General Biology 111: Year 1 Caritas University Enugu

Virus
“Viruses are infectious agents that replicate inside the body of a host.”

Table of Contents

o Explanation
o Structure
o Properties
o Classification
o Virus Reproduction
o Diseases
o Economic Importance of Virus

What is a Virus?
Viruses are non-cellular, microscopic infectious agents that can only replicate inside a host cell.
From a biological perspective, viruses cannot be classified either a living organism or non-living.
A virus can be an infectious agent which only replicates within a host organism. This is due to
the fact that they possess certain defining characteristic features of living organisms and non-
living entities.

In a nutshell, a virus is a non-cellular, infectious entity made up of genetic material and protein
that can invade and reproduce only within the living cells of bacteria, plants and animals.

For instance, a virus cannot replicate itself outside the host cell. This is because viruses lack the
required cellular machinery. Therefore, it enters and attaches itself to a specific host cell, injects
its genetic material, reproduces by using the host genetic material and finally the host cell splits
open, releasing the new viruses.

Viruses can also be crystallized, which no other living organisms can do. It is these factors that
lead to viruses being classified in the grey area – between the living and non-living.

Structure and Function of Viruses

Viruses are tiny and smaller in its size, ranging between 30-50 nm. Viruses do not contain cells
and usually lack a cell wall but are surrounded by a protective protein coating called the capsid.
It can be seen as a genetic element and is characterized by the combined evolution of the virus
and the host. They contain either RNA or DNA as the genetic material.
Viruses mainly depend on a host to deliver the complex metabolic machinery of prokaryotic or
eukaryotic cells for propagation. The main task of the virus is to carry its DNA or RNA genome
to the host cell, which then can be transcribed by the host cell. The viral genome structure is
packed in a capsulated symmetric protein. The protein associated with nucleic acid (also known
as nucleoprotein) produces the nucleocapsid with the genome.

Bacteriophage and HIV

These microbes belong to the family viridae and genus virus.  Viruses could not be placed in any
of the kingdoms because they are practically neither living nor dead. The term virus was coined
by the Dutch microbiologist, Martinus Willem Beijerinck in the year 1897. It is derived from
Latin, which means poison or venomous substance.

Once a susceptible cell is infected, a virus can start the cell machinery to generate more virus.
Viruses are composed of a core of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. They are very
small and their size ranges from 20 nanometers to 250 nanometers. Therefore, they can only be
seen with an electron microscope

Many viruses have either DNA or RNA as the genetic element and the nucleic acid with single
or double strands. The whole infectious virus, called as virion has nucleic acid and an outer shell
of proteins. The simplest virus includes DNA or RNA for encoding four proteins and the most
complex encodes 100-200 proteins.

The study of virus is known as virology.

Properties of Viruses
1. They are non-cellular organisms, which is enclosed in a protective envelope.
2. The presence of spikes helps in attaching the viruses to the host cell.
3. These viruses do not grow, neither respire nor metabolize, but they reproduce.
4. They are surrounded by a protein coat – capsid and have a nucleic acid core comprising
DNA or RNA.
5. They are considered both as living and non-living things. These viruses are inactive when
they are present outside of host cells, but become active within host cells. These viruses
cause several infections and reproduce within the host cell by using the enzymes and raw
materials.

Classification of Viruses
Viruses can be classified primarily on their phenotypic characteristics, core content, chemical
composition, capsid structure, size, shape, modes of replication and other viral genome
structures.
The Baltimore classification is the most commonly used for studying the system of virus
classification. This system was developed by an American biologist David Baltimore in
the 1970s, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

The below virus information describes the classification of viruses based on their different
criteria.

Classification based on the presence of nucleic acid

DNA virus

The virus, having DNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of DNA virus

Single-stranded (ss) DNA virus: e.g. Picornaviruses, Parvovirus,  etc.

Double-stranded (ds) DNA virus: e.g. Adenovirus, Herpes virus, etc.

RNA virus

The virus, having RNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of RNA virus

Double-stranded (ds) RNA virus: e.g. Reovirus, etc.

Single-stranded (ss) RNA virus. It is further classified into two Positive sense RNA (+RNA) and
negative sense RNA (-RNA). Poliovirus, Hepatitis A, Rabies virus, Influenza virus are examples
of single-stranded RNA virus.

Classification based on the structure or symmetry

Viruses come in different shapes, from basic helical and icosahedral shapes to more intricate
ones. The classification based on different shapes and symmetry of viruses are as follows:

1. Complex virus. E.g Poxvirus

2. Radial symmetry virus. E.g.Bacteriophage
3. Cubical or icosahedral symmetry shaped virus. E.g. Reovirus, Picornavirus
4. Rod or Spiral shaped or helical symmetry virus. E.g. Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus

Classification based on the replication properties and site of replication

Here, viruses invade into the host cell, where it replicates and assembly within the cell
organelles.

1. Replication within the cytoplasm of the host cell.

E.g. All RNA viruses except the Influenza virus.
2. Replication within the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the host cell.
E.g. Influenza virus, Poxvirus, etc.
 3. Replication within the nucleus of the host cell.
All DNA viruses except Pox virus.
4. Replication of the virus through the double-stranded DNA intermediate.
E.g. All DNA viruses, Retrovirus and some tumour causing RNA virus.
5. Replication of the virus through a single-stranded RNA intermediate.
E.g. All RNA viruses except Reovirus and tumour-causing RNA viruses.

