Ethics Ilg Prelim Finals For Isap Students 1

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Alimannao Hills, Peñablanca, Cagayan
Note: Respective for ISAP students only
INSTRUCTIONAL
LEARNING GUIDE
GEC 8: ETHICS
INTERSESSION F.Y. 2021-2022
NAME OF STUDENT: ___________________________ YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________

NAME OF TEACHER: ________________________________________________________________
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Prepared by:
MA. SERINA EDEN S. PALEG, RRT
Clinical Instructor
College of Radiologic Technology
Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
Reviewer
WINNIE T. CANCEJO, RRT, MPH
Quality Assurance Officer
Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
PREFACE
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This Instructional Learning Guide for the subject Ethics has been prepared to address the
needs of our learners in the Distance Learning Strategy. The contents of this guide has been carefully
planned and reviewed to suit the learning styles of our students. This guide is a collection of lectures
from different authors of Ethics course textbook and references that is deemed appropriate and
useful for students to acquire knowledge and skills for the course.
How to Use this Learning Guide:
This shall serve as the student’s guide in the completion of the course. All lectures and activities are
given in this material for the students to follow.
The chapter outcomes are given in every coverage to be used by both faculty and students as a
checklist of the knowledge and skills acquired by the students upon completion of the activities and
lessons give.
Lecture Notes are also given based from the different references used for the subject summarize by
the teachers to guide the students in understanding the topics. Below the lectures presented are
teachers’ insights or discussion on important issues and topics your students may explore to enhance
understanding. Case analysis or case-based scenarios are also presented as examples for each topic
presented.
Self-reflection questions are given to evaluate students understanding on the lessons presented. The
teacher may opt to include your answers to be part of your learning portfolio or may be the basis of
exchange of ideas with your classmates.
Specific Instructions are given in each activity that students are required to comply. In case students
have queries or clarifications, the students may contact the subject teacher for reference (please
check the email address, face book account and cell phone number in the helpline section).
Features of the Instructional Learning Guide: Chapter Outcomes

 Key Terms
 Lectures Notes
 Discussion / Teachers Insights
 Relate to Practice (Application)
 Self-Reflection Questions
 Chapter End Evaluation
 Other Activities (to be included in Portfolio Assessments)
 Appendices
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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PRELIMINARIES – COURSE Details
PRELIMS COVERAGE
Chapter 1 – Dimensions of Ethics and Moral Behavior
Lesson 1 Introduction and historical perspective of ethics in the modern society
Chapter 2 – Foundation of Moral Valuation

Lesson 1 Terminology used in the topics and its basic definition and application
Chapter 3 - Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

Lesson 1 Ethics and morals
Lesson 2 Issue, Decision, Judgment and Dilemma
Lesson 3 Level of Moral dilemma - individual, organizational, structural
Lesson 4 Foundation of morality and moral decision
Lesson 5 Descriptive and Normative
MIDTERMS COVERAGE
Chapter 4 – Steps in Ethical Decision Making
Lesson 1 Ethical Reasoning
Lesson 2 Principle of Beneficence
Lesson 3 Step Guide to Ethical Decision
Lesson 4 Ethical Decision-Making Model – Shawn Taylor Model
Chapter 5 – Sources of Authority

Lesson 1 Reasoning
Lesson 2 Authority of the Law
Lesson 3 Authority of One’s Religion
Lesson 4 Authority of One’s Culture
Chapter 6 – Theories of Senses of Self

Lesson 1 Subjectivism
Lesson 2 Psychological Egoism
Lesson 3 Ethical Egoism
SEMI-FINALS COVERAGE
Chapter 7 – Ethics and Virtue
Lesson 1 Aristotle Principle
Chapter 8 – Philosophical Perspective of Ethics

Lesson 1 Aristotle
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Lesson 2 St. Tomas Aquinas
Lesson 3 Immanuel Kant
Chapter 9 – Moral Theories and Mental Frame

Lesson 1 Nature of Morality
Lesson 2 Moral Theories
Lesson 3 Jeremy Bentham Principles
Lesson 4 John Stuart Mill
Lesson 5 Principle of Utility
Lesson 6 Principle of the greatest number
FINAL COVERAGE
Chapter 10 – Perspective of Universal Values
Lesson 1 Peace
Lesson 2 Freedom
Lesson 3 Social Progress
Lesson 4 Equal Rights
Lesson 5 Human Dignity
Chapter 11- Work Ethics for Every Generation

Lesson 1 Baby boomers work ethics
Lesson 2 Generation X-ers Work Ethics
Lesson 3 Millennial Work Ethics
Lesson 4 Generation Z-ers Work Ethics
APPENDICES
 Rubrics
 List of additional references
 List of figures
 Acknowledgement and Disclaimer
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PRELIMINARIES – COURSE DETAILS
Subject: Ethics Units: 3 No. Of Class Hrs: 3 hrs lec / wk

Section: Year Level: Course:
Subject Teacher: Contact Number:
Class Schedule and Consultation Time:
Course Description:
Principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and
interaction with the environment and other shared resources. Mga simulain ng ugaling pang- etika
sa makabagong lipunan sa antas ng pantao at panlipunan at sakaugnayan ng mga ito sa kalikasan
at sa ibang kolektibong yaman.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course and given relevant actual or simulated situations/conditions, the student will
be able to:
1. Students must understand the importance of an ethical behavior learning environment in the
field of their chosen career.
2. Students will be able to connect the knowledge into contexts which they encounter in their
everyday lives.
3. Students will gain a deep understanding of new knowledge, skills and values which they must
be actively engaging with.
4. Students must understand the work ethics for Baby Boomers, Generation X-ers, Generation Z-
ers and Generation Y-ers.
5. Students will be able to appreciate the moral values and ethical challenges in the millennial
era.
Methodology of Implementation:
This is a distance learning strategy where students and teachers are physically at a distance with
each other while the teaching and learning process is going on. The teacher shall meet students thru
different modes of communication (social network, online class, text messaging, email, messenger
etc.) to provide an orientation of the program and instructions for the students to follow throughout
the duration of the course.
Guidelines are prepared by the teachers based on institutional policies to ensure that students will be
able to follow through the different activities set for the course. There is no face to face activity
which means students are not required to report to school to attend classes, rather, they shall
interact with their teachers in different technology-based communication strategies set by the
teachers for the course.
Topics shall be assigned according to the syllabus of the subject. Activities are given at pre-
determined time to be completed by the students. At the completion of each topic, students are
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required to take the evaluation examinations which shall be given by the teachers which determine
applicability of the lessons learned.
During the duration of the course, students can consult their teachers from time to time to address
their difficulties or challenges they may encounter along the way.
The subjects are structured in sequential order. Course materials and references shall be provided by
the teachers in advance to facilitate teaching and learning process.
Delivery Mode:
1. Printed Text Materials or saved in USB device
2. Audio / video materials
3. Downloaded links
PRELIM-COVERAGE (27 HOURS)

Specific Instructions in the completion of this Chapter:
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1. Student must read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes specified above and
make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and skills after completing the entire chapter.
This shall be the basis of the teacher in the formulation of the Summative evaluation given at
the end of the chapter.
2. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of topics that were not
clearly stated or understood by the student. These areas can be referred to the subject
teacher during consultation hours provided for the students to contact the teacher.
3. Study the discussions and insights given and follow instructions for activities if there are.
4. After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the lessons given along with
this learning package and watch the given videos to supplement your reading. (Please check
your USB content).
5. Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self- reflection questions
given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and what to do to comply with required
answers.
6. Compile your outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted at specific date by your
teacher.
7. Should the student have any queries or clarifications with the topics, the student should
contact the subject teacher in the given consultation hours which can be found in the
preliminaries of this material.
Key Terms:
 Ethics
 Morality  Character
 Philosophical Science  Behavior
CHAPTER 1 – Dimensions of Ethics and Moral Behavior
Lesson 1: Introduction and historical perspective of ethics in the modern society
Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the completion of this coverage / Chapter, the students shall be able to:
1. Understand the concept of ethics and its relevance to daily life and rules in the
society.
2. Identify the ethical aspect of human life.
3. Distinguish the historical perspective of ethics and its principle relevance to moral
standard.
4. Define and explain the nomenclatures used in the discussion.
5. Differentiate ethics and morals.
HISTORY OF ETHICS:
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The known history of pure ethics or ethics (moral) theories begin with ancient Greek
philosophers (Sophists, Socrates, Socratic schools, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Stoics) and
after recovered by early English positivists has been the main topic of discussions in the Medieval
times in Europe.
As the scholastic doctrines are by-passed (therefore Christian Ethics is not a scientific term
anymore), we come to the illuminated times after the Medieval, and continue with Hobbes, the
Father of Modern Ethics. This type of ethics is known by two logical methods; criticism and
comparison.
After Hobbes, English and German schools of ethics have been differentiated. These led to
English Intuitionists (naturalists) followed by Utilitarians against Kantian ethics.
Throughout 19th Century these ideas have been discussed very fiercely throughout Europe.
Then Comte, Darwin, and finally Spencer followed by Green came in, who set the evolution
concept into physical sciences as well as the development of ethics. So at the beginning of 20th
century Ethics was more with evolutionary concepts but still divided between Utilitarians and
Kantians (Kant’s Categorical Imperative).
INTRODUCTION:
Morality is life itself. It must not be considered as a mere extract from the crude ore of facts
and events that happen to us daily. Neither must morality be considered as a product of brooding
about one’s own feelings, nor must it be constructed as a matter of frills rather than fundamentals.
Let us formally start our inquiry by studying the meaning of ethics:
ETHICS – Etymologically, ethics is derived from the Greek word “Ethicos”, or that which
pertains to ethos, the English translation of which is “custom” or “character” From this
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etymological meaning, ethics is taken to mean as philosophical science that deals with the morality of
human conduct or human acts.
The relevance of ethics is seen in the fact that it is a basic discipline. It is the backbone of
human existence. It serves as a vertebra that gives support to the whole life direction of man.
Without ethics, there will be a total collapse of the whole human person and the entire human
society. Life itself will become a stinking mess.
By nature, ethics is absolute and immutable; there is only one moral law. But, the problem is
that the moral law is translated by so many charismatic thinkers – most of who are philosophers and
theologians. This is the reason why we have manifold kinds of ethical theories or call them moral
teachings. There is a dialectical ethical theory, hedonism, pessimism, situationism,
utilitarianism, evolutionism, existentialism, Kantianism, and the rest of the Western
ethical theories. In the East, we have a lot to study and reflect on. There is ethics in Hinduism,
Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Confucianism, Zen Buddhism, among others.
Despite all these, we still cannot say that contemporary man is harmoniously attuned to the
immutable and absolute Natural Moral Law.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
In this regard, the question of the relevance of ethics in today’s education should also be raised. We
must abandon straight off the idea that we have to sacrifice morality in favour of “practicality” to
earn an inch of progress in our economic capabilities. We have to build a community of persons who
are exposed to proper training so that they will be well equipped with the necessary virtues in order
for them to smash the fetters that hinder us from attaining a high pitch of moral ideals. We,
therefore have to be vigilant and attentive to the warp and woof of the fraying moral fabric. If the
school is a very influential venue for effecting a sound formation and transformation of human
persons, the, let us start there.
Relate to Practice:
To enter the industry, you belong in the future, is to enter into a social compact not only with your
clients you serve but with all other practitioners and community at large. How will you be able to
apply ethics in this regard? The honouring of this compact will require a commitment to excellence in
your chosen career and a commitment to a set of appropriate ethical and professional etiquette
behaviors. What is the essence of this appropriate ethical and professional etiquette behaviors?
Note:
Please watch the video title “History of Ethics” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
Self-Reflection:
Based from your readings of the above notes, answer the following as best as you can. Please write
your answers in your notebook and place the date of your accomplishment.
1. How do ethics and morality affect our daily living?
2. Why is it important to practice ethical behaviors to a community at large?
3. Why is it considered that ethics is immutable and absolute?
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References:
 E. Babor., “Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action” Updated Edition 2006
 R. Edge, J. Groves., “Ethics of Health Care: A Guide for Clinical Practice” 4 th Edition 2019
 http://www.realtechsupport.org/UB/WBR/texts/markups/brief_summary_ethics
CHAPTER END EVALUATION
General Instruction: Place your answers at the given worksheet attached at the back of
this Instructional Learning Guide. Reproducing the worksheet is strictly prohibited. Please
write your answers legibly and neatly.
Directions: Analyze and comprehend the given scenario below applying what you have
learned from the previous chapter. Answer the follow-up questions after the case study
presented.
Situation:
A young man enters pilot training and needs to take a leave of absence owing to
mental health issues, which he describes as “burnout”. Following therapy, he is allowed to
return his studies and completes the course. After graduation he applies for a position with a
small regional airline, fully disclosing his previous problems. He completes the application and
health examinations and is found to be fit for service and employed. He again begins to suffer
from depression and suicidal thoughts and seeks professional outpatient care. Although as a
pilot he is required by professional duty to self-report any health condition to his employer
that would restrict his ability to perform his duties, he fails to do so. As a result, the
unthinkable occurs, and he crashes his plane, killing himself, the crew and all of the
passengers.
The health care providers in this case knew that the young pilot was having difficulties
that would preclude him from flying a plane and therefore had given him a note providing him
a medical release from duty that day. However, given the level of professionalism of his duties
and the need for personal privacy and medical confidentiality, the established process called
for self-reporting, which the pilot did not do.
Questions:
1. Given the nature of his work and his condition, should the health care providers have
reported his condition to his employers and not depended on him performing his
professional duty of self-reporting?
2. Would you be willing to generalize your decision to other positions such as bus drivers
and train engineers?
3. How do you differentiate the modern and the contemporary trends of looking at
morality?
4. Does this chapter help you understand better morality in relation to ethics in your day-
to-day life? How?
CHAPTER 2 – Foundation of Moral Valuation

