nλ ……. For n = 1, 2, 3... .This is Bragg’s law

Example
X-rays of wavelength 10-10m are diffracted from a set of planes of rubidium Chloride. The first
diffraction maxima occurs at 8.8°. calculate the interplanar spacing.

2 d sin   n  ,
 10
n  1 ,   10
 10
2 d sin 8 . 8  10
 10
d  3 . 27  10 m

Atomic spacing in crystals

Consider a unit of NaCl
Na Cl

Let M be the molecular mass of NaCl, ρ density and Na Avogadro’s number.

M
Mass per molecule =
N a

M
Volume associated with one molecule =
N a

M
One molecule of NaCl has two atoms, hence volume associated with one atom =
2N a

But volume associated with one atom = d3.

M

3
Hence d
2N a

Example
A beam of x-rays of wavelength 1.0x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic planes of NaCl crystal
(Molecular mass = 58.8). First order diffraction is obtained for a glancing angle of 10.2°. find

34
 (i) the spacing between consecutive planes
(ii) the density of NaCl.
Solution
2 d sin   n 
 10
(i) n  1 ,   10 ,   10 . 2
 10
10  10
d   2 . 82  10 m
2  sin 10 . 2

M

3
d
2N a
(ii) 3
58 . 8  10 3
   2 . 16  10
3
kgm
2  2 . 82  10 
 10 3
 6 . 02  10
23

Question
A monochromatic beam of x-rays of wavelength 2x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic planes in a
KCl crystal. First order diffraction maxima are observed at a glancing angle of 18.5°. Find the
density of KCl if its molecular weight is 74.55g. (1.97x103kgm-3)

X-ray spectra in an x-ray tube

There are two spectra; continuous and line/prominent/ characteristic spectra.
The intensity of x-rays plotted as a function of wavelength has the features shown below. The line
spectrum is superimposed on the continuous spectrum.

Continuous spectrum
This arises from multiple collisions of electrons with target atoms. Different amounts of energy are
lost during these collisions. The x-rays given off when the electrons are decelerated will have
wavelengths varying from a certain minimum value λmin to infinity.

Line spectrum

Intensity Continuous spectrum

λmin 35
Wavelength
When an electron loses all its energy in a single collision with an atom of the target, a most
energetic x-ray photon is given off. The kinetic energy of the electrons equal to eV, where V is the
accelerating voltage between a filament and the anode. It is converted into electromagnetic
hc
radiation of energy, hf m ax
  eV
 m in

hc
Hence  min  ……..(1)
eV

Equation (1) is called the Hunt- Duane equation . λmin represents the minimum wavelength of the
X-ray produced for a given accelerating voltage V. It is also called-cut off wavelength.

Line spectrum

36
Uses of X-rays
1. Structural analysis, stresses, fractures in solids, castings and welded joints can be analysed by
examining X-ray photograph.
2. Crystallography; Orientation and identification of minerals by analysis of diffraction patterns
using Bragg’s law.
3. Medical uses;
(i) Analytical uses. These include location of fractures, cancer and tumour/defective tissue
absorbs x-rays differently from normal tissue.
(ii) Therapeutics use for destroying cancerous cells and tumours.
5. detection of fire arms at international airports.

37
 Nuclear physics
The nuclei of atoms contain protons and neutrons. The collection of protons and neutrons together
is called the nucleon.
A species of atoms with a specified number of protons and neutrons is called a nuclide. There are
forces which bind the nucleons together. In some nuclides, the forces make the nucleons stay
together permanently; however in some, the energy forces binding the nucleus affect some to the
nucleons, this happens when the ration of neutrons to protons is big. When ration is big, the
nucleus release excess energy to become stable.
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number while the number of protons and
neutrons is the mass number.
An atom X, with atomic number Z and mass number A can be symbolised by ZA X
A = Z+N, where N = number of neutrons
Radioactive decay
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei emitting alpha, α, beta, β and gamma, γ
radiation
Alpha particles
An α-particle is a Helium atom that has two protons and two neutrons. When a nuclei decays by
release of an α particles, it loses two protons and two neutrons i.e. mass number decreases by 4 and
atomic number by 2.
4
Alpha particle symbol is 2
He