Classification based on the host range

Based on the type of host, there are four different types of viruses:

Animal viruses

These viruses infect by invading the cells of animals, including humans. Prominent examples of
animal viruses include the influenza virus, mumps virus, rabies virus, poliovirus,  Herpes virus,
etc.

Plant viruses

These viruses infect plants by invading the plant cells. Replication of plant viruses is obligate
and does not happen without a host. Well-known examples of plant virus include the potato
virus, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), beet yellow virus, and turnip yellow virus, cauliflower
mosaic virus, etc.

Bacteriophage

The virus which infects bacterial cells is known as bacteriophage. There are many varieties of
bacteriophages, such as DNA virus,  MV-11, RNA virus, λ page, etc.

Insect virus

The virus which infects insects is known as Insect virus, also called the viral pathogen of insects.
These viruses are considered as a powerful biocontrol agent in the landscape of modern
agriculture. Ascovirus virions and  Entomopox virus, are best examples for insect virus.

Classification based on the mode of transmission

1. Airborne infections – Transmission of the virus through the air into the respiratory tract.
E.g. Swine flu, and Rhinovirus.
2. Fecal oral route  – Transmission of the virus through the contaminated water or food.
E.g. Hepatitis A virus, Poliovirus, Rotavirus.
3. Sexually transmitted diseases – Transmission of the virus through sexual contacts with
the infected person. E.g. Retrovirus, human papillomavirus, etc.
4. Transfusion-transmitted infections- Transmission of the virus through the blood
transfusion.
E.g. Hepatitis B virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, etc.
 5. Zoonoses -Transmission of the virus through the biting of infected animals, birds, and
insects to human. E.g. Rabies virus, Alpha virus, Flavivirus, Ebola virus, etc.

Virus Reproduction
Lytic infection is the method used by the majority of viruses to reproduce. A virus penetrates the
host cell during lytic infection, replicates, and causes the cell to lyse or explode.

Overview of the lytic cycle:

 Attachment: Virus binds to host cell during attachment.

 Entry: Injection of genetic material into the host cell.
 Replication: The virus takes control of the host cell’s metabolism, leading the organelles
to produce new proteins and nucleic acids.
 Assembly: Nucleic acids and proteins are put together to form new viruses during
assembly.
 Release: Viral enzymes induce the host cell to burst, releasing viruses into the
surrounding environment. These novel viruses are capable of infecting other cells.

List of Viral Diseases

Following is a list of virus diseases that have made a significant socioeconomic impact in the last
few decades.

 AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

 Ebola
 Influenza
 SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
 Chikungunya
 Small Pox (Now eradicated)

Economic Importance of Virus

Viruses are used in biotechnology research because they share the properties of living and non-
living species. The viruses can be both helpful and harmful. Bacteriophage can be used to
preserve water since it can eliminate germs and maintain the freshness of the liquid.

 Pox, polio, mumps, jaundice, and other diseases can be controlled by injecting dead
viruses into people as vaccines, which is how antidotes and vaccines are made.
 A specific virus can control some insects and animals that are hazardous to people.
 Disease management: The T2 bacteriophage virus protects from dysentery by killing
dangerous bacteria, such as E-coli. Because viruses can specifically target cells and
 DNA, they are used in virotherapy to treat various disorders. It might play an
essential role in gene therapy and cancer treatment.
 The most familiar living model utilised in laboratories is the virus. In genetics research,
viruses are primarily used. It is an essential topic of discussion in genetic engineering.
 Due to the virus’s combination of living and non-living traits, it is necessary to
understand the evolutionary tendency and the mechanism by which living entities are
created.
 Viruses are an example of an organic nanoparticle in nanotechnology. They have been
utilised as a model for arranging materials on the nanoscale due to their shape, size, and
structures.
 One million viruses can be found in a spoonful of seawater, aquatic ecosystems’ most
abundant natural component. A virus can boost the number of photosynthesis in oceans
and reduce the quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by about three gigatonnes of
carbon per year.

Frequently Asked Questions About Viruses

What is a Virus in Biology?

A virus is a biological entity that can only reproduce within a host. Anatomically, viruses possess
nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) which are encased within a  protective protein coat. These entities
are able to infect all forms of life, ranging from bacteria to humans, and consequently, they bring
about a multitude of diseases in their host.

State the basis of classification of viruses.

Typically, classification of viruses mainly depends on their phenotypic characteristics such as

morphology, chemical composition, structure, and function.

Name two DNA viruses.

Two DNA viruses include herpesviruses and papillomaviruses, among many others.

Give 5 facts about viruses.

The following list of five notable facts about viruses includes:

 Viruses can infect bacterial, plant, and animal cells

 Retroviruses are used in Gene Therapy and Cloning
 No other living being evolves as quickly as viruses do
 Many viruses can lead to cancer
 For years, a virus may stay dormant in a host

List the types of viruses In biology.

Based on their host, viruses can be classified into three types, namely, animal viruses, plant
viruses, and bacteriophages.

State a few examples of viral diseases.

