Applied Earth Science

Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yaes21

Compositional characteristics of mineralised and

unmineralised gneisses and schist around the
Abansuoso area, southwestern Ghana

Raymond Webrah Kazapoe, Olugbenga Okunlola, Emmanuel Arhin,

Olusegun Olisa, Daniel Kwayisi, Elikplim Abla Dzikunoo & Ebenezer Ebo
Yahans Amuah

To cite this article: Raymond Webrah Kazapoe, Olugbenga Okunlola, Emmanuel Arhin,
Olusegun Olisa, Daniel Kwayisi, Elikplim Abla Dzikunoo & Ebenezer Ebo Yahans Amuah
(2023): Compositional characteristics of mineralised and unmineralised gneisses and
schist around the Abansuoso area, southwestern Ghana, Applied Earth Science, DOI:
10.1080/25726838.2023.2166725

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2023.2166725

Published online: 23 Jan 2023.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=yaes21
APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE (TRANS. INST. MIN. METALL. B)
https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2023.2166725

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Compositional characteristics of mineralised and unmineralised gneisses and

schist around the Abansuoso area, southwestern Ghana
Raymond Webrah Kazapoe a,c, Olugbenga Okunlolab,c, Emmanuel Arhind, Olusegun Olisae,
Daniel Kwayisif, Elikplim Abla Dzikunoof and Ebenezer Ebo Yahans Amuahg
a
Department of Geological Engineering, University for Development Studies, Nyankpala, Ghana; bDepartment of Geology, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; cPan African University Life and Earth Sciences Institute (PAULESI), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria;
d
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana; eDepartement of Earth Science, Olabisi
Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria; fEarth Science Department, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; gEnvironmental Science
Department, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Gold-bearing granitoid deposits have recently been discovered in the Birimian of Ghana but Received 19 August 2022
their mode of formation and ore genesis remain enigmatic. This study presents Revised 4 January 2023
petrographic, and geochemical characteristics of mineralised and unmineralised (gold grade Accepted 4 January 2023
>0.05 and <0.05 g/t respectively) granitoids (now gneisses) and schists (metasedimentary) to
KEYWORDS
evaluate their petrogenesis/provenance, and relationship to gold mineralisation in the Geochemistry; gold
Abansuoso area. The unmineralised rocks comprise biotite- and hornblende-biotite gneisses, mineralisation; gold
sericite-quartz, carbonate-sericite, and biotite-quartz schist. The mineralised varieties are exploration; Ghana;
biotite-, muscovite gneiss, iron-carbonate-sericite, carbonate-sericite-quartz, chlorite- petrology
carbonate, and biotite-carbonate schist. The mineralised and unmineralised gneisses are
both metaluminous and peraluminous. Both mineralised and unmineraised gneiss and schist
show Nb-Ta trough, depleted LILE and enriched HFSE although widespread overall trace
element concentrations for the mineralised rocks on UCC-normalised multi-element
diagram, suggestive of their formation in an arc setting. This suggests coeval granitic
plutonism and sedimentation with subduction-accretion during the Eburnean orogeny,
hence, mineralisation may be orogenic-type.

Introduction to be debated (Sillitoe 1991 Agbenyezi et al. 2020). Con-

sequently, several gold-bearing granitoids, such as the
Gold exploration in the Paleoproterozoic Birimian has True North deposit (Canada) and the Muruntau gold
primarily focused on sediment-hosted shear zones, deposits (Uzbekishas), have been described as both
lode-quartz veins, disseminated sulphides, and aurifer- intrusion-related and orogenic deposits (Kempe et al.
ous quartz-pebble conglomerates where large deposits 2001; Hart et al. 2002). Given the numerous gold
have formed the basis of gold extraction (e.g. Smith exploration techniques associated with intrusion-
et al. 2016; Agbenyezi et al. 2020). In recent years, related and orogenic gold classifications, it is essential
gold resources in the Birimian granitoid have become to identify each model accurately (Goldfarb et al. 2005).
viable targets for exploration in an effort to maximise The tectonothermal Eburnean orogeny that
the gold ore resource base and boost productivity occurred between 2120 and 2080 Ma coincides with
(Amponsah et al. 2016; Bouabdellah and Slack 2016; the placement of granitoid plutons within the Paleo-
Takyi-Kyeremeh et al. 2019). The Chirano, Nhyiaso, proterozoic Birimian terrane (Oberthür et al. 1998).
Ayanfuri, and Ayankyerim gold deposits in the western (Oberthür et al. 1998). This study examined auriferous
portion of the Sefwi and Ashanti Belts are discussed as granitoid bodies (now gneisses) and associated sedi-
prime examples of gold-bearing granitoid bodies (Alli- mentary rocks (now schist) from the Abansuaso area
bone et al. 2004; Fougerouse et al. 2017). in the Sefwi-Bibiani greenstone belt in order to gain
However, understanding of the geological character- a better understanding of the nature and genesis of
istics of granitoid gold deposits in Ghana is limited the granitoid and its associated gold mineralisation
(Griffis et al., 2002). Owing to similarities in wall-rock (orogenic-bearing vs. intrusive-related) for improved
alteration, elemental associations, structural controls, modelling and exploration in the study area. The
and ore fluids (Goldfarb et al. 2001; Groves et al. whole-rock major and trace element compositions of
2003), the distinctions between orogenic gold-bearing mineralised and unmineralised rocks are compared
granitoids and intrusion-related gold deposits continue in order to evaluate their petrogenesis and tectonic

CONTACT Raymond Webrah Kazapoe rkazapoe@yahoo.com Department of Geological Engineering, School of Engineering, University for
Development Studies, P.O. Box TL 1350, Tamale, Ghana
© 2023 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and The AusIMM
2 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

