1.

INTRODUCTION
Content:
Prototyping fundamentals, Historical development, Fundamentals of Rapid Prototyping, Process Chain,
Advantages and Limitations of RP
Commonly used Terms, Classification of RP process, Introduction to Reverse Engineering.
Design for Additive Manufacturing (AM), Rapid Prototyping Data Formats STL Format.

Objectives:
1. To know principle methods, areas of usage, possibilities and limitations of AM.
2. To be familiar with the characteristics of the different materials used in AM
3. To apply these Techniques to engineering applications.

1. Text / Ref. books: C.K. Chua, K.F. Leong, C.S. Slim, Rapid prototyping principles
and applications, World Scientific Pub. 3rd edi. 2010.
2. Ian Gibson, Devid W. Rosen, and Brent Stucker, Additive Manufacturing
Technologies: Rapid Prototyping to direct Digital manufacturing. Springer.

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Fig. Examples of AM products https://www.amdprogram.psu.edu/amd-courses/

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1.1 Prototyping Fundamentals:
Prototype: It is the model / primary version of product under development process.
Role of prototypes:
i. Experimentation and learning ii. Testing and proofing
iii. Communication, interaction and marketing iv. Synthesis and integration

Additive Manufacturing:

‘It is process of layer by layer fabrication of three dimensional physical model

directly from CAD model’.

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1.2 Phases of Development leading to RP
Phase1: Manual Prototyping: early stage, craft base, labour intensive
Phase2: Soft or Virtual Prototyping: after 1980s, computer based analysis
Phase3: Rapid Prototyping: rapid, free from fabrication/virtual mfg.

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 Examples of Components mfg. by RP

Why additive manufacturing? Is an attractive way to manufacture components?

 The near-net-shape technique. This reduces the need for surface finishing.

 It is a rapid process. Streamlining of the entire design flexibility and

manufacturing process. Furthermore, multiple components to a single process.

 The added dimension given to design. Internal structures and features that were
formerly impossible can be realised. Financial and time saving.

1.3 Steps in AM CAD Model (closed surface, enclosed volume)

(Cad software / Laser scanner /CMM)
STL File (approx. surface by polygons)

Slice File (Pre P.)

Build actual model

Part removal & finishing (Post p.)

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Fig. RP Process chain

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 Fig. Four major aspects of RP

1.4 Advantages of RP
i. Complex and refined products are made available to market in less time.
ii. Different customized designs can be avail to customers within short time.
iii. Project completion cost and time is reduced to weeks or less (50 to 80 %)
with cad /cam technology.
iv. Product designer- combine/modify features, strength to weight ratio-increase.
v. Mfg. facility: The designers and the machinery can be in separate places.
vi. Tooling and mfg. engineer: labor, tooling, material, inspection, design
misinterpretation is minimised.
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Fused filament fabrication (FFF)
An AM technology that is based on the principle of laying down material in layers.
 Filament
The material that is used for 3D printing. It has the shape of a wire, coiled on a spool.

 PLA (Polylactic acid)

This is a hard, odorless bioplastic that has a low environmental impact.
It is derived from renewable, starch-based resources.
PLA has a very low shrinkage, which is ideal for 3D models, RP at home.

 ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

This plastic is well-known for its strength and industrial purposes.
ABS is impact resistant, very hard, whilst retaining good flexibility.
Compared to PLA, ABS has a high shrinkage, which means that it’s harder to print

 Layer resolution
The layer resolution (or layer height) describes the thickness of one layer of 3D print.
The default layer resolution is 0.1 mm (100 micron), , 0.02 mm (20 micron)

 Positioning precision
The accuracy with which the print head moves around in the X and Y direction.
Instead of moving around in a perfect circle it moves around in steps of 12.5 micron.

 Print speed
The speed at which the print head moves while it is printing. Based on the print speed
the amount of plastic that needs to be extruded will be calculated.
 Travel speed The speed at which the print head moves while not printing.

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  Firmware: The software that runs on the electronics and controls m/c.

 STL: A widely used file format for 3D models.

 Slicing: The process of converting a 3D model into a printable file.

It will divide the model into “slices” so that printer can build it up by layers.
 G-code
The file format that is used for 3D print files (after it has been sliced).
A G-code file.
 Extruder
A common name for the parts that control the extrusion of the filament.
The material feeder, bowden tube and print head.

Wh. Questions
 When to prototype, why and how to achieve faster time to market
 How to reduce development cycles, lead-time and engineering effort
 Prototyping for agile manufacturing, and key questions to ask before getting
started
 How to use CAD data for design verification and types of prototyping
 3D printing technologies for rapid prototyping and choosing the best solution

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Reverse Engineering
Engineering is the process of designing, manufacturing, assembling and
maintaining products and systems.