38
 A4
Z  He 
A 206
z 82 z2
Y

eg

Po  Pb 
210 206 4
84 82 2
He

Properties of α particles
They cause fluorescent in some materials
They blacken photographic plates
They readily ionise gases
They are easily absorbed by matter. The penetration of matter by α particles is unique in that
the α particles can not be detected beyond their range.
They are defected by electric and magnetic fields to a lens extent than  particles. This means
that they are heavier than  particles. In both magnetic and electric fields they are deflected
in a direction opposite to that of the  particles. This indicates that they are positively charged.
7 1
They are emitted with speeds of the order 10 ms

They are helium nuclei with mass 4U and charge +2e

Beta particles
These are electrons, the mass of the electron is much smaller than that of the proton
When an element decays by emitting a  particle it loses an electron. Hence the mass number
remains the same but the atomic number increase by one.
A neutrons is thought to consist of a proton and an electron. When a nucleus disintegration, a
neutrons breaks down into an electron (  particle) which is emitted and a proton which
increases the atomic number.
Properties of  particles
They have a much smaller fluorescent effect than  patties
They blacken photographic pates
They ionise gases ion readily than  particles
They penetrate power more easily than α particles but are absorb completely by about 1mmof
Aluminium, or a few metres path of air. They don’t have a definite range like α particles owing
to successive deflection cause by collision with the atom of the absorber.
They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields much more than  particles because they
are lighter.
They are fast moving electrons. They move faster than cathode rays

39
 Gamma rays
They are electromagnetic radiation with very short ware lengths. These are found to occupy a
band the X-ray which are thought to have the shortest ware length known.
The main difference between δ- rays and X-rays is that δ -rays originate from energy changes
in the nucleus in the atom while X rays originate from energy changes associated with electron
structure of the atom.
Emission of δ rays has no effect on the mass of the nucleus. Emission of δ- rays is usually
accompanied by α or  emission e.g.

Th  Pa   
234 234 0
90 91 1

Co  Ni   
60 60 0
27 28 1

Properties
Affect photographic plates
They are not deflected by magnetic and electric fields. This implies that they carry no charge
They travel in a vacuum with the speed of light
They are diffracted by light or X rays
Ware length of  rays shorter than those of X rays
They cause photoelectric effect i.e. they eject electrons when they fall on certain etals
They have a greater penetrating power than  particles i.e. are absorbed by thick lead.
The Decay law
The rate of disintegration of a given sample at any time is directly proportional to the number of
nuclide N, present at that time, t.
Mathematically
dN
  N 
dt

The negative sign indicates that N decreases as t increases

dN
   N Where  is the decay constant
dt

Decay constant,  , is defined as the fraction of the radioactive nuclei which decays per second.

40
 dN
    dt
 N
InN  t  c

When t = 0, N = N0, which is the original number of nuclei.

Hence lnN0 = c
Hence lnN = -λt + lnN0
 N 
ln    t
 No 
or
 t
N  N 0
e

A graph of N against t is called the decay curve

N
N0

t
A graph of lnN against t is a straight line with a negative slope.
lnN

lnN0

Half life T 1
2

The half life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half the number of radioactive nuclei
present in the source to disintegrate.
Consider the decay curve of a radioactive source

N
N0

41
 N0/2

N0/4

2T½ t
T½
Relationship between  and T 1
2 
When t = T½ , N = N0/2
From
 t
N  Noe

No T1
 N 0e 2

2
1 T1
 e 2

2
 T1
In 1
2  Ine 2

In 1
2  T1
2

 0 . 693    T 1
2

0 . 693 ln 2
  
T1 T1
2 2

Activity of a radioactive source

This is number of disintegration of a radioactive source per second.
dN
Activity A   N
dt

The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq)

IBq = 1disintegration per second
A large unit of activity is curie (Ci)

42
3 . 70  10 Bq  1 Ci
10

dN
Activity, A   N
dt
t
N  Noe
t
A    Noe
but A 0
 - N 0
 initial activity

when t  0
hence
 t
A  A0e

Hence Half-life can also be defined as the time taken for the activity of the source to decrease to
half the original value.