setting and assess their relationship to gold mineralis- determined using a thermo gravimetric analyser
ation within the deposit. (TGA). Forty-one selected minor and trace elements
were analysed. Thirty-one minor and trace elements
were analysed using lithium borate fusion ICP-MS.
Geology of the Abansuoso deposit
Concentrations of the other ten elements (Ag, Co,
The study area lies within one of Ghana’s six known Ni, Zn, As, Cu, Pb, Cd, Mo, and Sc) were obtained
Birimian Greenstone Gold Belts, the Sefwi-Bibiani by ICP-AES from a separate four-acid digestion fol-
Greenstone Belt (Figure 1). There are varying degrees lowing standard procedure. Precisions is better than
of gold mineralisation in the vicinity of these belts 5%. For elements present in significant concentrations
(Perrouty et al. 2012). Two of the six Greenstone (>1 wt. %.) and elements in low concentrations (<1 wt.
Gold Belts are home to the most productive mines, %), analytical uncertainties were 1–3% and ≈10%
while the remaining four have been subject to respectively.
advanced exploration and modest mining. In the
Sefwi-Bibiani Greenstone Gold Belt, gold mining
and prospecting have a rich history. The Belt contains Petrography
some of the most renowned mines, such as the Chir-
As mentioned above, the rocks of the study area can be
ano, Kenyasi, and Bibiani mines (Griffis et al. 2002;
grouped into two: these are mineralised (with >0.05 g/
Kazapoe et al. 2021). On the Belt, there are a few
t) and unmineralised (with <0.05 g/t) varieties. From
small to medium-sized businesses whose exploration
petrographic investigations, both the mineralised
and mining operations are in varying stages of devel-
and unmineralised varieties are made up of gneisses
opment and success (Griffis et al. 2002). Subriso-
(metagranitoids) and schists (metasedimentary rocks).
Nfante is the location of the research area in the Aha-
foano North District of the city of Ahafoano.
The Sefwi-Bibiani Greenstone Gold Belt is situated
Unmineralised rocks
northwest of the Ashanti Greenstone Gold Belt and is
underlain by metavolcanic and metasedimentary Gneisses
rocks that are granitoids and mafic units (Galipp The unmineralised gneisses are of two varieties based
et al. 2003; Senyah et al. 2016). The majority of the on mineralogical composition. These are the Biotite
metavolcanic rocks are massive and pillow basalts, gneiss and Hornblende-Biotite gneiss. Generally, the
basaltic andesite, dacites, and rhyolites with tholeiitic gneisses are medium-grained and are weakly to
to calc-alkaline signatures (Perrouty et al. 2012; strongly foliated. The biotite-gneiss is composed of
Senyah et al. 2016). The majority of the metasedimen- quartz, plagioclase, microcline, and biotite (Figure 2
tary rocks consist of phyllites, wackes, and a volcani- (a)). Cubic to slightly elongated sulphide minerals
clastic unit with pyroclastics and epiclastics (Jessell can be observed. The biotite and elongated opaque
et al. 2012; Perrouty et al. 2012). The metavolcanics minerals define the foliation and mineral elongation
and metasedimentary rocks are intruded by syn-volca- (Figure 2(a)). Quartz is anhedral, exhibits undulose
nic tonalitic to granodioritic granitoids (Jessell et al. extinction, appears recrystallised, and occurs as either
2012). These granitoids have now been metamor- coarse crystals or medium-grained, elongated aggre-
phosed into various gneisses (Kazapoe et al. 2022). gates. Plagioclase and microcline are subhedral to
The Sunyani Basin is bordered to the west by the anhedral and weakly altered to sericite. The biotite
Sefwi-Bibiani Greenstone Gold Belt and to the east shows very weak alterations mostly into chlorite.
by the Kumasi Basin (Griffis and Agezo 2000). The hornblende-biotite gneiss is foliated with compo-
sitional banding of felsic bands alternating with mafic
bands. In general, this rock is composed of hornble-
Sampling and analytical methodology
nde, biotite, garnet, plagioclase, quartz, and microcline
Twenty-three rock samples were sent to ALS geo- (Figure 2(b)). The first three minerals comprise the
chemical laboratory in Vancouver for whole-rock mafic bands whereas the latter three comprise the fel-
major and minor elements, and trace elements com- sic bands. The mineral assemblage is structurally com-
position. The rocks were taken from the mineralised petent although individual grains are slightly
zone (14 samples), and the unmineralised zone (9 elongated, broken, or cracked. The garnet and micro-
samples). In this study, the mineralised and unminer- cline in some samples are very coarse and poikilitic
alised samples are classified based on gold grade. with inclusions of quartz and occasional biotite
Samples with gold grade above 0.05 g/t are considered (Figure 2(b,c)). Associated with the garnet and often
mineralised whiles samples with gold grade below occurring within the foliation are subhedral to cubic
0.05 g/t are considered as unmineralised. Whole- opaque sulphide minerals. Hornblende has partially
rock major element analysis was carried out using altered to epidote whereas the feldspars and biotite
ICP-AES. Loss on Ignition (LOI) at 1000°C was have partially altered to sericite and chlorite,
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 3

Figure 1. Geological map of the study area.

respectively. Quartz is elongated and exhibits undu- minerals can be observed in the rocks. The rock is
lose extinction. cut by quartz vein composed of coarse-grained quartz
mineral.

Schist
Quartz veins
The schist is surrounded by the gneisses and appear
weathered across the area. The schists are of three Three main generations of quartz veins (types A, B,
types: the carbonate-sericite, sericite-quartz, and bio- and C) within the pits and mine sites have been ident-
tite-quartz schist. The carbonate-sericite schist is med- ified which were corroborated with the measurements
ium-grained and weakly foliated. It is composed of taken from the drill core. All veins are unmineralised.
quartz, plagioclase, sericite, and carbonate (calcite) Type A can be observed as NNE-SSW veins associated
(Figure 2(d)). The calcite is very coarse in the veins with pegmatite within the shear zone. Type B is NE-
and also has few impregnations. Quartz is recrystal- SW with Type C observed in the mining pits as
lised grains, maybe associated with the carbonate or upright E-W which can measure several metres in
as impregnations. The sericite-quartz schist is med- width and appear heavily weathered (Figure 3(a,b)).
ium-grained and composed mainly of sericite, and Petrographically, the quartz veins are very coarse-
quartz (Figure 2(e)). Fine to medium-grained texture grained and composed mainly of quartz. In few
and strong foliation characterise the biotite-quartz samples the quartz is slightly sheared (Figure 4(a)).
schist (Figure 2(f)). This rock is dominantly composed The quartz grains show undulose extinction, some
of quartz and biotite together with minor feldspar. however, exhibit chessboard extinction (Figure 4(b)).
Rare occurrence of disseminated cubic sulphide In some samples, the quartz is elongated.
4 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Figure 2. (a) Photomicrographs of biotite gneiss with strong foliation (b) Photomicrographs of hornblende-biotite gneiss (c)
Photomicrographs of hornblende-biotite gneiss with coarse microcline showing inclusions of quartz (d) Photomicrographs of car-
bonate-sericite schist (e) Photomicrographs of sericite-quartz schist (f) Photomicrographs of muscovite-quartz schist. Mineral
abbreviations: Mc = Microcline, Bt = Biotite, Qz = Quartz, Ser = Sericite, Cal = Calcite, Hbl = Hornblende (Whitney and Evans, 2010).

Figure 3. (a) Field photograph of type C quartz vein observed in the mining pits near Subriso (b) Field photograph of type B quartz
vein encountered near the Nfante township (picture taken facing NE).
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 5