There are two types of engineering, forward engineering and reverse engineering.
Forward engineering is the traditional process of moving from high-level abstractions
and logical designs to the physical implementation of a system.
In some situations, there may be a physical part/product without any technical details,
such as drawings, bills-of-material, or without engineering data.
The process of duplicating an existing part, subassembly, or product, without
drawings, documentation, or a direct computer model is known as reverse engineering.

Reverse engineering is also defined as the process of obtaining a geometric CAD model
from 3-D points acquired by scanning/digitizing existing parts/products.

Applications: Mfg., industrial design, and jewelry design and reproduction.

For example, when a new car is launched on the market, competing manufacturers
may buy one and disassemble it to learn how it was built and how it works.

Why Use Reverse Engineering?

• The original manufacturer no longer exists, but a customer needs the product, e.g.,
aircraft spares required typically after an aircraft has been in service for several years.

• The original manufacturer of a product no longer produces the product, e.g., the
original product has become obsolete.

• The original product design documentation has been lost or never existed.

• Creating data to refurbish or manufacture a part for which there are no CAD data, or
for which the data have become obsolete or lost.

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• Inspection and/or Quality Control–Comparing a fabricated part to its CAD
description or to a standard item.

• Some bad features of a product need to be eliminated e.g., excessive wear might
indicate where a product should be improved.

• Strengthening the good features of a product based on long-term usage.

• Analyzing the good and bad features of competitors’ products.

• Exploring new avenues to improve product performance and features.

• Creating 3-D data from a model or sculpture for animation in games and movies.

• Creating 3-D data from an individual, model or sculpture to create, scale, or reproduce
artwork. • Architectural and construction documentation and measurement.

• Fitting clothing or footwear to individuals and determining the anthropometry of a

population.

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Scan Mode Handheld HD Scan Handheld Rapid Scan

Single Shot Accuracy 0.1mm 0.3 mm

Scan Speed 550,000 points/sec 450,000 points/sec
Point Distance 0.2 – 3 mm 0.7 – 3mm
Align Mode Markers Alignment Markers/Feature/Hybrid
Alignment

Outdoor Operation Set up the shelter or cover to avoid direct sunlight

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Special Objects for For the transparent, highly reflective or some dark
Scanning objects, please spray powder before scanning
Single Scan Range 300×170 mm
Light Source White light LED
Printable Data Output Yes
Data Format OBJ，STL，ASC，PLY
Scanner Body Weight 0.8 kg
Supported OS Windows 7, 8 or 10, 64 bit
Sharing to sketchpad Yes
PC Requirements Display card: NVIDIA GTX660 USB: 1 ×USB 2.0 or 3.0
(Required) CPU: i5 RAM: 8
PC Requirements Display card: Desktop- NVIDIA GTX serial cards higher
(Recommended) than GTX660, Laptop- NVIDIA GTX serial cards higher
than GTX960M, CPU: i7 RAM:16 G

Physical dimensions Weight

248 X 156 X 48 mm 0.83 kg.

Applications:
i. Handheld Rapid Scan
ii. Handheld HD Scan
iii. Fixed Scan without Turntable

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SLICE File
Layer thickness / precision: (0.1 – 0.25) mm, …. DBZ, Aeqon 400 v2 machine

The size, location and orientation of the model need to be adjusted and modified.
This build orientation determines the strength of the model.
This is because for rapid prototypes model, the properties vary from on direction to
another. Models are normally weaker in the z direction than in the x and y plane.
This is due to the layering process. Also ensuring that the shortest dimension in the z
direction reduces number of layers, thus saves time.

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 Fig. Classification of RP techniques.
SLA, SGC, PJS SLS, SLM,3DP LOM,
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1.4 Fundamentals for Creating Input files for AM.
Content: Rapid Prototyping Data Formats STL Format, STL File Problems, Consequence of
Building Valid and Invalid Tessellated Models, STL file Repairs: Generic Solution, Other
Translators and Newly Proposed Formats. Rapid Prototyping Software’s.

 To discuss the STL file format used by many m/c’s as model input data.
 To know common errors and other software that can assist with STL files?
 To find limitations of the STL format and how it may be replaced by AMF?

Introduction
 The quality, reliability, and ease of use of 3D CAD have meant that virtually
any geometry can be modelled, and it has enhanced our ability to design.
 The only information that an AM machine requires from the CAD system is
the external geometric form. How Part was modeled and features.