Example
1. The half life of a radio isotope is 5.27 years, calculate
i. Its decay constant
ii. The number of years it will take 75% of a given mass of isotope to decay

0 . 693 ln 2 ln 2 9 1
     4  10 s
T1 T1 5 . 27  365  24  3600
2 2

(ii)
 t
N  Noe

N  0 . 25 No
t
0 . 25 No  Noe
9
In 0 . 25    t  4  10 t

t  3 . 31  10 s
8

t  10 . 5 years

2. The radio isotope 60Co decays by emission of a  particle and a  ray. Its half life is 5.3 years.
Find the activity of the source containing 0.10 gm of 60Co

43
A  N
1
In 9
but ,    4 . 15  10
2

5 . 3  365  24  3600
NA 6 . 02  10  0 . 10
0.10 gm contain  0 . 10  atoms
60 60
N  1 . 003  10
21
atoms

A  N
9 1
A  115  10  1 . 003  10  4 . 16  10
21 12
disntegrat ion s

Exercise:
A silver isotope 108
47
Ag has a half life of 2.4mins. Initially, a sample contain 2.0 x 106 nuclei of
silver. Find the number of radioactive nuclei left after 1.2 minutes. (ans:1.412x106)

Carbon dating
The unstable isotope 14C produced during nuclear reactions in the atmosphere as a result of cosmic
ray bombardment give a small portion of 14C in CO2 in the atmosphere.
Plants take in CO2 for photosynthesis. When a plant dies it stops taking in CO2 and its 14Cdecays to
14
N by  particle emission.
By measuring the activity of 14C in the remains, the time when the plant died can be estimated.
Example
The activity of a sample of dead wood is 10 counts per minute, while for a living plant is 19 counts
per minute. If the half life of 14C is 5500 years, find the age of the wood sample.
 t
A  A0 e
t
10  19 e

 10 
  t  ln  
 19 

but
ln 2 ln 2 1
   yr
T 1
5500
2

Hence
ln 2  10 
 t  ln  
5500  19 
t  5093 years

44
Exercise
Wood from a buried ship has a specific activity of 1.2x102Bqkg-1 due to 14C, whereas comparable
living wood has an activity of 2x102Bqjkg-1. What is the age of the ship? ( half life of 14C =
5,7x103years).

Radio isotopes
Radioisotopes are nuclides which are unstable and undergo radioactive decay emitting  or 

particles or γ- rays during return to a stable form. 238U, 226Ra and 230Th are examples of natural
radioactive.
A greater number of radio isotopes are produced artificially by bombarding stable nucleus with
high energetic particles such as protons, α-particles, deuterons and neutrons.
Artificial radioisotopes behave the same way as the natural radioactive materials in that each will
emit its characteristic particle or radiation and each has a characteristic half-life.
Examples
1. By bombarding
 particles,
27 30 0
Al with one gets P which decays by emission of a position ( 1 e)

Al  2 He  15 P  0 n
27 4 30 1
13

P  14 Si  0 e
30 30 1
15


11 14
2. Bombarding of boron 5
B with  particles to get 6
C which decays by emission or
particles.
B  2 He  C 1H
11 4 14 1
5 6

45
 C N 
14 14 0
then 6 7 1
e with half life 5730 years.
3. Neutrons are ideal for bombardment of stable nuclei to produce radioisotope because they
carry no charge and are therefore not deflected by either atomic electrons or nuclear charge.
They will penetrate the nucleus even when their energies are comparatively low.

Some uses of radioisotope

1. Biological uses
i. Radiotherapy
Radio cobalt 60
27
Co decays with emission of  particles together with very high energy γ-rays.
The γ -rays have greater energy than is available with standard X- rays machines when
properly shielded, the γ -rays are employed in the treatment of cancer.
The iodine isotope 131
I (half life 8 days) decays by γ -ray emission. This is injected into the

blood stream of a patient having cancer of the thyroid and the γ -rays given off are
concentrated right where they are needed. The speed with which the iodine isotope becomes
concentrated in the thyroid provides a measure of the thyroid function.
ii. Tracers
Small qualities of low activity radioisotope are administered by injection into patients and their
passage through the body and absorption by diseased tissue studied.
The radioisotope 59 Fe is administered into a patient’s blood stream. Measurements of the
radioactivity of a plasma sample will indicate the amount of dilution and hence the total
number of red blood cells can be determined if some of the patients own red cells are labelled
with 59Fe or 51 Cr and returned into the blood stream.
In agriculture, traces have been used to study how fertilizers, hormones, weed killers and
30
pesticides perform their functions. E.g. the radioisotope 15
P has been used to provide in
formation about the best type of phosphate fertilizer to supply to particular crops and soil.
iii. Mutants
Radioisotopes have been used to induce plant mutations. This has led to improved seed
varieties of crops like wheat, peas, beans with high yields and high resistance to crop disease.
iv. Sterilization