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Lesson 1: Terminology used in the topics and its basic definition and application
Ethics is a philosophical science. This means

that ethics is one of the many disciplines in
philosophy. In general, we can speak of four
divisions or discipline sin philosophy namely:
1. Descriptive/Speculative
2. Normative
3. Practical
4. Critical
 DESCRIPTIVE/SPECULATIVE – is a discipline in philosophy that posits the question:

“What is the nature (essence and substance) of reality?
Example: Metaphysics – philosophical science of human beings)
 NORMATIVE – is a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: “What is good and
what is bad?” or “What is right or wrong action?”
Example: Ethics or Moral Philosophy
 PRACTICAL – is a discipline in philosophy which reflects upon truth in relation to action.
Example: Logic - reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of validity.
 CRITICAL – is a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: “What is truth?”
Example: Epistemology - the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods,
validity, and scope. Epistemology is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief
from opinion.
So, based on the categorizations above, ethics as a philosophical science is a Normative
Philosophy. But what makes ethics as a normative philosophy a science?
Ethics is a science (normative science)

because it systematically establishes standards or
norms of human conduct. It, therefore qualifies
human conduct as to whether it is good or bad
and right or wrong. After it qualifies human
conduct, ethics also requires a definitive human
conduct. This means that it requires man to act
properly as a human being. And to act properly as
man, ethics idealistically requires man to do what
is good and what is right.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
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With this, we now say that ethics is a normative philosophical science that deals with the goodness
or badness, the rightness or the wrongness of human acts.
Relate to Practice:
As a future professional, how will you able to apply ethics as science? In regards to clients, how will
you act primarily in the best interest of those who you serve while applying ethics as a normative
philosophy?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Where Does Morality Come From?” as to summarization of this topic and
an additional reference.
Self-Assessment:
Case Analysis: answer the following questions after comprehending the case presented
below.
Barbara Gonzales is a special procedures nurse at a medium-sized community hospital. She
enjoys almost all aspects of her job with exception of dealing with Dr. Jones, who is invariably late
for procedure appointments. Barbara understands that physicians have full schedules and often must
take additional time with some patients, which makes them late for all other appointments that day.
However, in this case, it is not a professional issue that is causing the problem but rather a personal
one. It is widely known among the staff that he is having an affair with a nurse from critical care unit
and spends time talking with the nurse while on the job. Barbara does not care who Dr. Jones is
having an affair with and feels it is not her business to judge. However, she resents being brought
into the matter, as the doctor has directed her to tell his waiting patients that he is being held up in
an emergency.
1. Is nurse Gonzales making a big deal over a small matter?
2. Does she have a duty to cover for her colleague?
3. How would you address this issue?
4. What best serves the patients?
References:
 R. Edge, J. Groves., “Ethics of Health Care: A Guide for Clinical Practice” 4 th Edition
2019
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presented.
Situation:
A mother brings her two-year old daughter into the clinic. In your review of her case history,
you see that the child has received no immunizations. The mother tells you that she believes
that vaccines weaken the immune system and that she heard in the news that vaccinations
are associated with the increased incidence of autism. You know that it is still being reported
in entertainment celebrity news, but he autism connection has been debunked in scientific
literature.
Questions:
1. Religious beliefs are protected by the Constitution, but can parents refuse to vaccinate
their children based on unfounded fears?
2. Should these unvaccinated children be allowed in public schools?
3. Should we adopt an “everybody” requirement policies like for other countries for the
sake of public health?
4. In this chapter, how will you able to apply ethics as a science?
CHAPTER 3 - Ethical Dimension of Human Existence
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Lesson 1 Ethics and morals
Since we have already clarified our terms on ethics as a philosophical science, now let us
investigate how and why ethics deals with the morality of human acts.
MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS – refers to the goodness or the badness, the rightness or
the wrongness of human acts.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALITY
On the basis of etymology, there is no difference between ethics and morality. As cited earlier
that ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos” meaning “custom”. Morality on the other hand comes
from the Latin word “Mos” or “Moris” which also means “custom” In this regard, ethics is also
called Moral Philosophy or precisely, the other name of ethics is moral philosophy.
There is of course an undeniable affinity of ethics with moral philosophy and vice versa based
on their etymological construction. However, there is a slight difference between the two. This
difference can be traced, if not asserted, by way of applying the concept of theory and practice in
ethics.
Ethics as a normative philosophical science is a theoretical science of good and bad or right
and wrong actions. So, ethics provides the principles on the morality of human acts; it equips
man with a (theoretical) knowledge of the morality of human acts. We know, however that knowing
is different from doing. It does not necessarily follow that does what he knows. This means that
ethics does not actually guarantee that man will be moral or good. One can only become moral (or
good human person) when one applies ethics.
In other words, when one does the theories of ethics, one actually performs the theory,
meaning one is actually doing ethics. This is morality: the praxis of the theory (Ethics). If
morality therefore is the practice of ethics, Morality should be then properly called APPLIED
ETHICS.
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While Ethics (as a theoretical science) provides principles or bases of right and wrong and
good or bad actions, morality actualizes the theory. As ethics outlines theories of right and wrong and
good or bad actions, morality is nothing else but a doing of ethics.
LESSON 2 Issue, Decision, Judgment and

Dilemma
To call something “right” in the abstract tells us little. To tell

what the criteria are for making that assessment, we need a
context. Otherwise we simply don’t know what it means.
Value judgments and prescriptive judgments,
although both normative may be either moral or non-
moral. This statement does not tell us what makes
judgments moral other of course, than that they are made on
moral ground; that is a difficult and controversial issue. But is enough to indicate the importance of
recognizing these distinctions.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS

 MORAL STANDARD – refers to the norms which we have about types of actions which we
believe to be morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral standards deal
with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human beings. The validity
of moral standards comes from the line of reasoning that was taken to back or support them,
and thus are not able to be formed or changed by particular bodies of authority.
Developing a moral compass in children is a

responsibility that should be shared by the family,
educational institutions and community at large. Each
one of them has a role to play in instilling personal and
collective values and supporting the development of the
individual’s ability to judge what is right and wrong and
to know how to act accordingly.
The foundations of evolving moral systems rest on a complex cybernetic process, scientific
study of control and communication that sustains and preserves the human species. This is a
dynamic process that drives the creation of moral and ethical standards. Every human action inspires
a corresponding reaction whether subtle in nature or violent. Some people are more emotionally
reactive than others. Emotions can get out of control if not regulated by laws, customs, moral codes,
professional codes and even the rules of etiquette.
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Rules are stabilizing force that enhances the survivability of individuals, families and nations.
Mathematically, the initial point evident in human behaviour is the survival of the species. It is
defined and redefined in many ways, such as a concern for public safety.
 NON-MORAL STANDARD – refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack
ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion
standards, rules in games, and various house rules.
ETIQUETTE – refers to the norms of correct conduct in polite society or more generally to any
special code of behaviour or courtesy. The rules of etiquette are prescriptions for socially acceptable
behaviour. If you violate them, you’re likely to be considered ill-mannered, impolite or even
uncivilized but not necessarily immoral. If you want to fit in, get along with others and be thought
well of by them, you should observe the common rules of politeness or etiquette.
STATUTES – are laws enacted by legislative bodies. The law that defines and prohibits theft is a
statute. Congress and state legislatures enact statutes. (Laws enacted by local governing bodies such
as city councils usually are termed ordinances). Statutes make up a large part of the law and are
what many of us mean when we speak of “Laws”. Limited in their time and knowledge, legislatures
often set up boards or agencies whose functions include issuing detailed regulations covering certain
kinds of conduct – administrative regulations.
Somewhere between etiquette and law lie

professional codes of ethics. These are the rules
that are supposed to govern the conduct of members
of a given profession. Generally speaking, the members
of a profession are understood to have agreed to abide
by those rules as a condition of their engaging in that
profession. Sometimes these codes are unwritten and
are part of the common understanding of the members
of a particular profession – for example: the professors
should not date their students. In other instances,
these codes or portions of them may be written down
by an authoritative body so they may be better taught
and more efficiently enforced.
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TEACHER’S INSIGHT
It is important to remember that the moral development of young people depends on the ethical
capacities of the adults who interact with them on a daily basis- especially parents, but also,
teachers, members of their external family and other adults in the community. Every young person
needs both a role model to inspire them and an environment that holds up good values and
celebrates them.
Given their nature, professional codes of ethics are neither a complete nor a completely reliable
guide to one’s moral obligations. As a professional, you must take seriously the injunctions of your
profession, but you still have the responsibility to critically assess those rules for yourself.
Note:
Please watch the video title “Ethics vs. Morality” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
LESSON 3 Level of Moral dilemma - individual, organizational, structural
MORAL DILLLEMAS – is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and
have moral reasons for choosing each action. What is common to the two well-known cases is
conflict. In each case, an agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions,
but doing both actions is not possible. Ethicists called situations like this moral dilemmas.
A moral dilemma is a situation where:
1. You are presented with two or

more actions, all of which you have
the ability to perform.
2. There are moral reasons for you to
choose each of the actions
3. You cannot perform all of the
actions and have to choose which
actions when there are three or
more choices to perform.
Since there are moral reasons for you to choose each action, and you cannot choose them all,
it follows that no matter what choice you make, you will be failing to follow your morals. In other
words, someone or something will suffer no matter what choice you make. For example, your
friend will suffer if you tell the truth and you will likely lose your friendship. But if you don’t tell the
truth, you will be a liar and possibly a lawbreaker and your friend will get arrested for a crime she
did not commit.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILLEMA IN THE WORKPLACE