 AIDS
 Chikungunya
 Ebola
 Influenza
 SARS
 Small Pox

Why are viruses neither considered living, nor non-living?

Viruses possess trademark characteristics of both living and non-living entities. For instance,
they can only reproduce within a host, just like a parasite. But unlike parasites or any other living
organisms, viruses can be crystallized. During this stage, they remain dormant, until they enter
another host, restarting the cycle all over.

Monera
Kingdom Monera belongs to the prokaryote family. The organisms belonging to this kingdom do
not contain a true nucleus. These are the oldest known microorganisms on earth. Their DNA is
not enclosed within the nucleus.

They are unicellular organisms found mostly in a moist environment. They are found in hot
springs, snow, deep oceans, or as parasites in other organisms.

The monerans do not possess any membrane-bound organelles.

Let us go through the kingdom monera notes to explore the characteristics and classification of
monera.

Characteristics of Monera
The important characteristics of Monera are mentioned below:
 1. The Monerans are unicellular organisms.
2. They contain 70S ribosomes.
3. The DNA is naked and is not bound by a nuclear membrane.
4. It lacks organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic
reticulum, centrosome, etc.
5. They reproduce asexually by binary fission or budding.
6. The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycan.
7. Flagellum serves as the locomotory organ.
8. These are environmental decomposers
9. They show different modes of nutrition such as autotrophic, parasitic, heterotrophic, or
saprophytic.

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic organisms that can survive in diverse environments. They can be
beneficial as well as harmful. They possess a simple structure without a nucleus and a few cell
organelles.

The bacteria are surrounded by two protective coverings- the outer cell wall and the inner cell
membrane. Some bacteria are also covered by a capsule. Few bacteria like Mycoplasma do not
have a cell wall.

Short whip-like extensions known as pili surround the surface of the bacteria. The long whip-like
structures are known as flagella.

They exhibit autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition. Autotrophic bacteria derive
nutrition from inorganic substances. They derive carbon and hydrogen from atmospheric carbon
dioxide, H2, H2S, and NH3. The heterotrophic bacteria depend upon external organic materials
for their food. These can be saprotrophs, parasites and symbionts.

Bacterial Shape

Bacteria possess the following different shapes:

Cocci- Bacteria are spherical or oval in shape. These can be micrococcus (single), diplococcus
(in pairs), tetracoccus (in fours), streptococcus (in chains), and staphylococcus (in clusters like
grapes)

Bacilli- These are rod-shaped bacteria with or without flagella.

Vibrios- These are comma or kidney-shaped small bacteria with flagella at one end.

Spirillum- These are spiral or coiled shaped. They are rigid forms due to the spiral structure and
bear flagella at one or both the ends.

Filament- The body consists of small filaments like fungal mycelia.

Stalked- The bacterium possesses a stalk.

Budded– The body of the bacterium is swollen at places.

Classification of Monera
Kingdom Monera is classified into three sub-kingdoms- Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and
Cyanobacteria.

Archaebacteria
  These are the most ancient bacteria found in the most extreme habitats such as salty area
(halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
 The structure of the cell wall is different from that of the other bacteria which helps them
survive in extreme conditions.
 The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
 The nucleotide sequences of its t-RNA and r-RNA is unique.

Eubacteria

 Eubacteria are also known as “true bacteria”.

 The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycans.
 It moves with the help of flagella.
 A few bacteria contain short appendages on the cell surface, known as pili which help the
bacteria during sexual reproduction. Pili also helps a pathogen to attach to the host.
 They are divided into two categories; gram-positive and gram-negative, depending upon
the nature of the cell wall and the stain they take.
 Rhizobium and Clostridium are two eubacteria.

Cyanobacteria

 These are also known as blue-green algae.

 These bacteria are photosynthetic in nature.
 They contain chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobilins.
 They are found in the aquatic region.
 Some of these even fix atmospheric nitrogen.
 Nostoc, Anabaena, Spirulina are some cyanobacteria.

Monerans are very useful organisms. They enrich the soil and serve as an important part of the
nitrogen cycle. They are also helpful in the production of some food items and antibiotics.
Methanogens play an important role in the treatment of sewage. Many organisms rely on
archaebacteria as the source of food.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are Monerans?

Monerans are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms found in a moist environment and lack a true
nucleus.

How does Monera feed?

Monera break down the dead matter and food in our digestive system. They can also prepare
their own food, but bacteria feed on dead matter.

Where is Monera found?

Monera is found in the moist environment. They can be found in hot springs deep oceans, snow
and as parasites in organisms.

How are Monerans classified?

Monerans are classified into three phyla:

 Archaebacteria
 Eubacteria
 Cyanobacteria

How does Monera reproduce?

Monera reproduces asexually by binary fission during favourable conditions or endospore

formation during unfavourable conditions. They reproduce sexually by a process called
conjugation

Protista
Table of Contents

 What are Protists?

 Characteristics of Kingdom Protista
 Classification of Protista

What are Protists?

Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi. Protists are
unicellular in nature but can also be found as a colony of cells. Most protists live in water, damp
terrestrial environments or even as parasites.

Euglena, a eukaryotic protist

The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very first“.  These
organisms are usually unicellular and the cell of these organisms contains a nucleus which is
bound to the organelles. Some of them even possess structures that aid locomotion like flagella
or cilia.