46
 Medical instruments and equipments are sterilized by exposure to γ –rays. Gamma ray as are
also being used to sterilize and preserve some food products. The method is safe as no
radioactivity is induced in the material irradiated by γ- rays.
Radiation has also been used to eliminate agricultural pests by sterilizing them and therefore
serving the reproduction chains.

v. Carbon dating
14
C
By measuring the residual activity of the quality 6
remaining after death of an organism, we
can determine how long ago the organism died.
2. Industrial uses
(i) Tracers
a) For investigation of flow of liquids in chemical plants or in underground water and
sewerage pipelines. In the latter cases, a little radioactive solution is added to the liquid
being pumped. Temporary high activity around a leak is detected from the ground above.
The rate of flow of liquids can also be measured.
b) For study of wear in machinery such as of piston rings in motor engine. Before the piston is
put in place, it is irradiated with neutrons to form the radioisotope
59
Fe. As the piston rings wear out, the 59Fe which comes off with the oil is tested using
Geiger Muller counter. Through comparison of the initial activity with the activity
measured time, the rate of wear of the piston is deduced.
c) Automatic control of thickness paper, plastic or metal sheeting as it gives through the
production plant. The thickness is controlled by measuring the transmission of radiation
through the sheet.

3. Diagnostic uses
Cobalt 60 and other γ- rays emitters are used as alternatives to X rays set ups which are more
elaborate to produce radiographs for examination of welded beams and metal castings.

Detections of Nuclear radiation

The requirement for the detection of any nuclear radiation is that it must dissipate energy in the
detector.
The causes of dissipation of energy by nuclear radiation are

47
 i. Ionisation of atoms in the detector e.g in ionisation chamber and G.M. Tube
ii. Excitation of atoms without removal of orbital elections e.g. in scintillation counter.
Ionisation chamber
Metal case (Cathode)
Thin metal rod (anode)

Ionising radiation
To amplifier

Thin mica plate H.V

High Voltage unit
Neutral gas atoms

Mode of action
When ionising radiation enters the chamber through the mica window, it ionises the neutral gas
atoms. Ion pairs are produced as a result of collision. The positive ions produced drift to the
cathode and the negative ions to the anode resulting in an ionisation current which is amplified and
measured with the micrometer. A high voltage is set to a value that a constant current Is flows. In
this setting, the energy (intensity) of the incoming radiation is proportional to Is.
A graph of ionisation current against voltage V has the following features.

Ionisation
Current C

Is A B

O
Voltage
Features of the graph
Region OA: The applied voltage is low. The positive ions and electrons produced by collisions of
in coming radiation with the neutral gas atoms have a high chance of recombining since their
velocities are low. The current produced is proportional to the voltage.
Region AB (Saturation region): All ions pairs produced per second travel and reach the respective
electrodes. This results in constant current or saturation current Is = ne.

48
In this region, the energy lost by the incoming particles is proportional to Is. This is the region in
which the ionisation chamber is normally operated.
Region BC (Gas amplification): because of he high voltage, the electrons produced by ionisation
of the neutral gas atoms, acquire sufficient energy to cause ionisation themselves (secondary
ionisation). This results in rapid multiplication of ions in the chamber, and hence the rise in
ionisation current.

The Geiger Muller tube or counter

Thin metal rod (Anode)

Ionisation To amplifier and counter

radiation R

Mica window
Cylindrical cathode
Partially evacuated tube containing
When the radiation enters
argonthe tube,
and it causes
bromine ionisation of the gas atoms. The electrons produced
vapours

are accelerated to such a high energy that they also cause more ion pairs by repeated collisions.
When the electrons reach the anode, the pulse is produced which is amplified and detected by a
rate meter. The positive ions in the chamber are accelerated towards the cathode and if these ions
reach the cathode, they will cause secondary discharge, which will give a false impression of an
arrival in the chamber of another ionising particle. This is prevented by using a quenching agent
like bromine.
During the quenching process, an electron from the bromine molecule is transferred to the organ
ion neutralising it. In this way a tube is made to receive next ionising particle.
In a G.M tube the time taken by the positive ions to travel to the cathode is known as the dead
time. The number of pulses per unit time (counter rate) corresponds to the activity of the source of
radiation
A graph counter rate against applied voltage