Ethical dilemmas also arise in the workplace. The stress in the workplace is not only a result
of beating deadlines and what not but also of the ethical issues surrounding the workplace. As it is
very important that employees live up to certain standards prescribed by the companies and
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organizations, it is likewise significant for the latter to uphold ethical standards in and for the
company.
Snith (n.d.) explains three levels of ethical standards in a business organization where we
might find ourselves having ethical dilemmas:
1. INDIVIDUAL – The dilemma here is when the employee’s ethical standards are in opposition
to that of his or her employer, which could lead to tensions in the workplace.
2. ORGANIZATIONAL – Ethical standards are seen in company policies. Still, and all there
might be a gap between those who run the business whose ethical standards deviate from
that of the organization. This might cause ethical challenges and conflicts for those who are
working in the company.
3. SYSTEMIC – Also called systemic level, here, ethics is predisposed by the larger operating
environment of the company. Political pressures, economic conditions, societal attitudes and
others can affect the operating standards and policies of the organization where it might face
moral dilemmas outside of the organization but within the macro-society where it belongs.
Ethical dilemmas in the workplace are quite common and they’re not always easy to
answer. The concepts are straightforward, but the challenge is in the execution. Even when the
organization have great policies and procedures and follow the laws and regulations, there’s still a
high risk of unethical behaviour.
Relate to Practice
As moral as we want to be, our convictions are oftentimes challenged and if not strong enough, are
dejectedly compromised. Was there a time that you compromised your moral convictions? How did
you feel about it? Moral dilemmas arise due to inconsistency in our principles. What are the moral
dilemmas that college students like you usually encounter?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Moral Dilemmas” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
Self-Assessment
below.
As a college student, you can’t get off the fact that you have chosen a field of endless studying
for your chosen profession. You’re going to have sleepless nights and days to pass the exams and
these are all just part of becoming a public servant someday.
1. As a student, have you ever encountered any experiences in studying that has something to do
with the perspective of Ethics whether in oral judgment, ethical dilemma or moral
dilemma?
Follow-up questions:
If yes, have you ever applied and identified some of the principles? What culture of the of your
chosen Program became unique in relation to other professions?
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If no, in what perspective of Ethics would you like to explore and relate to your experience as a
student?
Lesson 4 Foundation of morality and moral decision
In making moral decisions, Immanuel Kant runs to human

autonomy as the principal foundation of morality.
“Autonomy” literally means giving the law to oneself, and
our understanding provides laws that constitute the a priori
framework or our experience. This a priori knowledge is
“prior to” or independent of experience but more
importantly, identical for all human beings and not subject to
change. (Louden, 1992)
To explain this foundation of autonomy or freedom of moral act, Kant

pointed out that moral rightness and wrongness apply only to free
agents who have the capacity to regulate their behaviour and have it
in their power, at the time of their actions, either to act rightly or not.
Hence, when we make choices, we must act “under the idea of
freedom” (Morality as Freedom, n.d) Free will then become the foundation of our moral act, which
is done also out of our moral responsibility.
However, freedom does not give us the ability to decide similarly. Our free will dictates that
we have differences in self-consciousness which makes it even more complicated to entirely grasp
Kant’s philosophical mooring. Rationality is not entirely the same for all of us. That being said, it
could be our exclusive basis in making moral decisions. However, it would be difficult to not use
reason in making moral judgments as it is enlightening in our reflections and introspections in doing
the moral acts itself.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Our attempt to act based on our moral standards will not be met with praise at all times. It will
constantly be faced with challenges and criticisms. Since not all people hold the same moral and
ethical principles, we will eventually face moral dilemmas. Nonetheless, it will always be reasonable
to act on moral issues based on our instinctive rationality, in consideration of the learnings that we
had from our previous experiences and the values that we deeply uphold.
Relate to Practice
Do you feel free in making moral decisions in your chosen profession? What is the significance of
freedom in making moral decisions?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Moral vs. Non moral Standards” as to summarization of this topic and an
additional reference.
Self-Reflection
20
1. When do we say then that an act is moral or non-moral?
2. Should employees experiencing moral dilemmas at work leave their jobs no matter how
compensating they are for them?
Lesson 5 Descriptive and Normative
NORMATIVE ETHICS - is about intrinsic value, right and wrong, and/or virtues. The following are
claims concerning normative ethics:
1. It is wrong to kill people just because they make you angry.
2. We should fight to free slaves when necessary, even when doing so is illegal.
3. Pain is intrinsically bad—we ought not to cause pain without a good reason to do so.
4. It is reasonable for a person to give charity to those in need, even if no reciprocation should
be expected.
Normative ethics is about what actually has overriding importance for determining how we ought to
act. Even if you want a million dollars, you ought not kill innocent people in order to get a million
dollars in return. Etiquette is often said to be similar to normative ethics, except etiquette is not of
overriding importance. Burping is considered to be rude, but it is not that big of a deal.
DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS - is about what motivates pro-social behavior, how people reason about
ethics, what people believe to have overriding importance, and how societies regulate behavior (such
as by punishing people for doing certain actions). We know that empathy helps motivate pro-social
behavior (such as giving to charity) and we know that our beliefs about what has overriding
importance is somewhat based on the culture we live in.
What behaviors are punished in a society tells us something about what the people find to be
of overriding importance, and the type of punishment I have in mind is basically just negative
consequences. Punishment could even be social pressure, such as being criticized for doing
something unethical.
There are certain predictable ways people reasons about ethics (often in unreasonable ways).
For example, people often overestimate the importance of consequences when considering how well
reasoned people’s moral decisions are.
References:
 Leano, Gubi-on., “Ethics for College Students” 2018
 Palean, Nazario, Descartin, Mendoza, Valero., “Ethics: Exploring Moral Philosophy”2019
 https://ethicalrealism.wordpress.com/2014/05/05/normative-descriptive-ethics/
21
presented.
Situation:
Joe is a 62-year-old building contractor who has been in an ICU for the past 10 weeks. Per
chart notes, he is not improving sufficiently to warrant hope for recovery. The best that can
be hoped for now, says his critical care physician, is discharge to a long-term acute care
hospital the prognosis does not include any likelihood of return to baseline, or to home. The
situation is dire, and Joe seems to "get it". On the Saturday of Joe's tenth week in ICU, he
mouths a message to his nurse, and then to the physician who is summoned, and then to an
ethics consultant also. "Stop everything. Give me something. I want to die."
Questions:
1. In the rule of Autonomy, if you are in the situation what will you do and why?
2. However, his condition is such that she cannot die on his own. He is begging and
pleading with you to help him commit suicide. This would, of, course be illegal. What
would you do?
3. As a future professional, moral standard deal with matters which can either seriously
harm or seriously benefit human beings. How are you going to apply it in your daily
living? Cite an example.
22
Midterms Coverage
This
2. shall be the basis of the teacher in the formulation of the Summative evaluation given at the
end of the chapter.
your USB content).
answers.
teacher.

1. Deepen the knowledge and familiarize on the steps in ethical decision making as well
as ethical reasoning.
2. Can discuss the theories of senses of self.
3. Acquire necessary knowledge on the ethical dimension of human existence.
4. Distinguish systematic analysis of ethical problems.
5. Apply moral reasoning in an Allied Health setting.
Midterms Coverage
Chapter 4 – Steps in Ethical Decision Making
Lesson 1 Ethical Reasoning
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Reason and impartiality are not absolute to any particular group of people, while morality
is absolute. Whatever is considered wrong morally within a certain group of people cannot be
debated through reason. Morality decides the outcome first and then employs reason to justify it. For
impartiality, fairness is given more importance where people are supposed to be treated equally
before the law. While morality may apply generally to a particular group of people, the same cannot
be said of reason and impartiality because the two take a more individualized moral perception.
REASON – is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts,
applying logic and changing or justifying practices, institutions and beliefs based on new or existing
information (Kompridis, 2000).
Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition and intellect. Reason is a declaration made to
explain or justify action, decision or conviction.
The proper role of ethical reasoning is to highlight acts of two kinds: those which enhance
the well-being of others – that warrant our praise and those that harm or diminish the well-
being of others – and thus warrant our criticism. Developing one’s ethical reasoning abilities is
crucial because there is in human nature a string tendency toward egotism, prejudice, self-
justification and self-deception Reasons have everything to do with ethics: If you have no good
reasons for an act or a belief, then you can’t have thought it through very well and maybe you
shouldn’t be doing it or believing it at all. It’s quite scary to think that there are people out there who
are voting, protesting, financing causes or running campaigns without any clear idea of why they are
doing it. Each and every one of us should be clear about our reasons for our values, beliefs and
behaviors and we should be able to give a reasoned account of them to others.
IMPARTIALITY – also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness is a principle of justice

holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
Impartiality makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political
,,opinions. It endeavors to relieve the suffering of individuals, being guided solely by their needs and
to give priority to the most urgent cases of distress.
PREDICTING CONSEQUENCES
Moral reasoning involves predicting the consequences of an action before we act. There are
always consequences when we take the action, we think is right and when we try to be good persons
and usually these include unintended and intended outcomes.
We must remember however that before we act, we can never know for certain what the
consequences will be. Therefore, we should take care in predicting what will result from acting on
ethical presumption. In doing ethics, we look at rules (duties and rights) and at stories (character
24
and relationships) to construct a presumption and then test this presumption by predicting what we
do know and don’t know about likely consequences of acting on it.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
In deciding on important matters, no approach is more appropriate than a moral one. Morality, after
all is first and foremost a matter of consulting reason. Given that feelings sometimes get the better
of people when choosing where to stand on issues, sound moral reasoning must play an even more
critical role. Moreover, it is not enough that one simply imagines oneself, with one’s own interests, in
the place of those other persons – rather one must imagine oneself as being in their place while
having, in turn, their interests and desires.
Relate to Practice
Reason only informs you about what transpired and how. So in assessing moral value of an incident,
will you based your moral valuations solely on feelings? How do you think can moral impartiality help
in resolving a societal issue such as racism and sexism?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “Ethical
Decision Making” as to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
Self-Reflection
Based from your readings of the above notes, write about three ethical dilemmas you have
encountered in the past that required you to use both reason and impartiality in solving them.
Lesson 2 Principle of Beneficence
BENEFICENCE - The generic definition of beneficence is