Scientists speculate that protists form a link between plants, animals and fungi as these three
kingdoms diverged from a common protist-like ancestor, billions of years ago. Though this
“protists-like” ancestor is a hypothetical organism, we can trace some genes found in modern
animals and plants to these ancient organisms.

Therefore, these organisms are traditionally considered the first eukaryotic forms of life and a
predecessor to plants, animals and fungi.
Characteristics of Kingdom Protista
The primary feature of all protists is that they are eukaryotic organisms. This means that they
have a membrane-enclosed nucleus. Other characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as
follows:

1. These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
2. Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few multicellular
protists such as kelp. Some species of kelp grow so large that they exceed over 100 feet
in height. (Giant Kelp).
3. Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles.
4. They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism can create
its own food and survive. A heterotrophic organism, on the other hand, has to derive
nutrition from other organisms such as plants or animals to survive.
5. Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a
multicellular protist that provides otters, protection from predators amidst its thick kelp.
In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that tend to feed on kelp.
6. Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma protozoa can cause
sleeping sickness in humans.
7. Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms belonging to the
kingdom Protista have pseudopodia that help them to move.
8. Protista reproduces by asexual means. The sexual method of reproduction is extremely
rare and occurs only during times of stress.

Classification of Protista
Kingdom Protista is classified into the following:

Protozoa

Protozoans are unicellular organisms. Historically, protozoans were called “animal” protists as
they are heterotrophic and showed animal-like behaviours.

There are also parasitic protozoans which live in the cells of larger organisms. Most of the
members do not have a predefined shape. For instance, an amoeba can change its shape
indefinitely but a paramecium has a definite slipper-like shape. The most well-known examples
of protozoans are amoeba, paramecium, and euglena. Unlike other members of this group,
euglena is a free-living protozoan that has chlorophyll, which means it can make its own food.

The protozoans can be divided into four major groups:

1. Amoeboid protozoans – Mostly found in water bodies, either fresh or saline. They have
pseudopodia (false feet) which help to change their shape and to capture and engulf food.
E.g. Amoeba.
 2. Flagellated protozoans – As the name suggests, the members of this group have flagella.
They can be free-living as well as parasitic. E.g. Euglena.
3. Ciliated protozoans – They have cilia all over their body which help in locomotion as
well as nutrition. They are always aquatic. E.g. Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans – These organisms are so-called because their life cycle has a spore-like
stage. For example, the malarial parasite, Plasmodium.

Slime Moulds

Slime moulds are saprophytic organisms (they feed on dead and decaying matter). These are tiny
organisms that have many nuclei.

Usually, Slime moulds are characterized by the presence of aggregates called plasmodium and
are even visible to the naked eye.

Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates and Euglenoids

These form another category under kingdom Protista. These are generally single-celled or
multicellular organisms. These are photosynthetic, found mostly in freshwater sources or marine
lakes. They are characterized by a stiff cell wall.

Example of chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae. They are characterised by the
presence of a hard siliceous cell wall. Diatomaceous earth is formed due to the accumulation of
cell wall deposits. They are photosynthetic organisms.

Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and found in various different colours, according to the
pigment present in them. They show bioluminescence and known to cause red tide.

Euglenoids are the link between plants and animals. They lack a cell wall but perform
photosynthesis. In the absence of sunlight, they act as a heterotroph and feed on small organisms.
The outer body covering is a protein-rich layer known as a pellicle. E.g. Euglena,
Trachelomonas, etc.

Economic Importance of Protists

 Protists serve as the foundation of the food chain.

 Protists are symbionts – having a close relationship between two species in which, one is
benefited.
 Some protists also produce oxygen and may be used to produce biofuel.
 Protists are the primary sources of food for many animals.
 In some rare cases, Protists are harvested by humans for food and other industrial
applications.
 Phytoplankton is one of the sole food sources for whales
 Seaweed is an alga, which is considered a plant-like protist.
 Zooplankton is fed on by various sea creatures including shrimp and larval crabs.
 

Topics That May Interest You:

 Five kingdom classification system

 Endospores
 Mass Extinctions

Frequently Asked Questions

What are Protists?

Protists include a vast collection of single-celled and multicellular organisms that have a nucleus.
They also possess highly specialized cellular machinery called cell organelles that aid in
performing various life processes. Most protists are free-living autotrophs (such as algae) while
others are heterotrophic (Amoeba) or even parasitic (Trypanosoma protozoa).

State a few examples of Protists.

Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena Plasmodium, etc.

How are Protists classified?

Protists are broadly classified into 5 subdivisions based on their general characteristic features.
They are classified as:

 Chrysophytes
 Dinoflagellates
 Euglenoids
 Slime moulds
 Protozoans

Outline the characteristics of Kingdom Protista.

 All protists are eukaryotic organisms. This means that they have a membrane-enclosed
nucleus and other cell organelles.
 Most protists are aquatic, others are found in moist and damp environments.
 Most are unicellular, however, there are a few multicellular protists such as the giant
kelp.
 They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature.
 Parasitism is also observed in some protists.
 Others exhibit symbiosis.

Are all Protists unicellular?