Counter rate D

B C

A Threshold voltage Applied Voltage

49
Below a certain value of p.d known as threshold voltage, no counts are recorded at all since the
number of ions produced per second is not enough to produce sufficient current which can result in
a pd of sufficient magnitude to be detected.
Between A and B, magnitude of pulse developed in the tube depends on the initial ionisation of the
tube and energy of the incident particles.
Between B and C, the plateau region, the counter arte is almost constant. All the region when the
tube is said to be normally operated
Beyond C, the counter rate increases rapidly with voltage due to incomplete quenching one
incident particle may start a whole chain of pulses.

Cloud Chamber
There two types:
(1) Diffusion type chamber
Felt pad soaked in alcohol
and water

Intense light
S
Saturated vapour

Cold metal base

Solid CO2(at -78°C)
Sponge

Mode of operation
Alcohol vaporised in the warm upper part of the chamber. It diffuses towards the cold part of the
chamber. Above the cold metal base, there will be a layer of air super saturated with alcohol and
water vapour.
The shield surrounding the radioactive source is removed. The radiation from S ionises the air
molecules. The ions provide nuclei for condensation and their paths are seen by means of the
intense light directed in the chamber. The tracks of the ions can be photographed . the chamber is
cleared of ions by supplying a p.d between the top and bottom of the chamber.

50
The type of radiation emitted by the radioactive source can be deducted from the tracks formed. α
particles proceed without deviation except at the end of their range. They ionise copiously and
have well defined range.

α-particles

Β-particles proceed along tortuous tracks because they are light and are easily deflected by
collision with atoms.

β-particles

γ-rays give rise to diffuse ionisation.

γ-rays

(2) Expansion cloud chamber

Camera

Intense
illumination S
S- source of radiation
Dark pad Saturated vapour
(alcohol vapour)

Piston

Mode of operation

51
The air inside the chamber undergoes adiabatic expansion by pumping on it. The air cools down as
a result. After a few adiabatic expansion, condensation takes on the residual ions (or dust nuclei).
The chamber is cleared of these ions by application of a p.d between the top and bottom of the
chamber.
The gas in the chamber is then subjected to a precise adiabatic expansion so that the gas becomes
super saturated. The shield S is removed, condensation takes place on the ions formed radiation
emitted by S. The tracks of emissions of S are photographed and emissions identifies.

Example
A source of  particles has an initial activity of 2 x 105 disintegrations per second. When the 

particles enter an ionisation chamber, a saturation current of 2 x 10-7 A is obtained. If the energy
required to produce an ion pair is 32ev. Find the energy of one  -particle
I  ne
7
I 2  10
n    1 . 25  10
12
 19
e 1 . 6  10

1 . 25  10  32  4  10
12 13
Energy lost per second = eV

4  10
13

Energy of one α- particle =  2  10

7
eV
2  10
5

52
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Einstein’s mass- energy relation
If the mass of the closed system changes by an amount of m, the energy of the system changes by
an amount, E = mc2, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The above relation is Einstein’s
mass- energy relation.
For a given mass, there is energy released.
Recall that 1U = 1.66x10-27kg.
If the mass changes by 1U, then the energy changes is

 
 27 2  10
E  mc  1 . 66  10  3  10  1 . 494  10 J  934 MeV
2 8

Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons of an atom are called nucleons. The energy needed to take all the nucleus
a part so that they are completely separated is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
Hence from Einstein’s mass- energy relation, it follows that the mass of the individual nucleons is
greater than that of the nucleus in which they are together. The difference in mass is a measure of
binding energy.
Example
4
Find the binding energy of a helium nucleus 2
He

4
Mass of 2
He = 4.0015U
1
Mass of 0
n = 1.0087U

53
 1
Mass of 1
p = 1.0073U

He  2 0 n  2 1 p
4 1 1
2

mass on the right hand side =  2  1 . 0087    2  1 . 0073   4 . 032 U

Change in mass, m = 4 . 032  4 . 0015  0 . 0305 U

But 1U = 931MeV
Hence binding energy = 931x0.0305 = 28.4MeV
Binding energy per nucleons is the ratio of the binding energy to the atomic mass of the nucleus.