Mineralised (host) rocks and sulphide. The carbonate occurs as later infiltra-
tions in the microcline and interstitial and defines
The rocks hosting the gold mineralisation in the
the foliation. The muscovite gneiss is medium to
Abansuoso deposit are strongly sheared metamor-
coarse-grained and foliated (Figure 6(c)). It is com-
phosed biotite gneiss, muscovite gneiss, and schists.
posed of quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, and carbon-
Gold mineralisation is not visible on the outcrop, as
ate. This assemblage defines foliation and mineral
the area is entirely covered with a thick lateritic
elongation. Quartz is anhedral, exhibits undulose
cover at least 10 m in width, which overlies a saprolite
extinction, appears recrystallised, and occurs as
horizon that extends further down.
either coarse crystals or medium-grained, elongated
Based on mineralogical and textural character-
aggregates. Plagioclase is subhedral to anhedral and
istics, the mineralised schist can be grouped into
maybe weakly altered. The muscovite is significantly
four. These are iron-carbonate-sericite schist, car-
shredded into sericite.
bonate-sericite-quartz schist, chlorite-carbonate
schist, and biotite-carbonate schist (Figure 5(a–f)).
Fine to medium grains characterised the biotite-car-
Geochemistry
bonate (calcite) schist (Figure 5(a)). This type of
schist has undergone significant alteration expressed Major and trace elements characteristics
as chlorite from the biotite and carbonate infiltra-
Gneiss
tion. The rock is strongly foliated, with the mineral
The major and trace element concentrations of the
assemblage slightly elongated. The carbonate (cal-
gneisses are presented in Table 1. The mineralised
cite)-sericite-quartz schist is medium-grained and
gneiss has lower SiO2 contents of average 66.8 wt.
strongly foliated. It is composed of quartz, Plagio-
% than the mineralised gneiss with average SiO2
clase, K-feldspar, and sulphides embedded in a net-
contents of 76.9 wt.%. The unmineralised gneiss on
work of sericite-carbonate matrix (Figure 5(b)). This
average has higher Na2O (3.79wt. %), and K2O
mineral assemblage is elongated as a result of shear-
(2.98 wt. %) than the mineralised gneiss (Na2O =
ing and in some samples infiltrated with interstitial
3.10 wt. %, K2O = 2.00 wt.%). However, FeOt,
calcitic stringers.
MgO, and CaO are higher in the mineralised gneiss
The opaque minerals are sulphides and occur as
than the unmineralised gneiss. On the Al saturation
isolated grains intersperse in the carbonate-sericite
diagram after Shand (1948), the mineralised gneiss
matrix (Figure 5(b)). Sulphides at portions of the
shows A/CNK values typical of metaluminous with
thin section are slightly elongated. Quartz is
only one sample being peraluminous (Figure 7(a)).
deformed with undulose extinction. The feldspars
The unmineralised gneiss, however, have A/CNK
appear weakly altered to sericite. The carbonate,
values comparable to both metaluminous and pera-
quartz and sericite composition vary. Some samples
luminous rocks (Figure 7(a)). The total alkalis vs
have more carbonate-sericite than quartz (Figure 5
silica diagram show that the gneiss is mainly granite
(c)). On the other hand, some samples have more
(Figure 7(b)). Only one sample of the mineralised
quartz than carbonate-sericite (Figure 5(d)). The
gneiss plots on the boundary line between monzo-
iron-carbonate (ankarite) -sericite schist is medium
diorite and gabbroic diorite. On the normative feld-
to coarse-grained, strongly foliated with elongated
spar discrimination plots after Barker (1979) the
grains. It is composed of iron, carbonate, sericite,
unmineralised gneiss plot mostly as granite with
quartz, sulphide, plagioclase, and chlorite (Figure 5
the mineralised gneiss plotting as trondhjemite
(e)). Network of iron-carbonate veins cut this rock.
(Figure 7(c)).
The chlorite-carbonate (calcite) schist in thin section
On the chondrite normalised REE diagram, both
is fine-grained, weakly foliated, and composed of
the mineralised and unmineralised gneisses display
chlorite, sericitised plagioclase and abundant opaque
enriched LREE and nearly flat HREE patterns
minerals (Figure 5(f)). The assemblage is cut by thin
(Figure 8(a,b)). However, the mineralised gneiss
quartz-calcite veinlet. The calcites are relatively
shows a wide range of REE concentrations than
coarse and recrystallised.
the unmineralised gneiss (Figure 8(c,d)). On the
The mineralised biotite gneiss is coarse-grained
multi-elements normalised to the UCC diagram,
and foliated. It is composed primarily of quartz, pla-
the gneisses show the depleted concentration of
gioclase, microcline, and biotite with carbonate and
LILE and enriched contents of HFSE including the
sulphide minerals being secondary (Figure 6(a,b)).
HREE (La/Yb = 1.73–3.52) (unmineralised) and La/
The mineral assemblage is slightly altered and
Yb = 2.79–7.44 (mineralised). The unmineralised
deformed with quartz cracked and undulose, and
gneiss displays a typical Nb-Ta trough, negative U,
plagioclase and biotite altered to sericite and chlor-
Th, Sr, P, and Ti peaks (Figure 8(a)). The minera-
ite, respectively. The opaque minerals are the result
lised gneiss has negative Th, Nb-Ta, and Ti peaks
of alteration of formal ferromagnesian minerals
(Figure 8(b)).
6 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Figure 4. (a) Photomicrographs of quartz showing strong elongation and pressure shadow (b) Photomicrographs of quartz show-
ing chess board extinction.

Schists area. The mineralised schist has on average lower

Table 2 presents the whole-rock major and trace SiO2 content (SiO2 = avg. 63 wt.%) than the unminer-
element concentrations of the schists of the study alised schist (SiO2 = avg. 70 wt.%). MgO, FeOt, CaO,

Figure 5. (a) Photomicrographs of biotite-carbonate schist with strong foliation (b) Photomicrographs of carbonate-sericite-quartz
schists showing sub-cubic sulphides intersperse in carbonated-sericite matrix (c) Photomicrographs of carbonate-sericite-quartz
schist with abundant carbonate-sericite content than quartz (d) Photomicrographs of carbonate-sericite-quartz schist with abun-
dant quartz than carbonate-sericite (e) Photomicrographs of iron-carbonate schist (f) Photomicrographs of chlorite-carbonate
schist. Mineral abbreviations: Ser = Sericite, Car = Carbonate, Qz = Quartz, Sul = Sulphide, Chl = Chlorite, Bt = Biotite, from Whit-
ney and Evans, 2010.
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 7

Figure 6. (a) Photomicrographs of biotite-rich granitoid gneiss showing biotite-microcline-quartz-carbonate assemblage (b)
Photomicrographs of biotite-rich granitoid gneiss showing cubic sulphide mineralisation (c) Photomicrographs of biotite-rich
granitoid gneiss showing muscovite gneiss.

and Na2O contents are on average higher in the appears to sit on a granitoid pluton (now gneisses of
mineralised schist than in the unmineralised schist. felsic to intermediate composition) and arenaceous-
K2O content is similar in both mineralised and unmi- argillaceous sedimentary rocks (now schist of varying
neralised schists. The schists have low SiO2/Al3O2 compositions) which have been affected by various
between 4.1 and 7.2. On the chondrite normalised stages of metamorphism and deformation. The
REE diagram the schists define almost similar patterns sequence of alteration invades the rocks via stringers
with enriched LREE, nearly flat HREE (La/Yb = 3.03– along weak zones probably caused by the shearing.
4.23 (unmineralised schist) and La/Yb = 2.87–3.95 The alteration is predominantly quartz-sericite, car-
(mineralised schist)) and pronounced Eu negative bonate, sulphides (pyrite, arsenopyrite, and galena)
anomalies (Figure 9(a,b)). The REE patterns defined with haematite at the fringes where low grade gold is
by the schist are comparable to Upper Continental reported. The main mineralised zones are character-
Crust (UCC) and Post-Archean Australian Shale ised by sericite alteration coupled with fine-grain pyr-
(PAAS) (Figure 9(a,b)). ite and associated with carbonates. The preliminary
On the multi-elements normalised to UCC diagram sequence of alteration has been deduced as chlorite-
(Figure 9(c,d)), the schists show depleted concentration carbonate-haematite-sericite-chlorite -silica/sulphides
of LILE and enriched contents of HFSE including the with minor albite.
HREE. Although the mineralised and unmineralised
schists show similar patterns, the mineralised exhibits
slightly more widespread multi-element concentrations Influence of alteration and metamorphism on
than the unmineralised ones. Besides, the mineralised the composition of the rocks
depict positive peaks of K, Sr, and Ti (although Ti in
some samples show negative peak) and negative peaks Therefore, it is important to evaluate the influence of
of Nb-Ta (8d). The unmineralised on other hand, metamorphism on the mobility of the major and
have negative Nb-Ta, Sr, and Ti peaks (Figure 8(c)). trace elements in the rocks. During metamorphism,
some elements, such as Cs, Rb, K, Na, Ca, Sr, and Ba
are mobilised (Schiano et al. 1993) and thus increasing
Discussion the LOI content of the rock. The gneiss samples have
low LOI content (0.5–4.0 wt.%), except one minera-
Mineralisation
lised gneiss with very high LOI content of 18.1 wt. %
The concession lies within a ductile sinistral shear (Table 1), which makes it less likely that significant
zone with a brittle component. The mineralisation remobilisation of these major elements has occurred
8 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Table 1. Major and trace elements composition of the gneiss.