No, not all Protists are unicellular. Protists such as moulds and algae are multicellular, i.e., they
are made up of more than one cell. Amoeba, paramecium and euglena are unicellular organisms
belonging to kingdom Protista.

Algae
Table of Contents

 What are Algae?

 Algae Definition
 Characteristics of Algae
 Types of Algae
 Not an Algae: Blue-Green Algae
 Examples of Algae
 Algal Biofuel

What are Algae?

Algae exist in environments ranging from oceans, rivers, and lakes to ponds, brackish waters and
even snow. Algae are usually green, but they can be found in a variety of different colours. For
instance, algae living in snow contain carotenoid pigments in addition to chlorophyll, hence
giving the surrounding snow a distinctive red hue.

Algae Definition
“Alga is a term that describes a large and incredibly diverse group of eukaryotic,
photosynthetic lifeforms. These organisms do not share a common ancestor and hence, are
not related to each other (polyphyletic).”

Multicellular examples of algae include the giant kelp and brown algae. Unicellular examples
include diatoms, Euglenophyta and Dinoflagellates.

Most algae require a moist or watery environment; hence, they are ubiquitous near or inside
water bodies. Anatomically, they are similar to another major group of photosynthetic organisms
– the land plants. However, that is where the differences end as algae lack many structural
components typically present in plants, such as true stems, shoots, and leaves. Furthermore, they
also do not have vascular tissues to circulate essential nutrients and water throughout their body.

Characteristics of Algae
Specific general characteristics of algae are common to plants as well as animals.

Algal cells are eukaryotic. For instance, algae can photosynthesize like plants, and they possess
specialized structures and cell-organelles, like centrioles and flagella, found only in animals. The
algal cell walls consist of mannans, cellulose and Galatians. Listed below are some of the general
characteristics of algae.

 Algae are photosynthetic organisms

 Algae can be either unicellular or multicellular organisms
 Algae lack a well-defined body, so, structures like roots, stems or leaves are absent
 Algaes are found where there is adequate moisture.
 Reproduction in algae occurs in both asexual and sexual forms. Asexual reproduction
occurs by spore formation.
 Algae are free-living, although some can form a symbiotic relationship with other
organisms.

Types of Algae
There are many types of algae. However, these are some of the more prominent types:

Red Algae

Also called Rhodophyta, it is a distinctive species found in marine as well as freshwater

ecosystems. The pigments phycocyanin and phycoerythrin are responsible for the characteristic
red colouration of the algae. Other pigments that provide green colouration (such as chlorophyll
a) are present. However, they lack chlorophyll b or beta-carotene.

Green Algae

It is a large, informal grouping of algae having the primary photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll
a and b, along with auxiliary pigments such as xanthophylls and beta carotene.

Higher organisms use green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them. Other species of green
algae have a symbiotic relationship with other organisms.

Members are unicellular, multicellular, colonial and flagellates. Prominent examples of green
algae include Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Volvox, etc. 

Not an Algae: Blue-Green Algae

In the past, blue-green algae were one of the most well-known types of algae. However, since
blue-green algae are prokaryotes, they are not currently included under algae (because all algae
are classified as eukaryotic organisms).

Also called cyanobacteria, these organisms live in moist or aquatic environments just like other
algae. These include dams, rivers, reservoirs, creeks, lakes and oceans. This class of bacteria
obtains energy through the process of photosynthesis. Ecologically, some species of blue-green
algae are significant to the environment as it fixes the nitrogen in the soil. Hence, these are also
called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. E.g. Nostoc, Anabaena, etc.

Also Read: Rhizobium – The Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria

However, other types of blue-green algae can be toxic to human beings. They can either be
neurotoxic (affects the respiratory or nervous system, causing paralysis) or hepatotoxic (causes
the liver to fail). Moreover, some can act as indicators of environmental health, signalling the
extent of pollution.

Examples of Algae
Prominent examples of algae include:

 Ulothrix
 Fucus
 Porphyra
 Spirogyra

Algal Biofuel
Recent developments in science and technology have enabled algae to be used as a source of
fuel. Global demand for petroleum products and declining environmental health have prompted
the use of eco-friendly alternatives such as algal biofuel. Hence, algae fuel is an increasingly
viable alternative to traditional fossil fuels. It is used to produce everything from “green” diesel

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are Algae?

Algae is a large, diverse group of eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms that are not necessarily
related to each other.

2. How are algae different from traditional plants?

Unlike traditional plants, algae do not have true roots, stems and leaves. Hence, they need to be
near a moist or watery environment to survive. In other words, they do not possess vascular
tissue necessary for the conduction of water and minerals.

3. Briefly outline the types of algae.

Algae are primarily classified into the following types:

  Blue-green Algae
 Red Algae
 Green Algae

4. State the general characteristics of algae.

 Algae are either unicellular or multicellular in nature

 Found in moist places
 Mode of reproduction can be sexual as well as asexual
 Asexual reproduction occurs by spore formation
 Sexual reproduction occurs by the physical contact of haploid gametes
 Lacks a well-defined body
 They are photosynthetic in nature
 Are mostly free-living

5. State 4 examples of algae.

 Volvox
 Spirogyra
 Ulothrix
 Fucus

6. Are algae bacteria or a plant?

Algae are neither bacteria nor plants. The term algae is used to describe a large collection of
photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms.