CAD Model (STL File)

 The STL file is derived from the word STereoLithography.
A method of approximate representing 3D CAD data /Solid/surface model.
“Standard Triangle Language” or “Standard Tessellation Language”.
 The main purpose of the STL file format is to encode the surface geometry
of a 3D object without any representation of color, texture or material, build
layers, lines/curves model attributes.

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 It encodes this information using a simple concept called “tessellation”. It is
the process of tiling a surface with one or more geometric shapes such that
there are no overlaps or gaps.
 The more complex the surface, the more triangles produced.
 This file consists of an unordered list of triangular facets (mesh)
representing the outside skin of an object. File itself holds no dimensions.
 So any information concerning the color, material, build layers, lines/curves
are ignored during the conversion process. It’s a larger file w.r.t. CAD file.
 Each facet is uniquely identified by a unit normal vector and three vertices.

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 Fig .STL file from CATIA

STL Format: Binary and ASCII

 The ASCII format is less common (as larger file size) but easier to understand.
 The unit normal vector is a line that is perpendicular to the triangle and has a
length equal to 1.0. It indicate which side of facet is an object.
 This unit length could be in mm or inches, stored with its vector coordinates.
Note that the file begins with an object name delimited as a solid.
 Triangles can be in any order, each delimited as a facet, it includes the normal
vector for that triangle.
 Three vertices of the triangle is delimited by “outer loop” & “endloop.”
The outside of the triangle is best defined using a right-hand rule approach.

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A binary STL file can be described in the following way:
An 80-byte ASCII header that can be used to describe the part

– A 4 byte unsigned long integer that indicates the number of facets in the object

– A list of facet records, each 50 bytes long

The facet record will be presented in the following way:

– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the normal vector

– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the first vertex

– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the second vertex

– 3 floating values of 4 bytes each to describe the third vertex

– One unsigned integer of 2 bytes that should be zero, used for checking

Creating STL Files from a CAD System

 Nearly all geometric solid modeling CAD systems can generate .STL files
from a valid, fully enclosed solid model.
 In surface modeling techniques, where it can be possible to create an object
that is not fully closed off (Autodesk, Alias Studio and Rhino software).
 In this graphics applications where there is a need for powerful manipulation
of surface detail rather than for engineering detailing.
Most CAD systems: “Save as” or “Export” function to convert part file to .stl.
 There is typically some control over the size of the triangles to be used in the
model. STL uses planar surfaces to approximate curve surfaces.
 Minimize the offset between the triangle and the surface to represent.
AM with the 0.1 mm layer height, then a triangle offset of 0.05 mm or less.
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Problems with STL Files
i. Vertex to vertex rule: Each triangle must share two of its vertices with each of the
triangles adjacent to it. Vertex cannot intersect the side of another (Fig. 15.7).

To
check, number of faces of a proper solid defined using STL must be an even no.
Number of edges must be divisible by three.

and follow the equation:

ii. Leaking STL files: STL files should describe fully enclosed surfaces/solid.
STL data files should construct entities according to Euler’s Rule for solids:
No. of faces + No. of edges + No. of vertices = (2 * No. of bodies)
If not, file is said to be leaking, the file slices will not represent the actual model.
Slicing software may add in / ignore vectors to close the outline.

Leaks can be generated by facets crossing each other in 3D space as shown in

Fig. 1 (poorly generated CAD models). Surface patches do not match (fig.2)

Fig.1 and 2.

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iii. Missing Facets or Gap
Tessellation of surfaces with large curvature can result in errors at the intersections
between such surfaces, leaving gaps or holes along edges of the part model.

iv. Degenerate Facets

A geometrical degeneracy of a facet occurs when all of the facets’ edges are
collinear even though all its vertices are distinct.
This might be caused by stitching algorithms, shown in Figure 6.4(a) below.
While degenerate facets added, do not contain valid surface normals.

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v. Overlapping Facets
It is generated due to numerical round-off errors occurrence.
Vertices are represented in 3D space as floating point numbers instead of integers.
And as tolerances are set too liberal.

vi. Non-manifold topology conditions.

There are three types of non-manifold conditions, namely:

(1) A non-manifold edge. (2) A non-manifold point. (3) A non-manifold face.
Cause: tessellation of the fine features are susceptible to round-off errors.
A valid model: one edge is shared by two facets only.

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 Such problems have become inevitable.
The STL format which inherently has these limitations.

Effect of a Valid and Invalid Tessellated Model on Build Part

A Valid Model:

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An Invalid Mode: The missing facet in the geometrical model.
Would cause the system to have no predefined stopping boundary in that slice.
It is importance that model be “confirmed/repaired” before it is sent for building.

Solving the “Wrong Orientation of Facets” Problem

The algorithm should be able to detect it and corrective action can be taken to
rectify this error.