The binding energy per nucleons of elements of the periodic table varies with mass as shown
below.

Binding energy per

nucleons (MeV) 56
8 Fe

12
6
C
238
U

1
2 1
H

Mass number

The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.
Excluding the nuclei lighter than 12C, the graph indicates that the average binding energy per
nucleon is fairly constant for a great majority of nuclei. The average value is about 8MeV per
nucleon. The pitch occur at approximately the 56Fe nucleus which is therefore one of the most
stable nuclei.

Nuclear fusion and fission

Nuclear fission

54
A nuclear fission reaction involves bombarding of the heavy nucleus with a highly energetic
particles such as neutrons, protons, deuterons and alpha particles. The heavy nucleus splits into
lighter nuclei of higher binding energy per nucleon. The mass deficiency which results is
accounted for by the energy released in accordance to Einstein’s mass-energy relation. In most
nuclear fission reactions, neutrons are used to induce a reaction because of being neutral, they can
penetrate the nucleus.
When 235U splits, it produces nuclei that are lighter and hence have higher binding energy.
Examples of nuclear fission
U  0n U  Sr  Xe  10
235 1 236 90 136 1
92 92 38 54 0
n

Find the energy released by 1kg.

Mass of 235U = 235.0439U, Mass of 90Sr = 89.9073U,
Mass of 1n = 1.0087U, Mass of 136Xe = 135.907U
Mass on left hand side = 235.0439+1.0087 = 236.0526U
Mass on right hand side = 89.9073 + 135.907 + 10x1.0087 = 235.9013U
Change of mass, m = 236.0526 - 235.9013 = 0.1513U
Energy released by a nucleon of U235 = 0.1513x931Mev = 140.8603MeV
1000
Energy released by 1kgof 235U =  6 . 025  10
23
 140 . 8603  3 . 61  10
26
MeV
235

In the above example, when the emitted neutrons encounter with other Uranium nuclides, they
bombard the uranium and more splitting occurs with the release of more energy. The produced
neutrons are called fission neutrons, and when this occurs, the reaction is called a chain reaction. In
a chain reaction, a lot of energy is produced and unless this energy is controlled, the reactions may
cause an explosion. Chain reaction is applied in making nuclear bombs.
Exercise
238U disintegrates by emission of an α- particle according to the equation
U  Th  2 He
238 234 4
92 90

calculate (i) the total energy released in the disintegration (4.2315MeV)

(ii) the kinetic energy of the alpha particles, with the nucleus being at rest before
disintegration.(4.16MeV)
Mass of 238U = 238.1249U, Mass of 4He = 4.00387U,
Mass of 234Th = 234.11650U, 1U = 930MeV
Nuclear fusion

55
A lot of energy is released when the nuclei of lighter elements fuse together to form a heavy
nucleus. The fusing together of nuclei to form a heavy nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
Example
Formation of alpha particles when lithium fuses with hydrogen.
Li  1 H  Be  2 2 He
7 1 8 4
3 4

Mass of 7Li = 7.0160U, mass of 1H = 1.0078U,

Mass of 4He = 4.0026U, 1U = 931MeV
solution
Mass on left hand side = 7.0160 + 1.0078 = 8.0238U
Mass on right hand side = 2x4.0026 = 8.0052U
Change of mass = 8.0238 – 8.0052 = 0.0186U
Energy released = 0.0186x931MeV = 17.317MeV
1000
 6 . 025  10  17 . 317  1 . 304  10
23 27
Energy released by 1kg of the reactants = MeV
8

Exercise:
Calculate the energy released by the reactant of two deuterium fusing to form helium according to
21H  He  0 n
2 3 1
the equation. 2

H  2 . 01421 U ,
2
Mass of 1

He  3 . 0160 U ,
3
Mass of 1

n  1 . 0087 U ,
1
Mass of 0

1U = 931MeV

The sun contains a considerable amount of hydrogen. It is believed that the energy of the sun is
due to nuclear fusion of the hydrogen atoms. Fusion is capable if the nuclei concerned are able to
approach each other close enough and if the temperatures are very high. These conditions are
achieved in the sun.