7. Are algae toxic to humans?

Algae are generally harmless to humans. However, certain species of algae can form algal
blooms, which can have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.

8. How are algae useful?

Algae are known to fix 50% carbon dioxide. Being photosynthetic, they increase the oxygen
content of their environment. They are primary producers and many organisms derive food from
them. Many commercial products are obtained from algae such as align, etc.

9. Why are algae important?

Algae form the primary source of food for many organisms in the food chain. From an
economical perspective, algae are very useful for creating biomass or fertilizers as they grow
very fast.

10. What are algal blooms?

Algal bloom is the rapid increase in the algal population in a water body such as rivers or lakes.
Often, it is characterized by discolouration of the water and a peculiar odour.

Kingdom Fungi
Table of Contents

 What is Fungi?
 Structure of Fungi
 Characteristics of Fungi
 Classification of Fungi
 Reproduction in Fungi
 Uses of Fungi
 Examples of Fungi

What is Fungi?
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts, moulds and
mushrooms. These organisms are classified under kingdom fungi.

The organisms found in Kingdom fungi contain a cell wall and are omnipresent. They are
classified as heterotrophs among the living organisms.

Kingdom Fungi

To name a few – the appearance of black spots on bread left outside for some days, the
mushrooms and the yeast cells, which are commonly used for the production of beer and bread
are also fungi. They are also found in most skin infections and other fungal diseases.

If we observe carefully, all the examples that we cited involve moist conditions. Thus, we can
say that fungi usually grow in places which are moist and warm enough to support them.

Let us have a detailed overview of the structure, classification and characteristics of fungi.

Structure of Fungi
The structure of fungi can be explained in the following points:

1. Almost all the fungi have a filamentous structure except the yeast cells.
2. They can be either single-celled or multicellular organisms.
3. Fungi consist of long thread-like structures known as hyphae. These hyphae together
form a mesh-like structure called mycelium.
 4. Fungi possess a cell wall which is made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
5. The cell wall comprises a protoplast, which is differentiated into other cell parts such as
cell membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles and nuclei.
6. The nucleus is dense, clear, with chromatin threads. The nucleus is surrounded by a
nuclear membrane.

Characteristics of Fungi
Following are the important characteristics of fungi:

1. Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms.

2. They may be unicellular or filamentous.
3. They reproduce by means of spores.
4. Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation.
5. Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis.
6. Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
7. Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
8. The nuclei of the fungi are very small.
9. The fungi have no embryonic stage. They develop from the spores.
10. The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
11. Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host.
12. Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone which leads to sexual reproduction in fungi.
13. Examples include mushrooms, moulds and yeast.

Classification of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi are classified based on different modes. The different classification of fungi is as
follows:

Based on Mode of nutrition

On the basis of nutrition, kingdom fungi can be classified into 3  groups.

1. Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
2. Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or
animals) and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.
3. Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship with other species
in which both are mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are the
symbiotic association between algae and fungi. Here both algae and fungi are mutually
benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and in reverse algae synthesis carbohydrates
for fungi. Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association present between fungi and plants.
Fungi improve nutrient uptake by plants, whereas, plants provides organic molecules like
sugar to the fungus.
Based on Spore Formation

Kingdom Fungi are classified into the following based on the formation of spores:

1. Zygomycetes – These are formed by the fusion of two different cells. The sexual spores
are known as zygospores, while the asexual spores are known as sporangiospores. The
hyphae are without the septa. Example – Mucor.
2. Ascomycetes – They are also called sac fungi. They can be coprophilous, decomposers,
parasitic or saprophytic. The sexual spores are called ascospores. Asexual reproduction
occurs by conidiospores. Example – Saccharomyces.
3. Basidiomycetes – Mushrooms are the most commonly found basidiomycetes and mostly
live as parasites. Sexual reproduction occurs by basidiospores. Asexual reproduction
occurs by conidia, budding or fragmentation. Example- Agaricus.
4. Deuteromycetes – They are otherwise called imperfect fungi as they do not follow the
regular reproduction cycle as the other fungi. They do not reproduce sexually. Asexual
reproduction occurs by conidia. Example – Trichoderma.

Reproduction in Fungi
Reproduction in Fungi

Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. The sexual mode of reproduction is
referred to as teleomorph and the asexual mode of reproduction is referred to as anamorph.

Vegetative reproduction in fungi –This takes place by budding, fission and fragmentation.

Asexual reproduction – This takes place with the help of spores called conidia or zoospores, or
sporangiospores.

Sexual reproduction – This occurs by ascospores, basidiospores, and oospores.

The conventional mode of sexual reproduction is not always observed in the kingdom Fungi. In
some fungi, the fusion of two haploid hyphae does not result in the formation of a diploid cell. In
such cases, there appears an intermediate stage called the dikaryophase. This stage is followed by
the formation of diploid cells.

Uses of Fungi
Fungi are one of the most important groups of organisms on the planet as they play a vital role in
the biosphere and have great economic importance on account of both their benefits and harmful
effects.