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AM Materials:

Thermal Expansion Characteristics

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Material/process considerations and control methods
 Absorptance: Processes of involve a direct interaction of powders with laser.
The determination of absorptance of powders is important to heat develop.
 As it allows one to determine a suitable processing window free of a non-
response of powder due to an insufficient laser energy input;
 A pronounced material evaporation due to an excessive energy input.

The absorptance: is ratio of the absorbed radiation to the incident radiation.

 The absorptance of powders has a direct influence on the optical penetration
depth δ of the radiation.
 It is the depth at which the intensity of the radiation inside material falls to
(~37%). As multiple reflection effect, δ in powders > in bulk materials.

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Surface tension and wettability
 The liquid-solid wetting characteristic is crucial for successful AM process.
DMLS system involves wetting between structural metal and liquid binder.
 Wetting between molten system and solidified pre-processed layer (DLM/SLM).

S=

Viscosity (µ):
Viscosity of melt should be low enough to cover spread on previous layer.
In SLS process of solid- liquid mixture, the viscosity of mixture is:

where µo = base viscosity

ϕl = volume fraction of liquid phase, ϕm = critical vol. fraction of solids
above which mixture has essentially infinite viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity of liquid /melt, is

where m = atomic mass, k = Boltzmann

constant, T= temperature and Y= surface tension of liquid.
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Ceramics:
AM technology has been successfully demonstrated its advantages in
producing ceramic parts through both “direct” and “indirect” methods.

Indirect Methods

These processes typically create a ceramic green body with a high

content of organic or inorganic binders.
Then, binder burn out and densification of the green body are
conducted in a conventional sintering step.

Example: AZrB2 part (fuel injector strut for aircraft engine),

Alumina and silica core sand shells for investment casting,
Graphite bi polar plates for fuel cells, and Bio-ceramic bone scaffolds.

Ceramics:

Direct Method: Direct fabrication of ceramic parts is much more

challenging. It is due to the high melting temperatures of ceramics such
as: e.g. Al2O3 (>2000°C) and SiO2 (>1700°C).
 Also due to large thermal gradients, thermal stresses and residual
stresses associated with melting /resolidifying in the laser based AM.

 Example: SLM process investigated. Material: a mixture of zirconia and

alumina, by complete melting ceramic powder.
The ceramic powder bed was preheated to >1600°C to reduce thermal
stresses. Nearly fully dense, crack- free parts were obtained.

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 Composites

Composites are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from

two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties.
That remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic
scale within the finished structure. But exhibit properties that cannot
be achieved by any of the materials acting alone.

The materials in a composite can be mixed uniformly, resulting in a

homogeneous compound (uniform composite).
In non-uniformly / inhomogeneous compound (e.g., functionally
graded materials) in which the composition varies gradually over
volume, leads to corresponding changes in the properties.

Uniform Composites
 Uniform composites fabricated using AM is done by:
SLS, SLM and 3DP: pre-prepared mixture of powder materials,
FDM: a filament of mixed materials. e.g. wood PLA
LOM: a composite laminate, SLA: a mixture of liquid photo curable resin
 The composite materials that include:
a polymer/ceramic/metal matrix and fiber: particulate reinforcement.

 Metal-metal composites (e.g., Fe-Cu and stainless steel Cu),

metal-ceramic (e.g., WC-Cu, WC-Co, ZeB2-Cu, TiB2-Ni), and
ceramic-ceramic (e.g., Si-SiC), processed by SLS/SLM.
 These processed composites categories:
Aiming to facilitate the process using a liquid-phase sintering.
Combine materials to achieve properties not possible by single material.

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AM Unique Capabilities: Compare to other mfg. processes leads:

i. Shape complexity: it is possible to build virtually any shape.

Processes can reach any point in a part’s c/s and process material there.
As such, part complexity is virtually unlimited,
Product development with no hard tooling. Limitations of: m/c-ing, IM,CNC.
Capability for automated process planning.

Robot link stiffened with lattice structure.

e.g. Adept Robot Link has been stiffened with a custom-designed lattice
structure, conforms to the link’s shape. It show weight reductions of 25 %

ii. Hierarchical complexity: features can be designed with shape

complexity across multiple size scales.

Various nano/microstructures can be achieved by careful control of the

parameters (laser power, scan rate, CAD data) for material, pt. positions.

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iii. Functional complexity: functional devices (not just individual
piece-parts) can be produced in one build.
One always has access to the inside of the part:
 First, by carefully controlling the fabrication of each layer, it is
possible to fabricate operational mechanisms. (Vertical, horizontal
prismatic, revolute, cylindrical, spherical, and Hooke joints.)
 Components have been inserted into parts being built: VP, ME, PBF.