an act of charity, mercy, and kindness. It connotes doing
well to others and invokes a wide array of moral obligation.
Beneficent acts can be performed from a position of
obligation in what is owed and from a supererogatory
perspective, meaning more than what is owed. An example of this is what has become known as a
random act of kindness.
There is much written over the centuries by philosophers on this ethic because of its great
power and potential for distributive justice and the greater good.
In the health care milieu, modern thought on beneficence embraces humanism. All persons
have immutable rights to life and liberty, and these rights are to be respected, nurtured, and
facilitated. Reverence toward the patient and his or her suffering experience shows respect for the
25
individual and for life itself. Practitioners are to act in a way that contributes to the patient's health
and well-being and to take care to refrain from doing anything that would cause harm. Beneficence
strives for the best care while embracing not doing anything harmful.
In health care, no malfeasance is embodied in the principle of primum non nocere and is
found in the Hippocratic Oath as “physician
—do no harm.” Some patients' problems have solutions that may not be worth pursuing when
the risk-benefit ratio is considered. Autonomy, veracity, beneficence, and no malfeasance all apply to
this type of decision making.
Beneficence has always been an integral part of biomedical ethics along with other
fundamental ethical tenets including autonomy, justice, and confidentiality. Of these, there can be a
struggle to balance the rights of the patient to choose and the beneficent intent of the caregiver.
People engaged in health care, health research, and public health is to appreciate that potential risks
must be weighed against the benefits of care and that the other party be an informed and willing
participant. All health care practitioners take an oath on graduation before beginning their clinical
work as professionals. The oath explicitly states, among many other obligations, the pursuit of good,
the avoidance of things harmful, and embraces the ethic of beneficence proactively. This has been
described as producing net benefit over harm, which is to be sought after in all aspects of the clinical
encounter.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Persons engaged in medical practice, research, and public health appreciate that risks of harm
presented by interventions must often be weighed against possible benefits for patients, subjects,
and the public. Their professional obligations are deeply informed by their commitments to prevent
or reduce harm and to produce a positive balance of goods over inflicted harms.
Relate to Practice
Beneficent actions and motives have traditionally occupied a central place in morality. Common
examples today are found in social welfare programs, scholarships for needy and meritorious
students, communal support of health-related research, policies to improve the welfare of animals,
philanthropy, disaster relief, programs to benefit children and the incompetent and preferential hiring
and admission policies. What makes these diverse acts beneficent? Are such beneficent acts and
policies obligatory or merely the pursuit of optional moral ideals?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “Beneficence”
as to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
Self-Assessment
below.
26
If one of your family members is about to be put to jail for something, he had done
wrong, how will you react on this scenario? Unto what extent would you take risk of
saving him/her? Will you let your feelings get the best of you or will you let your sound
moral reasoning take part? Explain your answer in not more than 100 words.
Lesson 3 Step Guide to Ethical Decision
THE SEVEN (7) STEP GUIDES TO ETHIC
AL DECISION MAKING AND MORAL REASONING
It stands that in making moral decisions, it helps if one follows a distinct guideline. According
to American philosopher Michael Davis (1999) who came up with this seven-step guide, professionals
and students alike exhibit stronger “moral reasoning skills” if they base their actions and/or decisions
on a codified list. What is unique about Davis’ model is his emphasis on multiple alternatives in
dealing with ethical dilemmas. The steps are as follows:
1. State the problem – Determine the possible moral dilemmas at hand. Is there something
about your judgment and/or decision that make you uncomfortable? Is there any conflict of
interest present?
2. Check the facts – When we examine a scenario closely, what is initially identified as a
problem or dilemma can surprisingly disappear. Some, on the other hand, can be amplified or
altered radically due to new details that might come to the light upon closer scrutiny.
3. Identify relevant factors – Who are the people involved? What laws or professional codes
can possibly apply? Are there practical constraints? (For example: You are a journalist ad you
were given 5000 php by a politician whom the article you are currently writing is about. Will
the money create conflict of interest?)
4. Develop a list of options – Do you have a set of alternatives to the action or decision (in
relation to a given scenario) in mind? Be creative and develop a list of other choices. Avoid
the binarism of “yes/no” questions in making moral decisions (such as “Should I do it or
not?”). Identify people you can potentially approach who may provide fresh perspectives on
the situation you are confronted with.
5. Test the options – Michael Davis has included several test that may prove to be useful
where one is weighing in on his/her choices and decisions:
a. Harm Test – Would less harm be done on other people when I favour this one
decision over the others?
b. Publicity Test – Would I be proud of this decision if it makes the evening news?
Would I want my loved ones to know?
c. Defensibility Test – Would I be able to defend this decision before the court or a
panel of reviewers without appearing self-serving?
d. Reversibility Test – Would I still prefer my option of choice if it were to have some
adverse effects on me instead of others? Would I still want it despite the implications?
e. Colleague Test – How would my profession’s ethics committee see the option? What
would they say?
27
f. Organization Test – What would my company’s (or organization) ethics officials
and/or legal counsel say regarding the option?
g. Virtue Test – What kind of person would also choose such an option? Is he/she who
someone might consider as “virtuous”? What would I become of me if I enact this
option all the time?
6. Come with a choice or decision based on the abovementioned steps.
7. Review Steps 1-6 - What can you do to prevent making such a decision again? Are there
precautions to take? What changes should be affected on an organizational and personal level
(such as reviewing policy or being a more discerning employee, among others)? Would it be
possible to get more support next time?
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
These are a series of basic questions that should be asked when confronted with ethical dilemmas.
These are often complex situations with no clear-cut resolution, and without a right or wrong
answer. But these decision-making processes will go a long way towards helping all of us make
informed decisions that can justify consequent actions.
Relate to Practice
Before you make a major decision, think of the following question again: Will these leads me to the
right path? Will I be able to face the consequences justly? Will this help me to become a better
individual?
Self-Reflection:
1. Among the Seven-Step Guide to Moral reasoning of Michael Davis, in your own perception,
what do you think can still be best added to the list? give at least one additional step. Justify
your answer.
Lesson 4 Ethical Decision-Making Model - Shaun Taylor Model
Shaun Taylor's presentation: Geo-ethics Forums given at the 2014 Teaching Geo-Ethics

workshop, provided a simple model to help students engage Ethical Decision-Making that includes
a) The context/facts of the situation

b) The stakeholders
c) The decision-makers
d) These inform a number of alternate choices
e) That is mediated through the evaluation of impacts and negotiations among the parties, that lead
to
28
f) Selection of an optimal choice.
Taylor provides guidance for what makes a good ethical dilemma discussion, including:
o Trust, respect, disagreement
o without personal attacks
o Being judgmental vs. making a judgment
o Emphasize process vs. conclusion
o Uncertainty is OK
o Description then prescription
References:
 https://serc.carleton.edu/geoethics/Decision-Making
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principle-beneficence/
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3342811/
29
presented.
Situation:
Romeo and Jerome are good friends. They are brothers not by blood but by heart.
Both of them are already a graduate of the same program and together landed the same job.
One of the most important things to do routinely is to report to your work place ahead of
time. One day Jerome appeared to work one and a half hour late in his shift. Then he uttered
“Andyan ka naman eh.” signifying that you’ll cover his mistake his fault for the day.
A week before the release of salary, the person in-charge asked for all of your
attendance manually due loss of record. Jerome told him that he did not commit any record
of late and absence in his attendance. It was noted by the person in-charge and turned to
you to ask the same question.
Questions:
1. If you are caught in this situation, how will you be solving the problem?
Present your ideas using the duty-oriented and principled reasoning.
Remember that in this form of reasoning, it is not the consequences that are
considered but rather the principle involved.
2. If you are Jerome, what will you do?
3. If you are Romeo, how will you manage the situation?
4. Applying what you learned in this chapter, how does ethical decision- making
affect your daily living?
Chapter 5 – Sources of Authority
Lesson 1 Reasoning
ETHICS vs FEELINGS
Many times, there’s a conflict

between what we naturally feel and
what is considered to be ethical. Our
subconscious reaction to a news event
might be hatred, jealousy or other
negative feelings, but we might not be
able to morally argue why we feel that
way.
The problem is most of our feelings in today’s world are unethical, politically incorrect or even
outright harmful. It takes a great deal of effort to retrospect and self-analyze our feelings to judge
whether they are ethical or not.
GROUPISM
30
 Natural feeling – I am a part of a group. I am supposed to help this group become better. I
am also supposed to compete with other groups.
 Reasoning – Being part of a herd made it easier for us ancestors to survive in the wild.
There were so many survival benefits that belonging to a group brought. Naturally, our
ancestors started developing good feelings about belonging to a group.
 Ethical viewpoint – Help the group. Help other groups too. There is no compelling reason
to compete in today’s times of people.
PATRIOTISM
 Natural feeling – I was born in a place. I am supposed to help people in the geographical
vicinity around me. There are human-decided borders that definite my country. Those outside
the border don’t deserve that much attention as those inside the border do.
 Reasoning – Patriotism is groupism in a higher scale. Most borders were drawn for political
benefits by a small group of individuals running that country. There have been countless
stories of propaganda by governments to motivate people to join their wars to fight people
over borders. We humans tend to justify these efforts as noble.
 Ethical viewpoint – Wars are always bad. There is no reason to be proud of your country
just because you were born in it. It is okay to be in your country because you are used to it.
But it is also okay to move to other countries and help those countries.
DUNBAR’S NUMBER
 Natural feeling – I cannot maintain more than 150 stable relationships.
 Reasoning – Our brains have limited capacity and it becomes mentally hard to maintain
relationships.
 Ethical viewpoint – Acceding to the Dunbar’s number promotes Groupism. Just as we
pushed ourselves to become better humans, we should also try to push the Dunbar number
limit further. Accepting that all life forms in this world (and outside the world if life exists) are
part of the same group counters the negative effects of Groupism.
NEGATIVE FEELINGS TO CONTENT ON SOCIAL NETWORKS

 Natural feeling – I hate what’s being posted on Facebook. They are just stupid selfies,
people gloating their achievements or just distracting unproductive content.
 Reasoning – Many of us have been taught to compete with others since our childhood. We
tend to compare ourselves with others. We don’t like selfies because they are attention-
seeking and we look down upon those who seek attention. Distracting, unproductive content
is noise to us and we cannot handle much noise in our daily lives.
 Ethical viewpoint – We don’t have to compete with our friends. We can applaud their life
achievements without comparing our lives with theirs. We don’t have to look down upon
those who seek attention. Comedians, actors and other entertainers are attention-seeking.
But we don’t look down upon them. It is up to us to filter out noise in our lives. Social
31
networks aren’t thrusted into our face. We can choose to stay away from them if they are
noisy. Or even better, adjust the content shown in our feed and tailor it to our comfort.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
It is easy to give in to our feelings. An analogy would be with unhealthy foods. It is easy to choose
unhealthy foods because they are tasty and easy to prepare. But we hit the gym, avoid those foods
Relate
and to Practice
exercise because we want to become better individuals. Similarly, we can take the ethical route,
Whatnegative
avoid if you have conflict
feelings and of interest
exercise in your
those work because
reactions but it is we
not want
in antoarea critical
become or central
better to your
individuals.
responsibilities? What are you going to do?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “Moral
Emotions” as to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
Self-Reflection:
Answer the following as best as you can. Please write your answers in your notebook and
place the date of your accomplishment.
In the overall aspect of your life as a student, son or daughter and as a citizen of the country, in a
scale of 1 to 3, unto what number represents your scale of being ethical? Have you ever been
ethical? If not, what pushed you to do an unethical thing? Explain your answer briefly in 100 words.
LESSON 2 Authority of the law