Following are some of the important uses of fungi:

1. Recycling – They play a major role in recycling the dead and decayed matter.
 2. Food – The mushrooms species which are cultured are edible and are used as food by
humans.
3. Medicines – There are many fungi that are used to produce antibiotics and to control
diseases in humans and animals. Penicillin antibiotic is derived from a common fungus
called Penicillium.
4. Biocontrol Agents – Fungi are involved in exploiting insects, other small worms and
help in controlling pests. Spores of fungi are used as a spray on crops.
5. Food spoilage – Fungi play a major role in recycling organic material and are also
responsible for major spoilage and economic losses of stored food.

Examples of Fungi
Following are the common examples of fungi:

 Yeast
 Mushrooms
 Moulds
 Truffles

To know more about what is fungi, its structure, characteristics of fungi, classification of fungi,
different examples of fungi and other concepts related to kingdom fungi, keep visiting BYJU’S
website or download the BYJU’S app for further reference.

Frequently Asked Questions on Fungi

Which organisms belong to kingdom fungi?

Kingdom fungi include mushrooms, yeast and moulds containing filamentous structures called
hyphae.

What are the different types of fungi?

The different types of fungi include- Zygomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes, and

Deuteromycetes.

Which kingdom is closely related to kingdom fungi?

Kingdom fungi are closely related to the animal kingdom. This has been determined by
phylogenetic studies. The phylogenetic tree explains how animals diverged from fungi millions
of years ago.

What is common between plants and fungi?

Both plants and fungi have a cell wall.

What is morphological classification of fungi?

On the basis of morphology, fungi can be divided into: yeasts, yeasts-like organisms, molds and
dimorphic fungi.

Which class of kingdom fungi can move?

Chytridiomycota produces flagellated gametes and is the only exception to the group that can
move with the help of flagella. These are ancient fungi and are believed to be a connecting link
between fungi and animals.

What is the Ainsworth classification of fungi?

G.C. Ainsworth, a British mycologist considered fungi as a subset of the plant kingdom that has
two divisions, Myxomycota and Eumycota.
Test your knowledge on Kingdom Fungi

Plant Kingdom - Members of Kingdom

Plantae
Table of Contents

 Plant Kingdom – Members of Kingdom Plantae

 Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae
 Classification of Kingdom Plantae
 Cryptogams and Phanerogams

Plant Kingdom – Members of Kingdom Plantae

R.H. Whittaker gave the Five Kingdom classification for living organisms. He categorized living
organisms based on multiple characteristics such as cellular structure, mode of nutrition, body
organization, reproduction, phylogenetic relationship, etc. These five kingdoms were Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Plant Kingdom – Plantae

Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic
organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll
pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom has the following characteristic features:

1. They are non-motile.

2. They make their own food and hence are called autotrophs.
3. They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
4. These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall and a large
central vacuole.
5. Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the plastids.
6. They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and photosynthesis.

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups. Classification is based on the following
criteria:

1. Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and
Leaves.
2. Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of
water and other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
3. Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or
enclosed in a fruit.

The plant kingdom has been classified into five subgroups according to the above-mentioned
criteria:

1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta
4. Gymnosperms
5. Angiosperms

Thallophyta

Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is thallus like.

Thallophytes: Primitive plants where the body is not differentiated into stem, roots and leaves

Thallophyta includes plants with primitive and simple body structures. The plant body is thallus,
they may be filamentous, colonial, branched or unbranched. Examples include green algae, red
algae and brown algae. Common examples are Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia,
Ulothrix, etc.

Explore More: Thallophytes

Bryophyta
Bryophytes: Small, non-vascular plants that prefer moist environments

Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues. The plant body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-like
structures. Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but are known as “amphibians of the plant kingdom”
as they require water for sexual reproduction. They are present in moist and shady places.
Bryophyta includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts. Some of the common examples are
Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.

Extended Reading: Bryophyta

Pteridophyta

Pteridophytes have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves. They have a
vascular system for the conduction of water and other substances. Some of the common
examples are Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc.

Pteridophytes: Spore-dispersing vascular plants

More Details: Pteridophyta

Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms: Vascular plants that possess “exposed” seeds

Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They bear naked seeds,
i.e. seeds are not enclosed within a fruit. Some of the common examples of gymnosperms are
Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc.

Angiosperms

Angiosperms: Vascular plants that possess special characteristics such as  flowers and fruits

Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants with a well-differentiated plant body. The seeds of
angiosperms are enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms are widely distributed and vary greatly
in size, e.g. Wolffia is small measuring about 0.1 cm and Eucalyptus trees are around 100 m tall.
Angiosperms are further divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons according to the number
of cotyledons present in the seeds. Some of the common examples are mango, rose, tomato,
onion, wheat, maize, etc.

Further Reading: Angiosperms

Cryptogams and Phanerogams

The plant kingdom is also classified into two groups:
Cryptogams – Non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants. E.g. Thallophyta, Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta

Phanerogams – Flowering and seed-bearing plants. E.g. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms

Describe the criteria for levels of classification in plants.

The plant kingdom is further classified based on the following three criteria:

 Plant body
 Vascular system
 Seed formation

Explain the characteristic of Thallophytes.

Members of this class lack a well-differentiated body structure, or in other words, the body is not
clearly divided into stem, leaves and roots.

Explain the significant features of Gymnosperms.