56
 Electronic Devices
1. Cathode ray Oscilliscope
Fluorescent screen

C G A1 A2
X2 Y2

X1
Y1

Evacuated glass tube

_- + Graphite coating
R1 R2 E.H.T
E.H.T

Uses of the parts

Evacuated Glass tube:- the glass tube evacuated to prevent scattering of the electron beam when
electrons collide with air molecules.
Indirectly heated Cathode, C :-Emits electrons by thermionic emission.
The grid, G:- it consists of a hollow metal cylinder with a small hole at the end. It is held at
variable negative potential relative to the cathode by means of the potential divider R1, The grid
serves two purposes namely: (i) as a brightness control

57
(ii) it refocuses the electron beam so that the beam emerges from the hole as a narrow beam.
Anodes A1 and A2:- These are held at a positive potential relative to the cathode. The anode
accelerates the electron beam along the tube and also focuses the electron beam by means of the
potential divider R2.
X-plates, X1 and X2:-these are vertical plates but they deflect the beam horizontally when a p.d is
applied across them.
Y-Plates, Y1 and Y2:- These are horizontal pates but deflect the beam vertically when a p.d is
applied across them.
Fluorescent Screen:- This is coated with fluorescent material such as Zns. It enters light when
struck by electron beam.
Graphite Coating:- Enables light to be seen only on the screen as the graphite coating absorbs the
electron’s kinetic energy.
Power supply:-This is a smoothened rectified a.c, fed through a chain of resistors.
Operation of the CRO
Suppose the X- plates were shunted and a d.c voltage was applied to the Y- plates. The electron
spot would be deflected vertically.

If the X- plates are shunted and an a.c is applied to Y-plates, the electron beam is drawn into a
vertical line.
Screen

To observe the waveform of the a.c signal applied to the Y-plates, a special voltage called time
base connected to the X- plates. The time base has a saw-tooth waveform and is generated by a
special in the CRO. The saw tooth voltage which sweeps the electron beam from left to right at a
constant speed.
Fly back
P.d Sweep A

B
O
Time

58
The time taken for p.d to fall from A to B known as the fly back time, is extremely small
compared to the time taken to rise from O to A. Hence the time taken by return of the electron
beam to the original position at the other end of the screen is small.
When no signal is applied to the Y- plates, the voltage V, causes the electron beam to sweep
horizontally to and fro on the screen as shown.
Screen

To observe the wave form of the applied voltage to Y-plates, the frequency of the time base is
synchronised with the frequency of the signal applied to Y-plates. For an a.c signal applied across
the Y- plates and time base on the X-plates, one observes the waveform shown below;

Uses of a CRO
a) Displaying of waveforms: the amplitude and frequency of the wave can be obtained.
b) Measurement of Voltage: An unknown voltage is applied across the Y- plates. If the time
base is switched off, a vertical line is obtained on the screen. This can be centred and its
length measured. This is proportional to twice to the amplitude or peak voltage, V0.
c) Comparison of frequencies of two waveforms: suppose two waveforms of frequency f1 and
frequency f2 appear on the screen of the CRO having two Y-inputs or are displayed at a
time on the CRO with a single Y-input. If x1 and x2 are distances occupied by one cycle for
f1 T2 x2
two waveform, then the ratio   , where T1 and T2 are the periodic times of the
f2 T1 x1

two waves respectively.

d) Measurement of phase difference using a double beam CRO: the two waveforms to be
compared have the same frequency. Suppose they are displayed simultaneously by
applying them to the two Y-input.
Comparison o CRO with a moving coil Voltmeter.

59
 a) The CRO has very high impedence. It gives accurate voltages than a moving coil
voltmeter.
b) A CRO can measure both d.c and a.c voltage. A moving coil voltmeter measures only D.C
voltages unless a rectifier is used. The CRO gives a peak to peak values of a.c.
c) A CRO has negligible inertia as compared to a moving coil voltmeter. The CRO respond
almost instantaneously.
d) CRO doesn’t give direct voltage readings.