It has been mentioned that ethics is founded on law and that
we, who are capable of knowing and doing what the law requires,
should act in accordance with it.
Law is defined as a rule of action or a principle of

conduct which directs things towards a definite goal.
Generally, the goal of law is the common good. And this is applicable
when law concerns human beings. This means that law as the rule or
principle is actually the guiding principle of man’s reason and only
then can it direct human actions toward their proper goal. Law, however cannot be of use and
cannot be obeyed unless it is known. It must be made known or promulgated to the persons who are
subjects to it.
“Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by one who is
in-charge of community or society.” – St. Thomas Aquinas
 Law is an ordinance. This means that law is not just a mere advice, counsel or
suggestions but an order, a command, a mandate imposing the legislator’s will on the
citizens and binding them with moral necessity.
 Law is an ordinance of reason. This means that a law is not an arbitrary whim but an
intelligent direction composed by the superior’s will but planned and formulated by
32
right reason. For a law to be reasonable, it must a true law. A true law has the
following essential qualities, namely: it is just, honest, possible, useful, relatively
permanent, promulgated and imposes due sanction for disobedience.
 Law is promulgated. This means that for a law to be useful and obeyed, it must be
made known to those who are subjects to it. It must be published so that it can be
known readily by those whom it is made binding.
 Law is promulgated for the common good. This means that the end (purpose) of this
law as we cited earlier, is the common good. A is for the welfare of the community as
a whole and not for the benefit of individuals as such.
 Law must come from one who has charge or care of community or society. This
means that the one – be this a human person, as a king or a monarch, or a group of
human persons – who is tasked to make laws, as the congressmen in the Philippine
government, is responsible for the drafting of laws for the common good.
Lesson 3 Authority of one’s Religion
Often Religion and ethics are

treated as the same thing with various
religious making claims about their belief
systems being the best way for people to
live, and trying to convert unbelievers,
trying to legislate public behaviors based
around isolated religious passages. Of
course, not all religions are the same,
some are more liberal than others and
some more conservative, but in general,
all religious traditions believe that their
faith represents a path to enlightenment
and salvation.
The relationship between religion and ethics is about the relationship between revelation and
reason. Religion is based in some measure on the idea that God (or some deity) reveals insights
about life and its true meaning. These insights are collected in texts (Bible, Torah, Koran etc.) and
presented as “revelation”. Ethics, from a strictly humanistic perspective, is based on the tenets of
reason: Anything that is not rationally verifiable cannot be considered justifiable. From this
perspective, ethical principles need not derive their authority from religious doctrine. Instead, these
principles are upheld for their value in promoting independent and responsible individuals – people
who are capable of making decisions that maximize their own well-being while respecting the well-
being of others.
The link between religion and morality is best illustrated by the Golden Rule. Virtually,
all of the world’s great religions contain in their religious texts some version of the Golden Rule: “ Do
not do unto others what you do not want others do unto you.” In other words, we should
treat others the way we would want to be treated. This is the basic ethics that guides all religions.
33
RELIGION AND ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING
The Art of Choosing Well. Ethics has to do with our choices and actions, which form our
character even as they express it. Ethics depends on that human habit of reflection that takes into
account our interests and values – as well as those of others – in the process of deciding and doing.
Since it calls on perceptive thought, analytical and intuitive reasoning and prudential judgment, ethics
is perhaps more art than science – the art of choosing well and wisely for the good of self and
others.
Religion and choices both play big roles in our everyday life, without some type of idea about
spirituality, whether it be the lack thereof or the idea of a certain of God and religion, humans would
be lost. It’s the same thing with choices, without important choices in life and even to some extent
small choices, you won’t get anywhere.
Faith based ethics considers the moral challenges of our times against the background of
those fundamental norms and values that undergird our lives. The natural law tradition from
scholastic theology provides a means of placing these values in dialogue with new problems and new
challenges.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
When making ethical decisions, no one stands outside a social and cultural world. Each of us judges
human reality according to a set of adopted and adapted moral criteria based on such factors as
nationality, education, social class, professional occupation and of course religious affiliations.
Relate to Practice
What are the basic differences between how religion makes decisions and ethics makes them? Are
religion and ethics incompatible? Which one should take precedence over the other?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “Ethics and
Religion” as to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
Self-Assessment
below.
All persons are guided with their own principle of living their life but sometimes due to
unexpected events these principles are put to test. Some stand firm on their ground while others
bend to go with the crowd.
What is your principle as a student today that you can be able to apply in your future career?
Is there a case where it was challenge by life?
1. How did you manage the situation?
34
2. Did you push yourself unto the extent of fighting for your principle but surrendered in
the end? Why or why not?
3. In that specific case, is there something you would like to change to achieve a different
outcome? Why or why not?
Lesson 4 Authority of One’s Culture
Culture is derived from the Latin word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or
cultivation. Culture as cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of his own
social group. He is endowed with certain innate qualities to make use. However, he cannot develop
these inborn talents without the other people. He/she needs other people who can provide him/her
with the needed opportunities so he/she can translate these potentialities into realities called
achievements. These accomplishments not only help him/her achiever self-actualization but also
make him/her a contributing member of the society.
Culture is a
other persons. Hence, culture has a great impact
in the development of the human person varied
ways; may it be in physical knowledge, thought,
relationship, religious or moral development.
Moreover, culture is
basically through the relationship that binds the
society together. It necessarily says on what are
the things a member of the society must do,
what to do and how to do things. It teaches and
conditions members on how to relate and live
with the other members of the society and even
to people outside of their own culture.
At its fundament
from the collective “human experience” Culture is
always transmitted, shared or acquired through
learning. Culture satisfies human needs as a
social being. And culture tends towards the
participation of the members of the society.
Therefore, culture functions to mold and establish a social identity that brings people as well
to the knowledge of common objectives which members would try to achieve. Culture, indeed
provides norms, customs, laws and moral demands that are to be followed. So, to speak, in general,
in a culture, there is consistency and systematic patterns of behavior. (Palispis, 2017)
In general, culture plays a vital role in the development of the human person. In every aspect
of the human person, the cultural background can be very visible. In particular, culture has an
essential influence on the moral development of the human person since morality is just one of the
cultural aspects.
Indeed, this is a process from infancy to adulthood, effectively presented by Kohlberg in his
theory on the stages of moral development.
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1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards
one another and their experience as a people are the culture’s meadow. It is in this
relationship and communal experience that culture influences the moral development
of its members. Culture as it is being handed down from one generation to other
forms as well as the morality of that particular generation. Yet, the kind of morality
may not be absolutely the same with the previous generation due to changes that
would inevitable to occur.
2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of the society. It defines
which particular principle and behavior that should be kept that would serve the best
interest of the community. This kind of influence of culture in moral development is
best seen in terms of rational level. These would shape also the kind of moral
judgment a person has, which is most of the time congruent to the general moral
judgment.
3. Moreover, a culture as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops
restrictions and sets boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one
another. These restrictions and boundaries serve as protection among themselves.
These would create an atmosphere of promoting the welfare of the community.
Culture here draws this consciousness into the moral development of its members.
4. As culture helps in generating the character and identify of its people, it also includes
their moral character. Culture conditions the mind – the way people think and the way
they perceive the world and their relationship with one another. A culture like many
others may shape a character that is unjust and mistaken in the general perspective of
human morality.
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups. They are
the symbol of guidance and control. In many cultures, men are always regarded as
the leaders who oversee the order of the community and give guidance, which is true
is patriarchal societies. By their very authority as they represent the general populace,
the members look at them as people who promote and keep the set of rules and laws
that govern the community.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Evidently, culture is very significant in the development of the human person and in moral
development particularly. Furthermore, as one would look at it, culture has a tight grip on the moral
development of the people. Culture is the conditioning principle of the moral development of its
members. Nevertheless, culture as the principle that surrounds the moral development of the people
may not always s promote what is good and just for all.
Relate to Practice
It is one big chuck of our society that dictates how we are supposed to act in varying situations
based on what is right and wrong, acceptable or not. AS our actions and perspectives are culturally
constructed, so is our moral behavior. How do you think your community influences your behavior?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “Relativism” as
to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
36
Self-Reflection:
1. How does culture define moral behavior?
2. Give one Filipino cultural practice that should never be tolerated and why.
References:
learned from the previous chapter. Answer the follow-up question after the presented
scenario.
Situation:
Culture has been a vital part of our life. Filipinos are guided with the richness of the passed
cultures by our ancestors. As of today, many are caught up with different trends form the
neighboring countries. Others perceive things as a means of being “in” in the society if he/she
is in-trend with the neighboring culture. Identities are compromised and even the unique
characteristic of oneself for the sense of belongingness which others find hard to achieve.
Question:
1. Considering your course right now, what would be the best thing you could do to address this
inevitable scene? How will you be able to incorporate your solution with the program that you
are in right now?
Chapter 6 – Theories of senses of self
Lesson 1 Subjectivism
Subjectivism teaches that there are no objective moral truths out there.
 There are no objective moral facts. Therefore 'murder is wrong' can't be objectively true
 Many forms of subjectivism go a bit further and teach that moral statements describe how the
speaker feels about a particular ethical issue.
 Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude the speaker holds on a
particular issue
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 So, if I say "Lying is wrong", all I'm doing is telling you that I disapprove of telling lies
 Some forms of subjectivism generalize this idea to come up with:
 Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude normal human beings hold on
a particular issue
 And this may ultimately lead us to this conclusion about moral truths:
 Moral judgements are dependent on the feelings and attitudes of the persons who think about
such things
GOOD POINTS OF SUBJECTIVISM
Reflects the subjective elements of morality

- it reflects the close relationship between morality and people's feelings and opinions - indeed it
can cope with the contradictory moral views we often find ourselves wrestling with
Reflects the evaluative elements of moral statements

- moral statements in everyday life make judgements ("lying is wrong"), factual statements
("cats have fur") don't
Shows that moral judgements communicate dis/approval

- it reflects the communication of approval and disapproval that seems to go along with the
everyday making of moral statements
May clarify what people are arguing about

- subjectivism may enable people disagreeing over the rightness or wrongness of some issue to
see that the real dispute is not about objective truth but about their own preferences
Reflects the persuasive intentions behind ethical discussions

- subjectivism may also enable people engaging in moral argument to realise that they are not
arguing about objective truths but trying to persuade their opponent to adopt their point of
view
Bad points of subjectivism

The problem with subjectivism is that it seems to
imply that moral statements are less significant than most
people think they are - this may of course be true without
rendering moral statements insignificant.
38
"If I approve of something, it must be good"
 Subjectivism seems to tell us that moral statements give information only about what we feel about
moral issues.
 If the simplest form of subjectivism is true then when a person who genuinely approves of telling
lies says "telling lies is good" that moral statement is unarguably true. It would only be untrue if
the speaker didn't approve of telling lies.
 So under this theory it seems that all the speaker has to do to prove that lying is good is to show
lots of evidence that they do indeed approve of lying - perhaps that they tell lots of lies and feel
good about it, indeed are surprised if anyone criticizes them for being a liar, and that they often
praise other people for telling lies.
 Most people would find this way of approaching ethics somewhat unhelpful, and wouldn't think it
reflected the way in which most people talk about ethical issues.
Moral statements seem more than statements about feelings

- By and large if a person says something is wrong, we usually get the message that they
disapprove of that something, but most of us probably think that the other person is doing
more than just telling us about their feelings.
How can we blame people if moral truths are always subjective?