Unmineralised Gneiss Mineralised Gneiss
Sample 021/KOS 013/N 027/KS 020/KOS 016/79 017/79 018/79 040/PK
SiO2 76.9 73 75.9 78.9 41.9 80.8 74.1 70.5
TiO2 0.23 0.37 0.19 0.24 0.43 0.28 0.33 0.49
Al2O3 11.35 11.6 11.4 12 11.2 8.91 11.55 11.4
FeOt 3.01 5.9 3.01 1.67 6.23 2.37 2.96 5.68
MnO 0.03 0.13 0.1 0.02 0.18 0.06 0.06 0.13
MgO 0.18 0.24 0.54 0.24 5.97 0.48 0.56 0.55
CaO 0.43 1.87 1.83 0.71 9.62 1.4 1.34 1.04
Na2O 4.13 3.22 3.18 4.64 0.12 3.68 4.87 3.71
K2O 2.84 3.07 3.76 2.24 3.91 0.71 1.67 1.69
P2O5 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.21 0.08 0.08 0.14
SiO2/Al2O3 6.78 6.29 6.66 6.58 3.74 9.07 6.42 6.18
LOI 0.57 0.65 0.5 1.02 18.1 2.1 2.41 3.96
Total 99.81 100.24 100.59 101.81 98.13 100.93 100.05 99.36
Cr 60 110 120 30 680 150 200 110
V 6 5 <5 <5 93 17 19 15
Ni 3 <1 <1 <1 190 7 2 2
Cs 0.41 1.81 0.19 0.38 3.19 0.79 0.58 1.43
Rb 55.8 64.2 61.3 40.9 104 20.2 28.4 46.3
Ba 1040 1050 1205 1005 534 206 597 573
Th 4.38 3.14 4.22 5.19 1.34 2.69 3.03 3.48
U 1.62 0.85 1.62 1.65 0.57 1.33 1.12 1.33
Nb 8.6 7.1 8 7.8 1.9 4.9 4.6 7.1
Ta 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 <0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4
La 15.5 19.5 30.5 29.6 9.9 17.2 18.1 21.8
Ce 36.6 44.2 67 62.7 19.7 35.4 38.5 51.6
Pr 5.84 6.16 9.47 8.79 2.72 4.77 5.3 7.64
Sr 56.4 144 136 59.5 979 187.5 225 81.5
Nd 24.6 24.9 36.8 34.2 11 18.4 20.3 30.2
Sm 6.12 6.5 9.36 7.93 2.52 4.08 4.36 7.81
Hf 8.8 7.2 9 9.5 1.6 4.1 4.4 7
Zr 317 254 321 339 56 146 155 250
Eu 1.13 1.44 1.6 1.7 0.8 0.7 0.97 1.74
Gd 7.07 6.98 10.3 8.74 2.69 4.11 4.59 8.55
Tb 1.24 1.19 1.63 1.46 0.35 0.62 0.68 1.36
Dy 8.42 7.81 10.25 9.08 2.07 3.87 4.11 8.28
Ho 1.78 1.56 2.03 1.85 0.37 0.75 0.8 1.71
Er 5.79 5.06 6.49 6.07 1.13 2.31 2.59 5.17
Tm 0.86 0.75 0.95 0.82 0.15 0.34 0.38 0.78
Y 51 44.2 58.3 52.5 10.6 21.2 23.4 48
Yb 6.25 5.16 6.54 5.87 0.93 2.43 2.7 5.47
Lu 0.9 0.74 1.01 0.9 0.15 0.36 0.43 0.8
Sn 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 2
W <1 <1 <1 <1 14 10 1 45
Au 0.01 0.001 0.1 0.01 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.6
*Oxides reported in wt-%.
*Gold values reported in g/t.

during alteration and metamorphism. LOI contents Taylor 1991; Girty et al. 1994). The covariance of the
are low in the unmineralised schists (LOI = 2.1–4.6 trace elements demonstrates the chemical consistency
wt. %), except for two samples with high values of and homogeneity of the data and thus suggesting no
7.8 and 14.4 wt. % (Table 2). The mineralised schists large-scale remobilisation on these elements.
have very high LOI contents of 3.6–9.0 wt. %. These
values imply that there is no significant remobilisation
Provenance of the schists
of the major elements of the unmineralised schist
compared to the mineralised schist which may have Composition of source rock
experienced some significant remobilisation of their During weathering, transportation, and diagenesis,
major elements. The remobilisation in the mineralised Al2O3 and TiO2 are not remobilised, thus, their con-
schists has led to higher concentrations of CaO Na2O, centration in the resultant rock remains the same as
Fe2O3, and MgO. their proto-source rock (Hayashi et al. 1997; Young
The High Field Strength Elements (HFSEs) and the and Nesbitt 1999). The ratio of Al2O3/TiO2 ranges
REEs are usually immobile during alteration and from 3 to 8, 8 to 21, and 21 to 70 for mafic, intermedi-
metamorphism. The schists and gneisses show a uni- ate, and felsic igneous rocks respectively (Hayashi
formly smooth REE pattern that resembles PAAS et al. 1997). The schists were derived from intermedi-
and UCC (Figure 8(a,b), Figure 9(a,b)), a feature ate to felsic proto-source rock having Al2O3/TiO2
that would not be expected when the elements are ratios of 13 and 48 for unmineralised and 11–31 for
remobilised during metamorphism (McLennan and mineralised (Table 2).
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 9

Figure 7. (a) A/NK vs A/CNK diagram for the gneisses showing the dominant metaluminous to weak peraluminous nature of the
rocks (b) Na2O + K2O vs SiO2 diagram for the gneisses classifying the rocks as mostly granite, with one mineralised sample plotting
on the boundary line between monzo-diorite and gabbroic diorite. (c) Feldspar discrimination plots after Barker (1979) of the
gneisses. Note that the unmineralised gneiss plot mostly as granite with the mineralised gneiss plotting as trondhjemite.