Gymnosperms include plants that possess a vascular system and a well-differentiated body
structure. Furthermore, they bear seeds like the angiosperms, but they are not encased within a
fruit. Hence, the term “Gymnosperm”, which is derived from Greek word, gymno = naked and
Sperma = seed.

List the characteristics of Angiosperms.

 Seed-bearing plants
 Seeds are enclosed within fruits
 Presence of  well-differentiated plant body
 Produce flowers during their lifespan
 Presence of two subtypes – monocots and dicots

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Animal Kingdom- Animalia Phylum,

Subphylum
R.H. Whittaker organized organisms into five kingdoms. He classified organisms based on cell
structure, mode and source of nutrition and body design. The five kingdoms proposed by
Whittaker are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Let us learn about the animal
kingdom, i.e., Kingdom Animalia.

Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom Animalia constitutes all animals. Amongst the five kingdoms, the largest kingdom is
the animal kingdom. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. However, like plants, they do not
possess chlorophyll or a cell wall. Therefore, members of the animal kingdom exhibit a
heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Kingdom Animalia has been classified into ten different
subphyla based on their body design or differentiation.

The different phylum of the animal kingdom are as follows:

1. Porifera
2. Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Platyhelminthes
4. Nematoda
5. Annelida
6. Arthropoda
7. Mollusca
8. Echinodermata
9. Hemichordata

10. Chordata

Phylum Porifera

Porifera means organisms with holes. They are commonly known as Sponges. Features of the
poriferan are:

1. Non-motile, multicellular organisms with a hard outer skeleton.

2. Have a porous body.
3. Pores on the bodies create a canal system which helps in the circulation of substances.
4. Not differentiated into head and tail; do not have a well-developed organ or organ
system.
5. Include marine habitat.

Examples of phylum Porifera include- Spongilla, Sycon.

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

The term Coelenteratais derived from the Greek word “kilos” which means hollow-bellied. Their
features are:

1. Have a hollow body cavity.

2. The body is differentiated into two ends.
3. Includes all aquatic animals.
4. The body is made of two layers of cells: inner and outer linings.
5. Live in colonies (corals) as well as solitary (Sea anemone).

Examples of phylum Coelenterata include – Hydra, Jellyfish.

Phylum Platyhelminthes

Platyhelminthes are commonly known as flatworms. Their features are:

1. Dorsoventrally flattened body.

2. Complex and have differentiated body structure.
3. Tissues are differentiated from three layers of cells and are triploblastic.
4. Do not have a true internal cavity or coelom.
5. Have bilateral symmetry.
6. Either free-living (Planaria) or parasitic (liver flukes).

Examples of phylum Platyhelminthes include -Tapeworm, Planaria.

Phylum Nematoda

Phylum Nematoda consists of nematodes or roundworms. Their features are:

1. Nematodes have a cylindrical body.

2. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
3. Have pseudocoelom, a false body cavity.
4. Parasitic and causes diseases such as elephantiasis, ascariasis.

Examples of phylum Nematoda include – Ascaris, Wuchereria.

Phylum Annelida
Annelids are commonly known as segmented or ringed worms. They have the following
features:

1. Have a segmented cylindrical body.

2. The body is differentiated into head and tail.
3. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
4. Have a true body cavity.
5. Habitat: marine, freshwater and land.

Examples of phylum Annelida include – Earthworm, Leech.

Phylum Arthropoda

Arthropod means jointed legs. Animals which have jointed appendages belong to this phylum.
This is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Other features are:

1. They are bilaterally symmetrical.

2. Have jointed appendages, exoskeleton and a segmented body.
3. Have well-differentiated organ and organ system.
4. Have an open circulatory system, but do not have differentiated blood vessels.

Examples of phylum Arthropoda include – Spiders, butterflies, and mosquitoes.

Phylum Mollusca

Phylum Mollusca consists of a large group of animals. Features are:

1. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.

2. Less segmented body.
3. Well-developed organ and organ system.
4. Typically, open circulatory system.
5. Limbs are present.

Examples of phylum Mollusca include- Snails and octopus.

Phylum Echinodermata
The term Echinodermata is derived from the Greek words, echinos meaning hedgehog and
derma meaning skin. Thus, echinoderms are spiny-skinned animals.

1. Radial symmetry and triploblastic.

2. Have true coelom.
3. Have hard calcium carbonate skeleton structure.
4. Free-living marine animals.

Examples of phylum Echinodermata include- Sea urchins, starfish.

Phylum Hemichordata

The characteristics of phylum Hemichordata are as follows:

1. The body is soft, fragile, and divided into a proboscis.

2. The epidermis is single-layered.
3. It comprises worm-like marine animals with an organ-system level of organization.
4. They have an open circulatory system.
5. They respire through gills since they are marine.
6. They have separate sexes and external fertilization is seen.
7. Development is direct.

Phylum Chordata

The Chordates possess the following characteristics:

1. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic with an organ-system level of

classification.
2. They possess a notochord and a nerve cord.
3. The circulatory system is closed type.

Phylum Chordata can be divided into the following sub-phyla:

 Urochordata
 Cephalochordata
 Vertebrata

Also Read:

 Lower Invertebrates
 Multicellular Organisms
To learn more about the phylum and sub-phylum of the animal kingdom with video lessons, visit
BYJU’S.