Question
A CRO has its Y- sensitivity set to 10Vcm-1. A sinusoidal input is suitably applied to give a steady
trace with the time base set so that the electron beam takes 0.01s so traverse the screen. If the trace
seen has a total peak to peak height of 4cm and contains two complete cycles, what is the r.m.s
voltage and frequency of the input? (14.1V, 200Hz)
2. Thermionic Diode
Structure
It consists of an anode usually in form of a nickel cylinder which surrounds the cathode in an
evacuated glass bulb. In the indirectly heated cathode type, the cathode is a nickel tube with a
tungsten filament (or heater) inside it. The heater is insulated electrically from the cathode by
packing alumina inside the nickel tube. The outside of the tube is coated with a mixture of Barium
and Strontium oxides. The mixture has a low work function(about 1.8eV) and emits electrons at
relatively low temperatures (about 1100K)
Symbol of a diode
Anode

Cathode
heater

Thermionic Characteristics

Ia
mA

60
Keeping the filament current If constant, the p.d Va between the cathode and the anode is varied.
The corresponding anode current Ia is measured. A graph of Ia against Va constitutes the anode –
current anode voltage characteristics. By setting the filament current to other constant values, the
corresponding Ia-Va characteristics can be obtained. These features can be shown below

Ia

Va

For Va = 0 ,electrons are emitted by the cathode with a range of speeds. A few of the electrons
are emitted with sufficient kinetic energy to be able to reach the anode. This leads to a small
current. If the anode is made negative relative to the cathode, a reverse current exists for negative
potentials up to about 0.5V and then decreases to zero.
Region AB: Here Va is small. Only those electrons emitted with high speeds will be able to reach
the anode. The majority of the electrons are emitted with low kinetic energies and are repelled
back towards the cathode. The electron distribution around the cathode constitutes a negative space
charge. The current Ia is small.

61
Region BC: as Va increases the attraction of the space charge by the anode increases. This results
in a larger anode current. This region is called space charge limited region.
Region CD: the anode voltage Va is so large that all the electrons emitted per second by the
cathode reach the anode. The space charge is overcome. A constant current, called saturation
current flows. Region CD is also called the temperature limited region because when the
temperature of the cathode increases, more electrons are emitted per second by the cathode. A
higher saturation current therefore flows.

Applications of the thermionic diode

(a) Half- wave rectification
Suppose a thermionic diode is connected in series with a source of alternating voltageVi and a load
RL

c A

Vi RL VR

During the half cycles when A is positive relative to C the diode conducts and a p.d VR appears
across the load RL. During the half cycles when A is at a negative potential relative to C, the diode
does not conduct and no p.d appears across RL. The a.c is half-wave rectified.
The input and output voltage wave forms are compared in the diagram below.

Vi

t
VR

62
(b) Full wave rectification
(i) Using two diodes
D1
P
RL VR
Vi

Q
D2

When P is at negative potential relative to Q, diode D1 conducts whereas D2 doesn’t.

When P is at a positive potential relative to Q, diode D2 conducts whereas D1 does not. Current
flows in the same direction through the load RL during both positive and negative cycles of the
input voltage Vi.

Vi

t
VD1

t
VD2

t
VR

t
VD1 and VD2 is output pd due to conduction of diode D1 and D2 respectively.
VR is the output voltage across load RL.
(ii) Using four diodes
The following rectifier symbols will be used.
Flow of current Flow of current

Forward bias (diode conducts) Reverse bias (diode does not conducts)

D1
D2

C P
Vi D3 63

D4 R VR
During the half cycles when A is at positive potential relative to B, diodes D2 and D3 are forward
biased hence they conduct and current flows through the resistor R in the direction P to Q. Diodes
D1 and D4 are reverse biased and they do not conduct.
During the half cycles when B is at positive potential relative to A, diodes D1 and D4 are forward
biased and they conduct. Currents flows through resistor R in the direction P to Q. Diodes D2 and
D3 are reverse biased and don’t conduct.
The voltage cross R will have the form:

VR

The output voltage can be smoothened by using filter circuits of the form shown below:

L
V0 R
C VR

The back emf induced in the inductor by the fluctuating voltage opposes the voltage fluctuations.
The capacitor acts as a reservoir to steady the remaining voltage fluctuations.
The voltage across the resistor R has the form shown:
Smoothened p.d
Ripple A
VR

At points such as A, the p.d across the load has just reached its maximum value. If the capacitor
was not present, the p.d would start to fall to zero along the broken curve. However, as soon as the
p.d across the load starts to fall, it becomes less than that across the capacitor and the capacitor
starts to discharge through the load.

64