- If moral statements have no objective truth, then how can we blame people for behaving in a
way that 'is wrong', i.e. if "murder is wrong" has no objective truth, then how can we justify
punishing people for murder?
 One answer is that we can justify punishment for murder on the basis of the objective truth that
most normal people in society disapprove of murder. If we do this, we should not pretend that our
justification is based on anything other than the majority view.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Subjectivism is the doctrine that "our own mental activity is the only unquestionable fact of our
experience", instead of shared or communal, and that there is no external or objective truth.
Lesson 2 Psychological Egoism
Psychological egoism - is the thesis that we are always deep down motivated by what we perceive
to be in our own self-interest.
Psychological altruism - on the other hand, is the view that sometimes we can have ultimately
altruistic motives.
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Suppose, for example, that Pam saves Jim from a burning office building. What ultimately
motivated her to do this? It would be odd to suggest that it’s ultimately her own benefit that Pam is
seeking. After all, she’s risking her own life in the process. But the psychological egoist holds that
Pam’s apparently altruistic act is ultimately motivated by the goal to benefit herself, whether she is
aware of this or not. Pam might have wanted to gain a good feeling from being a hero, or to avoid
social reprimand that would follow had she not helped Jim, or something along these lines.
Several other egoistic views are related to, but distinct from psychological egoism.
Unlike ethical egoism, psychological egoism is merely an empirical claim about what kinds of
motives we have, not what they ought to be. So, while the ethical egoist claims that being self-
interested in this way is moral, the psychological egoist merely holds that this is how we are.
Similarly, psychological egoism is not identical to what is often called “psychological hedonism.”
Psychological hedonism - restricts the range of self-interested motivations to only pleasure and
the avoidance of pain. Thus, it is a specific version of psychological egoism.
The story of psychological egoism is rather peculiar. Though it is often discussed, it hasn’t
been explicitly held by many major figures in the history of philosophy. It is most often attributed to
only Thomas Hobbes (1651) and Jeremy Bentham (1781). Most philosophers explicitly reject
the view, largely based on famous arguments from Joseph Butler (1726). Nevertheless,
psychological egoism can be seen as a background assumption of several other disciplines, such as
psychology and economics. Moreover, some biologists have suggested that the thesis can be
supported or rejected directly based on evolutionary theory or work in sociobiology.
While psychological egoism is undoubtedly an empirical claim, there hasn’t always been a
substantial body of experimental data that bears on the debate. However, a great deal of empirical
work beginning in the late 20th century has largely filled the void. Evidence from biology,
neuroscience, and psychology has stimulated a lively interdisciplinary dialogue. Regardless of
whether or not the empirical evidence renders a decisive verdict on the debate, it has certainly
enriched discussion of the issue.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Psychological egoism is the view that humans are40 always motivated by self-interest and selfishness,
even in what seem to be acts of altruism. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do
so ultimately because of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or
indirectly, from so doing. This is a descriptive rather than normative view, since it only makes claims
Lesson 3 Ethical Egoism
Ethical egoism - contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have
an obligation to help others.
Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent
should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as
egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others). But it also
holds that one is not obligated to sacrifice one's own interests (as altruism does) to help others'
interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being) are substantially
equivalent to the others' interests and well-being, but he has the choice to do so.
Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and
altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of
consequentialism (i.e. subject-focused or subjective). However, utilitarianism is held to be agent-
neutral (i.e. objective and impartial): it does not treat the subject's (i.e. the self's, i.e. the moral
"agent's") own interests as being more or less important than the interests, desires, or well-being of
others.
Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being
of others when making moral deliberation; e.g. what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally
detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and
well-being to be disregarded or not, as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-
interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that, in pursuing self-interest, one
ought always to do what one wants to do; e.g. in the long term, the fulfilment of short-term desires
may prove detrimental to the self.
Ethical egoism is often used as the philosophical basis for support of right-
libertarianism and individualist anarchism. These are political positions based partly on a belief that
individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Ethical egoism is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to act in their own self-

interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people can only act in their self-
interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds that it is rational to act in
one's self-interest. Ethical egoism holds, therefore, that actions whose consequences will benefit the
doer can be considered ethical in this sense.
Relate to Practice
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As a future allied health care provider, what is the best theory for one’s sense in your own opinion
and how will you able to apply it you chosen profession?
Note:
Please watch the pre-recorded video sent in your official g-mail account with the title “What is
egoism?” as to summarization of this topic and an additional reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. Are there any circumstances in your life you have experienced these theories? Justify.
2. Is it possible that or own self-interest leads us to some unjustly acts and morality?
References:
 https://www.iep.utm.edu/psychego/
 http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/subjectivism.shtml
General Instruction: Place your answer on the given worksheet attached at the back of this
Instructional Learning Guide. Reproducing the worksheet is strictly prohibited. Please write
your answers legibly and neatly.
learned from the previous chapter.
Situation:
Imagine that you know it is in your self-interest to kill someone for life insurance money. You
absolutely know you could get away with it (for reasons we need not explore).
Questions:
1. In your moral opinion, is it morally permissible to kill an innocent person for money?
Why or why not, please justify your answer.
2. Cultural practice that should never be tolerated and why?
References:
42
General Instruction: Place your answer on the given worksheet attached at the back of this
Instructional Learning Guide. Reproducing the worksheet is strictly prohibited. Please write
your answers legibly and neatly.
learned from the previous chapter.
Situation:
Imagine that you know it is in your self-interest to kill someone for life insurance money. You
absolutely know you could get away with it (for reasons we need not explore).
Questions:
1. In your moral opinion, is it morally permissible to kill an innocent person for money?
Why or why not, please justify your answer.
SEMIFINALS COVERAGE

make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and skills after completing the entire
chapter. This shall be the basis of the teacher in the formulation of the Summative
evaluation given at the end of the chapter.
2. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of topics that were
not clearly stated or understood by the student. These areas can be referred to the
subject teacher during consultation hours provided for the students to contact the
teacher.
4. After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the lessons given along
with this learning package and watch the given videos to supplement your reading.
(Please check your USB content).
5. Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self- reflection
questions given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and what to do to comply with
required answers.
teacher.
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Key Terms:
 Virtue
 Moral Theories  Work Ethics
 Utilitarianism  Baby boomers
 Rights
 Dignity  Generation X
 Generation Z
1. Explain and discuss the principles of virtue and ethics.

2. Recognize and differentiate the virtuous acts and non- virtuous acts.
3. Understand and applied the Aristotle Principles to the Filipino Character.
4. Understand freedom as the foundation of moral acts.
5. Explain characteristics of personal behavior to culture
6. Discuss the basic principle of utilitarian ethics.
CHAPTER 7 – Ethics and Virtue
Lesson 1 Aristotle Principle
“Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human
existence.” – Aristotle
Aristotle is a philosopher from Stagira, he wrote a

lot about topics of ranging from logic, psychology,
political science, biology, botany, rhetoric,
government, physics, geology, metaphysics, and
poetry and so on.
The most famous and through of Aristotle’s

ethical works is his Nicomachean Ethics. This work
is an inquiry into the best life for human beings to live.
The life of human flourishing or happiness
(eudaimonia) is the best life. It is important to note
that what we translate as “happiness” is quite
different from Aristotle than it is for us. We often
consider happiness to be a mood or an emotion, but
Aristotle considers it to be an activity – a way of living
44
one’s life. Thus, it is possible for one to have an overall happy life, even if that life has its moments of
sadness and pain. (Barnes, 1984)
TELOS/END
Virtue ethics cannot be fully appreciated without talking Aristotle’s ethics. It was Aristotle who
said that we must cultivate virtues because they are the qualities that will help the people to live well.
His ethics is founded on the premise that man strives for an ultimate goal – a Telos. He called this
living well – Eudemonia – generally translated as happiness, though when applied it refers more to
flourishing of the human being. The achievement of Eudemonia is the end goal of man and man acts
towards this goal. Aristotle would point out that moral philosophy should lead an individual to grow.
It is a virtuous person who will achieve this end. If one wants to be in the state of eudemonia, one
must be virtuous. However, virtue should also be partnered with wisdom. Wisdom is the ability to
see what is right and the ability to know when to apply it. Thus, wisdom must always be present in
the application of virtue.
Examples of character virtues would be courage, temperance, liberality and magnanimity.

For example, the courageous person knows when to be courageous and acts on that knowledge
whenever it is appropriate to do. Each activity of any particular character virtue has a related
excessive or deficient action. The excess related courage, for example is rashness and the deficiency
is cowardice.
Since excellence is rare, most people will tend more towards an excess or deficiency than
towards excellent action. Aristotle’s claim here is to aim for the opposite of one’s typical
tendency and that eventually this will lead one closer to the excellence.
Since the best life is a life of virtue and excellence, and since we are closer to excellence,
the more thoroughly we fulfill our function, the best life is the life of theoria or contemplation. For
Aristotle, however the contemplation of unchanging things is an activity of full of wonder. Seeking
knowledge might be good, but it is done for the sake of a greater end, namely having knowledge and
contemplating what one knows.
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“It is easy to perform a good action, but not easy to acquire a settled habit of performing
such actions.” – Aristotle
Virtue should be understood as being a habit. It should be something that has shaped one’s
character through constant and consistent virtuous act. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle
devised a standard of virtue which should be a mean between two vices. Anything extreme can be
considered as a vice. Thus, an act to be considered as a virtue should be neither too much or too
less. An example would be courage. If one is too brave, then one might do some foolish acts that
have not been thought well. But if one does not have enough courage then one is cowardly and he
might not be able to do anything at all and will be prone to abuse. This is what Aristotle calls, virtue
of the mean.
TRIVIA!!! The Nicomachean Ethics is dedicated to his son, Nicomacus who died in battle.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
The development of virtuous character is best understood in the light of practical wisdom and
experiences. Mere theory will not give a good picture of what is the mean between two acts.
Virtue would also entail doing an act with the right degree and the right timing.
Relate to Practice:
Throughout history, there is no clear number of virtues that has been identified. This takes on a more
relative aspect as to time, place and culture. What are some habits that you have? Do you think they
lead you into becoming a virtuous person?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Aristotle and Virtue Theory” as to summarization of this topic and an
Self-Reflection:
1. Explain the telos principle of Aristotle. What does it mean? Justify your answer.
2. Will there be legal sanction if one violates moral law?
References:
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1. Aristotle claims that virtue cannot be taught in a classroom. Do you agree? Explain.
2. What is the function of a human being, according to Aristotle, and what role does this play in
his account of good action?
3. Aristotle claims that we are prone to excess or defect in different actions and that we can
achieve the mean by overcompensating for our natural tendencies. Do you agree? Explain.
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CHAPTER 8 - Philosophical Perspective of Ethics
Lesson 1 Aristotle
The Human Good and the Function Argument