Trace elements, especially, the REEs, Th, and Sc are 0.62–0.95 for the mineralised, Table 3). In view of
mostly relied on as useful indicators of provenance and that, the provenance of the schists is explained as
tectonic setting of siliciclasitic rocks (Taylor and dominated by detritus derived from intermediate
McLennan 1985). This is because post-depositional and felsic proto-source rocks.
processes, e.g. diagenesis and metamorphism do not To further assess the composition of the schists,
influence the abundance of these elements (McLennan the ratios of (La/Lu)N, Th/Sc, and La/Sc were
and Taylor 1991; Condie 1993). The composition of the employed (Table 3). These trace element ratios pro-
source rock from which the sediments formed and vide information about the composition of the
accumulated into the basin manifests in the siliciclastic source rock because Th, La, and Lu are incompatible
rock’s REE patterns. In general, the REE patterns do not elements, enriched in felsic rocks, while Sc is a com-
vary significantly when the sediments are derived from patible element, enriched in mafic rocks (Cullers
a common source. On the other hand, wide variations 1994, 2000). The trace element ratios of the schists,
are shown in REE patterns when the sediments are suggest they were derived from a combination of fel-
derived from mixed sources (Nance and Taylor 1977; sic and intermediate rocks (Table 3). The compo-
Taylor and McLennan 1985; Cullers 1995). The schists sition of the source rock of the schists is inferred
show smooth REE patterns with no significant vari- in the La/Th vs. Hf discrimination diagram (Floyd
ations, evidence of probably a common sediment and Leveridge 1987). The schists plot in the field
source area (s) (Figure 9(a,b)). of the mixed felsic and mafic sources, and andesitic
Mafic igneous rocks usually have low and/or no source (Figure10). Overall, the schists were derived
negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.8–1), yet high nega- from mixed sources of felsic and intermediate source
tive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.5–0.8) are often observed rocks.
in felsic igneous rocks (Taylor and McLennan 1985;
Cullers 1994; Cullers and Podkovyrov 2002). The Petrogenesis of the granitoid gneisses
schists of the study area all show significant negative The gneisses of the study area have dominantly meta-
Eu anomalies (0.47–0.84 for the unmineralised and luminous to weakly peraluminous characteristics,
10 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Figure 8. (a) Sample normalised to REE chondrite diagram for unmineralised gneiss. The samples show a relatively enriched LREE
and nearly flat HREE pattern. (b) Sample normalised to REE chondrite diagram for mineralised gneiss. Though the pattern appears
similar to the unmineralised gneiss, these samples show a widespread concentration than the unmineralised gneiss. (c) Spider
diagram for unmineralised gneiss. Note the negative Nb-Ta and Ti peak. (d) Spider diagram for mineralised gneiss. Note: the
mineralised gneiss shows a wide-spread trace element concentration than the unmineralised gneiss.

contain moderate to high total alkalis (Na O2 + K2O = Tectonic settings of the schists and gneiss
2.71–8.38 wt-%), which are features usually associated
The characteristic Nb-Ta trough and negative P and
with I-type granitoids, and the chemical composition
Ti peaks displayed by the schists and gneisses on the
suggests that they are products by partial melting of
multi-elements normalised to UCC diagrams is an
a mafic mantle-derived igneous source material (prob-
indication of their formation in an arc environment.
ably of a sub-crustal underplate, but subducted-slab
The tectonic setting of the rocks of the Abansuoso
crust or older high-level pluton sources cannot be
area is identified by using different discriminant dia-
excluded) (Barbarin 1990; 1999). The occurrence of
gram. DF(A-P)M indicates that the majority of the
biotite-hornblende and biotite-bearing gneiss rocks
schist rocks in the study area were emplaced in an
within the study area, and the absence of two-mica
active continental margin (Figure 11(a)). To further
granitoids also rules out sediment contribution in the
constrain the tectonic setting of the schist, the Th
Abansuoso area (Grenholm 2011). The gneisses on
– Sc – Zr/10 discrimination diagram was plotted
the multi-element diagrams normalised to UCC
(Bhatia and Crook 1986) to distinguish among Pas-
show high HREE fractionation (Figure 8(c,d)).
sive Margin (PM), Active Continental Margin
According to Grenholm (2011), the high degree of
(ACM), Continental arc (CA), and Island Arc (IA)
HREE-fractionation observed in some granitoids in
settings. The Th – Sc – Zr/10 plot (Figure 11(b))
the Birimian terrain of the WAC can be linked to the
places the schist in and around the continental arc
stability of garnet in the residue hence implying deeper
setting. The gneisses plot within the active continen-
crustal levels even though fractionation of HREEs may
tal margin and VAG + syn-collisional granites field
also be the result of residual accessory phases such as
on the Th/Ta vrs Yb and Y vrs Nb diagrams,
zircon. The trace element characteristics of the
respectively (Figure 12(a,b)). All these support the
gneisses are akin to I-type rocks, and thus can be inter-
fact that the gneisses and schists were formed in
preted as derivatives from mafic igneous precursor
an arc environment. Thus they are orogenic rather
(thickened mafic lower crust), generated in convergent
than anorogenic in nature.
margins (Liu et al. 2019; Sakyi et al. 2020).
Table 2. Major and trace elements composition of the schists.
Unmineralised schist Mineralised schist
Sample 002/81 004/81 001/81 003/81 008/81 001/OS 008/PK OS/A 009/81 012/79 019/79 011/79 013/79 014/79 020/79
SiO2 49.9 56.5 60.4 54.3 61.5 75.7 79.5 76.9 74.9 74.4 74.4 64.9 65.2 67.1 72
TiO2 0.65 0.95 0.67 1.18 0.49 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.45 0.51 0.58 0.66 0.64 0.68 0.53
Al2O3 10.35 12.1 9.6 12.6 14.95 10.55 12.2 11.15 9.38 10.7 10.65 10.6 12.1 11.75 10.05
FeOt 8.02 9.46 7.49 11.15 2.8 2.49 1.4 2.39 4.87 4.49 5.92 6.68 6.92 7.54 7.91
MnO 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.12 0.06 <0.01 0.05 0.13 0.12 0.06 0.23 0.16 0.15 0.02
MgO 5.1 2.11 2.33 2.8 1.44 0.5 0.2 0.44 0.61 0.4 0.2 0.99 0.57 0.92 0.24
CaO 7.7 4.8 4.83 4.54 3.86 1.56 0.03 1.31 1.66 1.27 0.56 3.81 2.19 2.29 0.54
Na2O 2 4.46 3.96 5.07 7.45 2.85 0.12 3.06 2.03 3.55 4.13 1.73 3.89 4.04 0.31
K2O 1.96 1.4 0.99 0.78 1 1.86 3.79 1.91 1.93 1.49 1.14 2.4 1.74 2.18 3.06
P2O5 0.1 0.22 0.08 0.23 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.1 0.14 0.22 0.24 0.19 0.3 0.2 0.15
SiO2/Al2O3 4.82 4.67 6.29 4.31 4.11 7.18 6.52 6.9 7.99 6.95 6.99 6.12 5.39 5.71 7.16
LOI 14.35 7.77 8.96 7.45 6.02 2.93 2.07 2.75 4.6 3.82 2.29 8.19 6.26 3.83 5.28
Total 100.4 100.01 99.5 100.38 99.73 98.9 99.69 100.4 100.76 101.05 100.21 100.58 100.06 100.8 100.19
Cr 430 120 170 60 70 140 140 200 190 190 180 160 170 180 140
V 249 244 150 302 32 19 10 27 16 23 21 68 25 19 33
Ni 38 4 6 4 6 3 1 4 1 3 4 <1 1 <1 4
Cs 2.14 1.72 0.96 1.02 0.5 1.17 1.1 1.13 0.9 0.91 0.57 1.42 0.97 1.11 1.64
Ba 304 733 158.5 443 342 591 748 583 303 525 216 1430 527 796 732
Rb 56.2 34.4 26.1 22 21.6 42.1 79.5 42.8 41.4 34.7 24.9 48.9 36.6 45 67.6
Th 0.66 1.14 0.69 1.32 3.37 3.54 4.05 3.99 2.5 3.11 3.13 3.72 3.42 2.99 3.2
U 0.25 0.54 0.3 0.57 0.93 1.21 1.62 1.13 1.02 1.22 1.14 1.19 1.54 1.17 1.31
Nb 2.7 2.5 1.7 3 6.7 5.1 7.7 7.4 5.3 5.7 5.7 7.6 7.3 6.3 5.9
Ta 0.1 0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4
La 6.9 11.2 5.8 11.2 21.7 23.5 28.5 25.8 18.9 24.2 23.8 27.1 27.1 23.6 24.4
Ce 15.8 22.4 12.6 23.1 44.6 47.4 56.5 53.8 38.9 49.7 50.5 57.9 56.7 50.3 52.5
Pr 2.44 3.26 1.91 3.47 6.29 6.54 8.2 7.38 5.69 7.25 7.2 8.32 8.3 7.27 7.53
Sr 259 264 225 280 378 117 9.1 102.5 93.8 92.5 82.1 266 161.5 208 38.3
Nd 10 13.4 7.7 14.4 24.2 24.7 32.7 28.1 23.5 28.6 28.2 33.3 33.4 29.8 30.6
Sm 2.46 3.47 2.21 3.89 6.15 5.82 8.38 6.61 6.6 7.52 7.41 8.72 9.1 7.7 7.51
Hf 1.3 2.2 1.5 2.7 5.8 6.2 8.5 6.8 4.9 5.6 6.6 7.4 7 6.1 5.9
Zr 48 83 51 93 196 217 310 243 176 198 227 260 251 215 214
Eu 0.67 0.99 0.61 1.25 1.32 0.91 1.65 1.08 1.52 1.77 1.75 2.04 2.31 1.82 1.62
Gd 2.32 4.12 2.38 4.21 6.87 5.96 9.54 6.86 7.25 7.79 8.47 9.27 10.5 8.54 7.82
Tb 0.35 0.62 0.38 0.65 1.14 0.9 1.57 1.07 1.17 1.24 1.34 1.49 1.68 1.32 1.2

APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE

Dy 2.02 3.91 2.25 4.05 7.21 5.71 10.25 6.49 7.21 6.97 8.43 9.36 10.8 8.15 7.12
Ho 0.41 0.78 0.44 0.81 1.47 1.14 2.1 1.27 1.45 1.41 1.77 1.88 2.19 1.6 1.42
Er 1.19 2.41 1.33 2.42 4.55 3.67 6.66 4.3 4.48 4.34 5.48 6.11 6.52 5.06 4.28
Tm 0.17 0.35 0.19 0.34 0.67 0.56 0.93 0.65 0.63 0.63 0.79 0.92 0.89 0.71 0.64
Y 11.5 22.2 12.6 22.7 44 33.1 61.7 38 41.6 39.1 49 55.2 62.7 46.3 41.1
Yb 1.14 2.28 1.41 2.3 4.52 3.78 6.57 4.62 4.24 4.28 5.38 6.33 6.15 5 4.32
Lu 0.16 0.32 0.21 0.35 0.63 0.57 0.94 0.69 0.62 0.65 0.74 0.96 0.87 0.71 0.65
Sn <1 1 <1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 3
W 3 <1 8 2 8 12 18 14 36 48 46 55 72 3 40
Au 0.03 0.01 0.22 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.11 0.11 2.1 0.9 2 1.4 1.04 0.5 1.66

11
12 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Figure 9. (a) Sample normalised to REE chondrite diagram for unmineralised schist. The samples show a relatively enriched LREE
and nearly flat HREE pattern similar to the unmineralised gneiss. (b) Sample normalised to REE chondrite diagram for mineralised
schist. Though the pattern appears similar to the unmineralised gneiss, these samples show a widespread concentration than the
unmineralised schist. (c) Spider diagram for unmineralised schist showing typical Nb-Ta and Ti negative peaks similar to arc-
derived rocks. (d) Spider diagram for mineralised schist howing typical Nb-Ta and Ti negative peaks similar to arc-derived rocks.

Geodynamic implication and the type of ore constrain the source and geodynamic evolution of
deposit the mineralised rocks, according to the findings of
this study.
Major and trace element concentrations of schist from
The Birimian terrain has over the years been pro-
the Abansuoso area of the Sefwi greenstone belt indi-
posed to represent a juvenile arc crust formed
cate that they originated from a mixed source of inter-
during the Rhyacian Eburnean orogeny (Dampare
mediate to felsic continental basement rocks. Since
et al. 2008; Baratoux et al. 2011; Senyah et al.
these schists have similar trace element patterns as
2016). It is widely accepted that the rocks of the Bir-
the gneisses, this could connote their derivation
imian terrain formed in a suprasubduction zone,
from a similar proto source as the gneisses. The
arc-back-arc basin, or accretion of several oceanic
gneisses are dominantly granite (unmineralised) and
arc terrains (Dampare et al. 2008; Sakyi et al. 2018;
trondhjemite (mineralised) and the schists may have
McFarlane et al. 2019). In this study, the gneisses
been sourced from similar rocks. One key observation
and the schists were formed in an arc environment,
made from this study is the fact that although on aver-
probably syn-orogenic. This assertion is supported
age, the major and trace element composition of the
by Abitty et al. (2015) and Senyah et al. (2016)
mineralised schists and gneisses are significantly
who made similar findings in the Northern and
different from that of the unmineralised varieties,
Southwestern part of Ghana respectively. Volcanic
they plot in a similar field on provenance/petrogenetic
arc granites are associated with magma sources
and tectonic setting discrimination diagrams. There-
depleted in mantle material which has crustal com-
fore, the mineralisation process(es) have had little
ponents through the subduction process (Pearce
effect on the source characteristics of the mineralised
1996). Thus, the gneisses and schist may have
rocks. This study has therefore revealed that in regions
formed during the subduction accretion processes
where rocks have been significantly obliterated by the
during the Rhyacian Eburnean orogeny as has
mineralisation process, a comparative study of the
been proposed by many authors. This finding may
mineralised and unmineralised rocks can be used to
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 13

Table 3. Elemental ratios of the schists compared with sediments derived from felsic and mafic rocks.
Mineralised Unmineralised Range of sediments from felsic sources Range of sediments from mafic sources
La/Sc 0.22–2.02 1.57–9.50 2.50–16.3 0.43–0.86
Th/Sc 0.02–0.31 0.20–1.35 0.84–20.5 0.05–0.22
Eu/Eu* 0.62–0.94 0.47–0.85 0.40–0.94 0.71–0.95
(La/Lu)N 2.91–3.95 3.19–4.54 3.00–27.0 1.10–7.00

Figure 10. Plot of La/Th against Hf for the schist (composition

fields after Floyd and Leveridge 1987). The samples generally
show felsic to intermediate source rock composition plotting
in the field of andesite and mixed felsic/mafic sources.

suggest that the mineralisation in the gneisses and

schists is a typical orogenic type of mineralisation.
Intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits share
a number of characteristics (Groves et al. 1998).

Figure 12. (a) Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the

gneiss using Th/Ta vs Yb. The gneisses plot mainly in the active
margin, an indication of their derivation from an active (arc)
setting. (b). Nb vs Y tectonic setting discrimination diagrams
for the gneiss showing that the gneisses were probably
derived from a volcanic-arc and syn-collisional setting.