Fig. Pulley-driven, snake-like robot.

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iv. Material complexity:
 Material can be processed one point, or one layer, at a time as a
single material or as a combination of materials.
 Causing different material properties in different regions of part.
Enable changing material composition gradually or abruptly during
the build process.
 Turbine blade of jet engine: Complex material properties.
Outside: resistant to high temp. Stiff to prevent elongation.
Root: ductile, high fatigue life. Interiors: high conductivity-cools.

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  High performance orthopedic implants: adhesion and wear.
By changing the composition of the material from the bone in-
growth region to the bearing surface.
Stratasys-Connex500: Ink-jet, several polymer material in 1build.

Fig. Growing Orthopedic Application Means PEEK Is Far From Peaking

Design for Additive Manufacturing (DFAM)

The objective of DFAM is: To maximize product performance through the
synthesis of shapes/sizes, hierarchical structures, and material compositions.

Hence designers should follow following guidelines when designing products:

 Enables the usage of complex geometry in without incurring much time
or cost penalties.
 To consolidate parts, integrate features into more complex parts and
avoiding assembly issues.

• Enable the usage of customized geometry and parts by direct production

from 3D data.
• Explore multifunctional part designs (combine geometric, material
complexity) capabilities using multi material AM machines.
• Ignore all of constraints imposed by conventional mfg. by AM tech.

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Complex geometry
 The layer-by-layer fabrication approach means that the shapes of part
cross sections can be arbitrarily complex, up to the resolution of process.
 For example, SLA (VP) and PBF processes can fabricate features almost
as thin as their laser spot sizes.
 In material jetting (PJ/BJ) processes, features in the layer can be the
size of several printed droplets. In principle, features can be as thin as a
layer thickness. In practice, features typically are several layers thick.

 Need to remove the support structures necessary for some AM

processes may also limit geometric complexity and/or feature size.
 Make accommodation of Individual AM process characteristics.

Integrated Assemblies
 Even when two or more components must be able to move with respect
to one another, e.g. ball-and-socket joint, can build as fully assembled.
 These capabilities enable the integration of features from multiple
parts, possibly yielding better performance.
 Minimize no. of parts and accommodate as assembly. Lead to much
larger reductions in production costs, inventory and work.

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 Customized Geometry
 AM processes can fabricate mass custom geometries.
Biomedical applications: e.g. hearing aid shells by VP or PBF.
 Hundreds or thousands of shells, each of a different geometry, can be
built at the same time in a single machine.

Multifunctional Designs
 Achievement of multiple functions, or purposes with a single part.
e.g, if a part needs to be stiff in one location, but flexible in another
position. Is solution possible?
 Heat exchanger that also serves a structural purpose, which could be
fabricated by grading steel and copper alloys.

 Introduction to Design For additive manufacturing

Designers and operators should consider a number of Build-related factors.
i. Part Orientation
 If a cylinder was built on its end, then it would consist of a series of
circular layers built on top of each other.
 The same cylinder built on its side will have distinct layer stair-step
patterning on the sides. Poor reproduction of CAD data, aesthetic.
 For material extrusion the time to build is solely a factor of the total
build volume and thus a cylinder should always be built vertically.
 In general upward-facing features in AM have the best quality.

ii. Removal of Supports

 It is a good idea to try and minimize the amount.

 Parts that require supports may also require planning for removal.
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iii. Hollowing Out Parts

 Parts that have thick walls may be designed to include hollow

features without affecting part’s functionality.
 The main benefits of doing this are the reduced build time, cost
and and the reduced mass in the final component.
 Some liquid-based resin systems would require drain holes to
remove excess resin from inside the part, is true for powder.
e. g. A honeycomb- or truss-like internal structure.

iv. Inclusion of Undercuts and Other Mfg. Constraining Features

 Undercuts, draft angles, holes, pockets, etc. must be created in a
specific order when using multiple-stage Con. Processes not in AM.
 Determine where, what type of rib, boss, other strengthening.

v. Interlocking Features
AM machines have a finite build volume and large parts may not be
capable of being built inside them. Break design up into segments.
Interlocking features and maximizing surface area for adhesive.

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vi. Reduction of Part Count in an Assembly
 If part assembly can be simplified using AM, then this should be
done. Assembled and single component print. e. g. assembled hinge.
 Consolidate multiple parts into a single part and to include additional
part complexity where it can improve system performance.

vii. Identification Markings/Numbers To keep track of parts mfd.

Include when designing the CAD model? Software tool if any.

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