The principal idea with which Aristotle
begins is that there are differences of opinion about
what is best for human beings, and that to profit
from ethical inquiry we must resolve this
disagreement. He insists that ethics is not a
theoretical discipline: we are asking what the good
for human beings is not simply because we want to
have knowledge, but because we will be better able
to achieve our good if we develop a fuller
understanding of what it is to flourish. In raising
this question—what is the good?
Aristotle's search for the good is a search for
the highest good, and he assumes that the highest
good, whatever it turns out to be, has three
characteristics: it is desirable for itself, it is not
desirable for the sake of some other good, and all
other goods are desirable for its sake.
Aristotle's conclusion about the nature of happiness is in a sense uniquely his own. No other
writer or thinker had said precisely what he says about what it is to live well. But at the same time
his view is not too distant from a common idea. As he
himself points out, one traditional conception of happiness
identifies it with virtue. Aristotle's theory should be
construed as a refinement of this position. He says, not
that happiness is virtue, but that it is virtuous activity.
Living well consists in doing something, not just being in a
48
certain state or condition. It consists in those lifelong activities that actualize the virtues of the
rational part of the soul.
Lesson 2 St. Thomas Aquinas
“We call this man a dumb ox, but his bellowing in doctrine will one day resound
throughout the world.” – Albertus Magnus in defense of Aquinas
He was from a noble family in Naples and early in his life he decided to join the Dominican
order. Under the Dominican Order, he was mentored by Albertus Magnus who defended him from
those who made fun of him as a dumb ox because of his size and his slow voice.
The moral philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas involves a merger of at least two apparently
disparate traditions: Aristotelian eudemonism and Christian Theology. On the other hand,
Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or bad depending on whether it contributes to
or deters us from our proper human end- the telos or final goal at which all human actions aim. That
telos or eudaimonia, or happiness, where “happiness” is understood in terms of completion,
perfection or well-being. Achieving happiness, however, requires a range of intellectual and moral
virtues that enable us to understand the nature of happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable
and consistent way.
NATURAL LAW. Aristotle had a strong influence in Aquinas’ philosophy though Aristotle may
be considered as Pagan. Aquinas respected Aristotle’s empirical teaching and connected it with
Christian teaching. For him, reality is composed of the “natural” and the “revealed”.
Natural – the natural would be within the sphere of philosophy where one has to observe first then
make a conclusion.
However, another part of the reality cannot be known to man unless it is revealed.
Revealed – means that out knowledge will come from God’s revelation and that would be within the
sphere of faith – where it mandates believing first.
Though they would come from different perspectives, these two should be compatible and
must conclude the same reality. On the other hand, Aquinas believes that we can never
achieve complete or final happiness in this life. For him, final happiness consists in beatitude or
supernatural union with God. For this reason, we not only need the virtues but we also need God to
transform our nature – to perfect or “deify” it – so that we might be suited to participate in divine
beatitude. Moreover, Aquinas believes that we inherited a propensity to sin from our first
parent, Adam. While our nature is not wholly corrupted by sin, it is nevertheless diminished by sin’s
stain, as evidenced by the fact that our will are enmity with God’s.
However, even though this beatitude is brought about supernaturally by the power of God,
it is not utterly foreign to human nature. In effect, the supernatural power of God elevates or
expands the powers of intellect and will to a kind of completion beyond themselves and yet not
foreign to them. So, this distinction of a “two-fold happiness” should not be thought of as involving
49
two fundamentally distinct goals or ends of human life. The second supernatural happiness is seen as
a kind of surpassing perfection of the first.
THE CARDINAL NATURE VIRTUES:
 PRUDENCE – intellectual virtue since it bears upon the goal of truth in the good ordering of
action
 COURAGE – cardinal virtue that pertains to the resolve to act virtuously, especially when it is
most difficult. It is acting for the good, when it would be much easier not to this time.
 JUSTICE – virtue of the rational appetite or will.
 TEMPERANCE - moderation or voluntary self-restraint. This includes restraint from revenge
by practicing non-violence and forgiveness, restraint from arrogance by practicing humility
and modesty, restraint from excesses such as extravagant luxury or splurging by practicing
prudence, and restraint from rage or craving by practicing calmness and self-control
THE CARDINAL THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES:
 FAITH - strong belief in God or in the doctrines of a religion, based on spiritual

apprehension rather than proof.
 HOPE - a feeling of expectation and desire for a certain thing to happen
 LOVE - an intense feeling of deep affection.
MISERICORDIA – the virtue that pertains to suffering with others and acting to alleviate their
suffering. Thomas explicitly but unconvincingly claims that Aristotle recognized it. And yet in the
Summa Theologica he says that it is an effect of charity. In that case, there is an acquired form
of it and an infused form of it. As infused, it is informed by the love of God and love of neighbor in
God in which is beatitude.
CHARITY – is the love of God and neighbor in God. It resides in the will. Hope is the desire for the
difficult but attainable good of eternal happiness or beatitude. It too resides in the will. Faith is
intellectual assent to revealed supernatural truths that are not evident in themselves or thorough
demonstration from truths evident in themselves. So, it resides in intellect. It is divided into believing
that there is God and other truths pertaining to that truth, believing God, and believing “in” God. The
distinction between the last two is subtle. It is one thing to say you believe in me. It is a different
thing to say you believe in me. The latter connotes the relation of your intellect to the will’s desire to
direct yourself to me in love. Thus, believing in God goes well beyond believing that there is a God. It
suggests the other theological virtues of Charity and Hope.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Thomas Aquinas broad account of virtues as excellences or perfections of the various human powers
formally echoes Aristotle, both with regard to the nature of a virtue and many specific virtues. In
beatitude and felicity, the fulfilment of intellect and will respectively, the virtues of Faith and Hope
fall away, and do not exist, for one now sees with the intellect what one believed and has attained
what one hoped for with the will. Only Charity abides.
50
Note:
Please watch the video title “Aquinas’ Virtue Ethics” as to summarization of this topic and an
Self-Reflection:
1. Do you think that there is a reality that cannot be known to man unless man is given divine
revelation? Or this is just an excuse to not think and blindfold follow certain religious
doctrines? Explain your answer
Lesson 3 Immanuel Kant
Towards the end of his most influential work, Critique of Pure

Reason (1781/1787), Kant argues that all philosophy ultimately aims
at answering these three questions: “What can I know? What
should I do? What may I hope?” The book appeared at the
beginning of the most productive period of his career, and by the end of
his life Kant had worked out systematic, revolutionary, and often
profound answers to these questions.
At the foundation of Kant’s system is the doctrine of

“transcendental idealism,” which emphasizes a distinction between
what we can experience (the natural, observable world) and what we
cannot (“supersensible” objects such as God and the soul). Kant argued
that we can only have knowledge of things we can experience.
Accordingly, in answer to the question, “What can I know?” Kant replies that we can know the
natural, observable world, but we cannot, however, have answers to many of the
deepest questions of metaphysics.
Kant’s ethics are organized around the notion of a “categorical imperative,” which is a
universal ethical principle stating that one should always respect the humanity in others,
and that one should only act in accordance with rules that could hold for everyone. Kant
argued that the moral law is a truth of reason, and hence that all
rational creatures are bound by the same moral law. Thus, in
answer to the question, “What should I do?” Kant replies that
we should act rationally, in accordance with a universal
moral law.
Kant also argued that his ethical theory requires belief in

free will, God, and the immortality of the soul. Although we cannot
have knowledge of these things, reflection on the moral law leads
to a justified belief in them, which amounts to a kind rational faith.
Thus, in answer to the question, “What may I hope?” Kant replies
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that we may hope that our souls are immortal and that there really is a God who
designed the world in accordance with principles of justice.
In addition to these three focal points, Kant also made lasting contributions to nearly all areas
of philosophy. His aesthetic theory remains influential among art critics. His theory of knowledge is
required reading for many branches of analytic philosophy. The cosmopolitanism behind his political
theory colors discourse about globalization and international relations. And some of his scientific
contributions are even considered intellectual precursors to several ideas in contemporary cosmology.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
To act out of “good will” for Kant means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or “duty”. In other
words, the moral agent does a particular action not because of what it produces (its consequences)
in terms of human experience, but because he or she recognizes by reasoning that it is morally the
right thing to do and thus regards him or herself as having a moral duty or obligation to do that
action. In Kant’s terms, a good will is a will whose decisions are wholly determined by moral
demands or, as he often refers to this, Moral Law. Human beings inevitably feel this law as a
constraint on their natural desires, which is why such laws as applied to human beings are
imperatives and duties. A human will, in which the moral law is decisive and motivated by the
thought of duty.
IMMANUEL KANT ON RIGHTS:
Immanuel Kant examined the idea of human rights within politics in such a way that it “is
only a legitimate government that guarantees our natural right to freedom and from this
freedom, we derive other rights”.
From this basis, it can be assumed that Kant looks at the development, creation and
implementation of rights as primarily dependent on the state and how government within the state
functions.
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As Kant teaches, these righteous laws” are founded upon three rational principles:
1. The liberty of every member of the society as a man.

2. The equality of every member of the society with every other, as a subject
3. The independence of every member of the commonwealth as a citizen
Kant believes that these principles are necessary above all, not only for the founding of
“righteous laws” but for the state to function in the first place. This is so because without the
acceptance of the people a state would not exist therefore rights are necessary within states to keep
support of the people of the state.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Kant differs contrasts between right and virtue. He thinks both relate to freedom but in different
ways: right concerns outer freedom and virtue concerns inner freedom being master of one’s own
passions. Right concerns “act themselves” independent of the motive an agent may have for
performing them. Virtue concerns the “proper motive” for dutiful actions.
Relate to Practice:
In this respect, Kant’s view towards morality parallels the Christian’s view concerning obedience to
God’s commandments, according to which the Christian obeys God commandments simply because
God commands them, not for the sake of rewards in heaven after death or from fear of punishment
in hell. Is this rational or not?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Kant and Categorical Imperatives” as to summarization of this topic and
an additional reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. What is the most important virtue do you think should be exercised and developed in your
chosen field of profession? Explain.
References:
 https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/
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a. How does Kant’s categorical imperative apply to the case of the lying promise?
b. Does Kant allow any exceptions to a categorical imperative? Would you make an
exception if it could save an innocent person’s life (and harm no one else)? Why or
why not?
John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism
c. What is the chief difference between utilitarianism and Kant’s ethics?
d. Do you believe, with Rawls, that utilitarianism is a paternalistic violator of human

rights? Explain.
Aristotle: The Ethics of Virtue
e. What does Aristotle mean by “the function of man is activity of soul in accordance with
reason”?
f. According to Aristotle, how does a just man become just? If Aristotle is right, what
implications would his view have for the moral education of the young?
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CHAPTER 9 - Moral Theories Mental Frame
Lesson 1 Nature of Morality
Morality claims our lives. It makes claims upon each of us that are stronger than the claims of
law and takes priority over self-interest. As human beings living in the world, we have basic duties
and obligations. There are certain things we must do and certain things we must not do. In other
words, there is an ethical dimension of human existence. As human beings, we experience life in a
world of good and evil and understand certain kinds of actions in terms of right and wrong. The very
structure of human existence dictates that we must make choices. Ethics helps us use our freedom
responsibly and understand who we are. And, ethics gives direction in our struggle to answer the
fundamental questions that ask how we should live our lives and how we can make right choices.
To Whom or What Does Morality Apply?
In discussing the application of morality, four aspects may be considered: religious