Despite their similarities, orogenic gold deposits

are related to metamorphic rocks with an amphibo-
Figure 11. (a) Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the lite-facies and/or greenschist composition, and mag-
schists DF(A-P)M (Verma and Armstrong-Altrin, 2016). The matic intrusions (Phillips and Powell 2009; Goldfarb
samples plot dominantly in the active margin setting. (b) Tec-
and Groves 2015). In this study, the gneisses and
tonic setting discrimination diagrams for the schists Th – Co –
Zr/10 plot (Bhatia and Crook 1986). DF = Discriminant func- schists have mineral assemblage typical of greens-
tion, A and P are active and passive margin respectively, and chist and lower amphibolite facies, supporting the
M = major element composition. orogenic origin of gold mineralisation.
14 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Conclusion Allibone A, Hayden P, Cameron G, Duku F. 2004.

Paleoproterozoic gold deposits hosted by albite-and car-
Major and trace element compositions have been used bonate-altered tonalite in the Chirano District, Ghana,
to infer the mode and environment of formation of the West Africa. Econ Geol. 99(3):479–497.
mineralised and unmineralised gneisses and schists Amponsah PO, Salvi S, Didier B, Baratoux L, Siebenaller L,
from the Abansuoso deposit within the Sefwi green- Jessell M, Nude PM, Gyawu EA. 2016. Multistage gold
mineralization in the Wa-Lawra greenstone belt, NW
stone belt. On the chondrite normalised REE diagram, Ghana: The Bepkong deposit. J Afr Earth Sci. 120:220–
both the mineralised and unmineralised gneisses dis- 237.
play enriched LREE and nearly flat HREE patterns Baratoux L, Metelka V, Naba S, Jessell MW, Grégoire M,
similar to the schists. The multi-elements normalised Ganne J. 2011. Juvenile Paleoproterozoic crust evolution
to UCC diagrams show that the gneisses and schists during the Eburnean orogeny (∼ 2.2-2.0 Ga), western
Burkina Faso. Precambrian Res. 191(1–2):18–45.
have depleted concentration of LILE and enriched
Barbarin B. 1990. Granitoids: main petrogenetic classifi-
contents of HFSE including the HREE, with typical cations in relation to origin and tectonic setting. Geol J.
Nb-Ta trough. The schists from their major and 25(3–4):227–238.
trace element composition were deposited in an active Barbarin B. 1999. A review of the relationships between
continental margin, perhaps a continental arc setting. granitoid types, their origins and their geodynamic
A similar continental arc setting has been inferred for environments. Lithos. 46(3):605–626.
Barker F. 1979. Trondhjemite: definition, environment and
the gneisses from their tectonic setting discrimination hypotheses of origin. In: Developments in petrology, Vol.
diagrams and trace patterns, with typical Nb-Ta 6. Amsterdam (Netherlands): Elsevier; p. 1–12.
trough. This study has revealed that a comparative Bhatia MR, Crook KA. 1986. Trace element characteristics
study of the major and trace element composition of of graywackes and tectonic setting discrimination of sedi-
the mineralised and unmineralised rocks from an mentary basins. Contrib Mineral Petrol. 92(2):181–193.
Bouabdellah M, Slack JF. 2016. Geologic and metallogenic
area is useful in constraining the source and geody-
framework of North Africa. In: Slack J, editor. Mineral
namic evolution of the mineralised rocks. deposits of North Africa. Cham: Springer; p. 3–81.
Condie KC. 1993. Chemical composition and evolution of
the upper continental crust: contrasting results from sur-
Acknowledgements face samples and shales. Chem Geol. 104(1–4):1–37.
This research paper is part of the first author’s PhD work, Cullers RL. 1994. The controls on the major and trace
and he is thankful to the African Union and Pan African element variation of shales, siltstones, and sandstones of
University for the award of this PhD. Scholarship. The Pennsylvanian-Permian age from uplifted continental
first author is also grateful to the University for Develop- blocks in Colorado to platform sediment in Kansas,
ment Studies for granting his study leave. The first author USA. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 58(22):4955–4972.
is very grateful to Supercare Gold and Pelangio Exploration Cullers RL. 1995. The controls on the major-and trace-
Company for granting him access to their concession and element evolution of shales, siltstones and sandstones of
providing him with the needed assistance for the fieldwork. Ordovician to Tertiary age in the wet Mountains region,
The authors are also thankful to Prof. Neil Philips and an Colorado, USA. Chem Geol. 123(1–4):107–131.
anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments, sugges- Cullers RL. 2000. The geochemistry of shales, siltstones and
tions, and thoughtful reviews which have greatly enhanced sandstones of Pennsylvanian–Permian age, Colorado,
the quality of this paper. USA: implications for provenance and metamorphic
studies. Lithos. 51(3):181–203.
Cullers RL, Podkovyrov VN. 2002. The source and origin of
Disclosure statement terrigenous sedimentary rocks in the Mesoproterozoic Ui
group, south-eastern Russia. Precambrian Res. 117(3–
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author 4):157–183.
(s). Dampare SB, Shibata T, Asiedu DK, Osae S, Banoeng-
Yakubo B. 2008. Geochemistry of Paleoproterozoic meta-
volcanic rocks from the southern Ashanti volcanic belt,
ORCID Ghana: petrogenetic and tectonic setting implications.
Precambrian Res. 162(3–4):403–423.
Raymond Webrah Kazapoe http://orcid.org/0000-0002- Floyd PA, Leveridge BE. 1987. Tectonic environment of the
0307-7834 Devonian Gramscatho basin, south Cornwall: framework
mode and geochemical evidence from turbiditic sand-
stones. J Geol Soc London. 144(4):531–542.
References Fougerouse D, Micklethwaite S, Ulrich S, Miller J, Godel B,
Abitty EK, Dampare SB, Nude PM, Asiedu DK. 2016. Adams DT, McCuaig TC. 2017. Evidence for two stages
Geochemistry and petrogenesis of the K-rich ‘Bongo- of mineralization in West Africa’s largest gold deposit:
type’granitoids in the Paleoproterozoic Bole–Nangodi Obuasi, Ghana. Econ Geol. 112(1):3–22.
greenstone belt of Ghana. J Afr Earth Sci. 122:47–62. Galipp K, Klemd R, Hirdes W. 2003. Metamorphism and
Agbenyezi TK, Foli G, Gawu SK. 2020. Geochemical charac- geochemistry of the paleoproterozoic Birimian sefwi vol-
teristics of gold-bearing Granitoids at Ayanfuri in the canic belt (Ghana, West Africa). Geologisches Jahrbuch
Kumasi Basin, Southwestern Ghana: implications for D. 111:151–191.
the orogenic related gold systems. Earth Sci Malaysia Girty GH, Hanson AD, Knaack C, Johnson D. 1994.
(ESMY). 4(2):127–134. Provenance determined by REE, Th, and Sc analyses of
 APPLIED EARTH SCIENCE 15

metasedimentary rocks, Boyden Cave roof pendant, cen- and lower crust exhumation during the
tral Sierra Nevada, California. J Sediment Res. 64(1b):68– Palaeoproterozoic Eburnean Orogeny: evidence from
73. the Sefwi Greenstone Belt, West African Craton.
Goldfarb RJ, Baker T, Dubé B, Groves DI, Hart CJ, Gosselin Precambrian Res. 325:88–110.
P. 2005. Distribution, character, and genesis of gold McLennan SM, Taylor SR. 1991. Sedimentary rocks and
deposits in metamorphic terrain. crustal evolution: tectonic setting and secular trends. J
Goldfarb RJ, Groves DI. 2015. Orogenic gold: common or Geol. 99(1):1–21.
evolving fluid and metal sources through time. Lithos. Nance WB, Taylor SR. 1977. Rare earth element patterns
233:2–26. and crustal evolution – II. Archean sedimentary rocks
Goldfarb RJ, Groves DI, Gardoll S. 2001. Orogenic gold and from Kalgoorlie, Australia. Geochim Cosmochim Acta.
geologic time: a global synthesis. Ore Geol Rev. 18(1– 41(2):225–231.
2):1–75. Oberthür T, Vetter U, Davis DW, Amanor JA. 1998. Age
Grenholm M. 2011. Petrology of Birimian granitoids in constraints on gold mineralization and Paleoproterozoic
southern Ghana: petrography and petrogenesis crustal evolution in the Ashanti belt of southern Ghana.
Dissertations in Geology at Lund University, Lund, Precambrian Res. 89(3–4):129–143.
Sweden. Pearce JA. 1996. A user’s guide to basalt discrimination dia-
Griffis J, Barning K, Agezo FL, Akosa F. 2002. Gold deposits grams. Trace element geochemistry of volcanic rocks:
of Ghana prepared on behalf of Ghana mineral commis- applications for massive sulphide exploration.
sion. Ghana: Accra. 432. Geological Association of Canada, Short Course Notes,
Griffis RJ, Agezo FL. 2000. Mineral occurrence and explora- 12, 79–113.
tion potential of northern Ghana. Mineral Commission Perrouty S, Aillères L, Jessell MW, Baratoux L, Bourassa Y,
Report. 132–1133, Accra. Crawford B. 2012. Revised eburnean
Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Gebre-Mariam M, Hagemann SG, geodynamic evolution of the gold-rich southern
Robert F. 1998. Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed Ashanti Belt, Ghana, with new field and geophysical evi-
classification in the context of their crustal distribution dence of pre-Tarkwaian deformations. Precambrian Res.
and relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geol 204:12–39.
Rev. 13(1–5):7–27. Phillips GN, Powell R. 2009. Formation of gold deposits:
Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Robert F, Hart CJ. 2003. Gold review and evaluation of the continuum model. Earth
deposits in metamorphic belts: overview of current Sci Rev. 94(1–4):1–21.
understanding, outstanding problems, future research, Sakyi PA, Addae RA, Su BX, Dampare SB, Abitty E, Su BC,
and exploration significance. Econ Geol. 98(1):1–29. Liu B, Asiedu DK. 2020. Petrology and geochemistry of
Hart CJ, Goldfarb RJ, Qiu Y, Snee L, Miller LD, Miller TTG and K-rich Paleoproterozoic Birimian
ML. 2002. Gold deposits of the northern margin of granitoids of the West African Craton (Ghana): petrogen-
the North China Craton: multiple late Paleozoic– esis and tectonic implications. Precambrian Res.
Mesozoic mineralizing events. Miner Deposita. 37 336:105492.
(3):326–351. Sakyi PA, Anum S, Su BX, Nude PM, Su BC, Asiedu DK,
Hayashi KI, Fujisawa H, Holland HD, Ohmoto H. 1997. Kwayisi D. 2018. Geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic
Geochemistry of∼ 1.9 Ga sedimentary rocks from north- records of Paleoproterozoic metavolcanics and mafic
eastern Labrador, Canada. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 61 intrusive rocks from the West African Craton: evidence
(19):4115–4137. for petrogenesis and tectonic setting. Geol J. 53(2):725–
Jessell MW, Amponsah PO, Baratoux L, Asiedu DK, Loh 741.
GK, Ganne J. 2012. Crustal-scale transcurrent shearing Schiano P, Dupré B, Lewin E. 1993. Application of element
in the paleoproterozoic Sefwi-Sunyani-Comoe region, concentration variability to the study of basalt alteration
West Africa. Precambrian Res. 212:155–168. (Fangataufa atoll, French Polynesia). Chem Geol. 104
Kazapoe RW, Olugbenga O, Arhin E, Olisa O. 2021. (1–4):99–124.
Isotope geochemistry as a tool in the exploration of Senyah GA, Dampare SB, Asiedu DK. 2016. Geochemistry
gold occurrences in Ghana: a review. Arab J Geosci. 14 and tectonic setting of the Paleoproterozoic metavolcanic
(19):1–15. rocks from the Chirano Gold District, Sefwi belt, Ghana. J
Kazapoe WR, Okunlola O, Arhin E, Olisa O, Harris C, Afr Earth Sci. 122:32–46.
Kwayisi D, Torkonoo S, Amuah EEY. 2022. Geology Shand SJ. 1948. Eruptive rocks: their genesis, composition,
and isotope systematics of gold deposits in Abansuoso classification, and their relation to ore deposits, with a
area of Sefwi Belt, Southwestern Ghana. Geol Ecol chapter on meteorites. J Geol. 56(6):593–593.
Landscapes. 6:1–22. Sillitoe RH. 1991. Intrusion-related gold deposits. In: Foster
Kempe U, Belyatsky B, Krymsky R, Kremenetsky A, Ivanov RP, editor. Gold metallogeny and exploration. Boston
P. 2001. Sm–Nd and Sr isotope systematics of scheelite (MA): Springer; p. 165–209.
from the giant Au (–W) deposit Muruntau Smith AJ, Henry G, Frost-Killian S. 2016. A review of the
(Uzbekistan): implications for the age and sources of Birimian Supergroup-and Tarkwaian group-hosted gold
Au mineralization. Miner Deposita. 36(5):379–392. deposits of Ghana. Episodes. 39(2):177–197.
Liu Y, Chakhmouradian AR, Hou Z, Song W, Kynický J. Takyi-Kyeremeh K, Wemegah DD, Preko K, Menyeh A.
2019. Development of REE mineralization in the giant 2019. Integrated geophysical study of the Subika Gold
Maoniuping deposit (Sichuan, China): insights from Deposit in the Sefwi Belt. Ghana. Cogent Geosci. 5
mineralogy, fluid inclusions, and trace-element geochem- (1):1585406.
istry. Miner Deposita. 54(5):701–718. Taylor SR, McLennan SM. 1985. The continental crust: its
McFarlane HB, Ailleres L, Betts P, Ganne J, Baratoux L, composition and evolution. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific
Jessell MW, Block S. 2019. Episodic collisional orogenesis Publications.
16 R. W. KAZAPOE ET AL.

Verma SP, Armstrong-Altrin JS. 2016. Geochemical dis- Young GM, Wayne Nesbitt H. 1999. Paleoclimatology
crimination of siliciclastic sediments from active and pas- and provenance of the glaciogenic Gowganda
sive margin settings. Sediment Geol. 332:1–12. Formation (Paleoproterozoic), Ontario, Canada: A che-
Whitney DL, Evans BW. 2010. Abbreviations for names of mostratigraphic approach. Geol Soc Am Bull. 111
rock-forming minerals. Am Mineral. 95(1):185–187. (2):264–274.