morality, morality and nature, individual morality, and social morality.
 RELIGIOUS MORALITY - refers to a human being in relationship to a supernatural being or

beings. In the Jewish and Christian traditions, for example, the first three of the Ten
Commandments pertain to this kind of morality. These commandments deal with a person’s
relationship with God, not with any other human beings. By violating any of these three
commandments, a
person could, according to this
particular code of ethics, act
immorally toward God without
acting immorally toward anyone
else.
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 MORALITY AND NATURE - refers to a human being in relationship to nature. Natural
morality has been prevalent in all primitive cultures, such as that of the Native American, and
in cultures of the Far East. More recently, the Western tradition has also become aware of the
significance of dealing with nature in a moral manner. Some see nature as being valuable only
for the good of humanity, but many others have come to see it as a good in itself, worthy of
moral consideration
 INDIVIDUAL MORALITY - refers to individuals in relation to themselves and to an

individual code of morality that may or may not be sanctioned by any society or religion. It
allows for a “higher morality,” which can be found within the individual rather than beyond
this world in some supernatural realm. A person may or may not perform some particular act,
not because society, law, or religion says he may or may not, but because he himself thinks it
is right or wrong from within his own conscience.
 SOCIAL MORALITY - concerns a human being in relation to other human beings. It is

probably the most important aspect of morality; in that it cuts across all of the other aspects
and is found in more ethical systems than any of the others. Returning briefly to the desert-
island example, most ethicists probably would state that Robinson Crusoe is incapable of any
really moral or immoral action except toward himself and nature. Such action would be
minimal when compared with the potential for morality or immorality if there were nine other
people on the island whom he could subjugate, torture, or destroy. Many ethical systems
would allow that what he would do to himself is strictly his business, “as long as it doesn’t
harm anyone else.”
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Values, then, would seem to come most often from a complex interaction between conscious human
beings and “things” (material, mental, or emotional) in specific contexts. But how can this discussion
help us answer the question of where morality comes from? Any assumptions about the answer to
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the question of morality’s origins certainly have to be speculative.
Nevertheless, by observing how morality develops and changes in human societies, one can see that
it has arisen largely from human needs and desires and that it is based upon human emotions and
Relate to Practice:
As a future professional , how do our values impact our ethical decisions and moral standards? Do
moral decisions always align with our ethical decisions?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Nature of Morality” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. Explain how will you apply the nature of morality in your daily living.
2. Discuss how will you able to connect this nature of morality in your chosen field of
profession.
References:
Lesson 2 Moral Theories
THEORIES OF MORALITY
(1) Moral Subjectivism
Right and wrong is determined by what you --

the subject -- just happens to think (or 'feel') is
right or wrong.
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In its common form, Moral Subjectivism amounts to the denial of moral principles of any
significant kind, and the possibility of moral criticism and argumentation. In essence, 'right' and
'wrong' lose their meaning because so long as someone thinks or feels that some action is 'right',
there are no grounds for criticism. If you are a moral subjectivist, you cannot object to anyone's
behavior (assuming people are in fact acting in accordance with what they think or feel is right). This
shows the key flaw in moral subjectivism - probably nearly everyone thinks that it is legitimate to
object, on moral grounds, to at least some peoples' actions. That is, it is possible to disagree about
moral issues.
(2) Cultural Relativism
Right and wrong is determined by the particular set of principles or rules the relevant
culture just happens to hold at the time.
Cultural Relativism is closely linked to Moral Subjectivism. It implies that we cannot criticize
the actions of those in cultures other than our own. And again, it amounts to the denial of universal
moral principles. Also, it implies that a culture cannot be mistaken about what is right and wrong
(which seems not to be true), and so it denies the possibility of moral advancement (which also
seems not to be true).
(3) Ethical Egoism
Right and wrong is determined by what is in your self-interest. Or, it is immoral to act
contrary to your self-interest.
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Ethical Egoism is usually
based upon Psychological Egoism -
which we, by nature, act selfishly.
Ethical egoism does not imply
hedonism or that we ought to aim for
at least some 'higher' goods (e.g.,
wisdom, political success), but rather
that we will (ideally) act so as to
maximize our self-interest. This may
require that we forgo some
immediate pleasures for the sake of
achieving some long-term goals.
Also, ethical egoism does not exclude

helping others. However, egoists will
help others only if this will further their own interests. An ethical egoist will claim that the altruist
helps others only because they want to (perhaps because they derive pleasure out of helping others)
or because they think there will be some personal advantage in doing so. That is, they deny the
possibility of genuine altruism (because they think we are all by nature selfish). This leads us to the
key implausibility of Ethical Egoism - which the person who helps others at the expense of their self-
interest is actually acting immorally. Many think that the ethical egoist has misunderstood the
concept of morality – for example, morality is the system of practical reasoning through which we are
guided to constrain our self-interest, not further it. Also, that genuine altruism is indeed possible, and
relatively commonly exhibited.
(4) Divine Command Theory
Many claim that there is a necessary connection between morality and religion, such that,
without religion (in particular, without God or gods) there is no morality, for example, no right and
wrong behavior. Although there are related claims that religion is necessary to motivate and guide
people to behave in morally good way, most take the claim of the necessary connection between
morality and religion to mean that right and wrong come from the commands of God (or the
gods).This view of morality is known as Divine Command Theory. The upshot is that an action is right
- or obligatory - if God command, we do it, wrong if God commands, we refrain from doing it, and
morally permissible if God does not command that it not be done.
Divine Command Theory is widely held to have several serious flaws:
- First, it presupposes that God or gods exist.

- Second, even if we assume that God does exist, it presupposes that we can know what
God commands.
But even if we accept theism, it looks like even theists should reject the theory. Plato raised the
relevant objection 2500 years ago. He asked:
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“Is something right (or wrong) because the gods command it, or do the gods command it
because it is right?”
If the latter, then right and wrong are independent of the gods' commands - Divine Command
Theory is false. If the former, then right and wrong are just a matter of the arbitrary will of the gods
(i.e., they might have willed some other, contradictory commands).
Most think that right and wrong are not arbitrary - that is, some action is wrong, say, for a reason.
Moreover, that if God commands us not to do an action, He does so because of this reason, not
simply because He arbitrarily commands it. What makes the action wrong, then, is not God's
commanding it, but the reason. Divine Command Theory is false again.
(5) Virtue Ethics
Right and wrong are characterized in terms of acting in accordance with the traditional
virtues -- making the good person.
The most widely discussed is Aristotle's account. For Aristotle, the central concern is "Ethica"
= things to do with character. Of particular concern are excellences of character - for example, the
moral virtues.
Aristotle, and most of the ancient Greeks really had nothing to say about moral duty, modern
day moral concepts. Rather, they were concerned with what makes human beings truly 'happy'. True
'happiness' is called Eudaimonia (flourishing / well- being / fulfilment / self- actualization). Like Plato,
Aristotle wants to show that there are objective reasons for living in accordance with the traditional
virtues (wisdom, courage, justice and temperance). For Aristotle, this comes from a particular
account of human nature – for example, the virtuous life is the 'happiest' (most fulfilling) life.
Three steps to the argument:
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 The ultimate end of human action is happiness.
 Happiness consists in acting in accordance with reason.
 Acting in accordance with reason is the distinguishing feature of all the traditional virtues.
Aristotle thought that humans had a specific function. This function is to lead a life of true
flourishing as a human, which required abiding by the dictates of rationality and so acting in
accordance with the traditional virtues.
(6) Feminist Ethics
Right and wrong is to be found in women's responses to the

relationship of caring.
Comes out of the criticism that all other moral theories are 'masculine'
- display a male bias. Specifically, feminists are critical of the 'individualistic'
nature of other moral theories (they take individualism to be a 'masculine'
idea). Rather, feminist ethics suggests that we need to consider the self as at
least partly constructed by social relations. So, morality, according to some
feminist moral philosophers, must be ground in 'moral emotions' like love and
sympathy, leading to relationships of caring. This allows legitimate biases towards those with whom
we have close social relationships.
(7) Utilitarianism
Right and wrong is determined by the overall goodness (utility) of the consequences of
action. Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist moral theory.
Basic ideas:
All action leads to some end. But there is a summum bonum -- the highest good/end.
This is pleasure or happiness. Also, that there is a First Principle of Morals -- 'Principle of
Utility', alternatively called 'The Greatest Happiness Principle' (GHP), usually characterized as
the ideal of working towards the greatest happiness of the greatest number. The GHP implies
that we ought to act so as to maximize human welfare (though Bentham thought we should include
all sentient animals in his utilitarian calculations). We do this in a particular instance by choosing the
action that maximizes pleasure/happiness and minimizing suffering.
Jeremy Bentham - the first to formulate Utilitarianism did not distinguish between kinds of
pleasures. However, Bentham's student, John Stuart Mill, produced a more sophisticated version of
Utilitarianism in which pleasures may be higher or lower. The higher pleasures (those obtained, e.g.,
through intellectual pursuits), carried greater weight than the lower pleasures (those obtained
through sensation). The upshot is that in determining what action to perform, both quality and
quantity of pleasure/happiness count.
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Note: Utilitarian are not a Hedonist. Hedonists are concerned
only with their own happiness. Utilitarian are concerned with
everyone's happiness, so it is Altruistic. In general, morally
right actions are those that produce the best overall consequences /
total amount of pleasure or absence of pain.
Modern versions of Utilitarianism have dropped the idea of

maximizing pleasure in favor of maximizing the satisfaction of all
relevant peoples' preferences and interests. Also, some distinguish
between Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism
is pretty much as described above, where we make the utilitarian
calculation based on the evaluation of the consequences of a single
isolated act. It is thought by some that this leads to a number of
significant problems -- for instance, that one person may be harmed
if that leads to the greatest good for everyone. To overcome these
problems, some advocate Rule Utilitarianism -- the view that we
should adopt only those rules (for governing society) that produce
the greatest good for all.
Other key points:

 For Utilitarian, no action is intrinsically right or wrong.
 No person's preferences or interests (including your own, your relatives, friends, neighbors,
etc.) carry a greater weight than any other person's.
 Usually we cannot make the required utilitarian calculation before acting. So, in most
situations, following 'rules of thumb' will produce the best consequences.
 Democratic and economic principles reflect Utilitarianism.
Some things to ask about Utilitarianism:
 How can we determine accurately what the consequences of an action will be?
 Do people have rights that cannot be overridden by the goal of the best consequences for all?
(8) Kantian Theory
Right and wrong is determined by rationality, giving universal duties.

Kantianism is a Non-consequentialist moral theory.
Basic ideas:
That there is "the supreme principle of morality". Good and Evil are defined in terms of
Law / Duty / Obligation. Rationality and Freedom are also central. Kant thought that acting morally
was quite simple. That is:
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- You ought to do your duty (simply because it is your duty).
- Reason guides you to this conclusion.
Good Will (for example, having the right intentions) is the only thing that is good without
qualification. So, actions are truly moral only if they have the right intention, i.e., based on Good Will.
What establishes Good Will?
Only can be a law of "universal conformity" - "I should never act except in such a way that I can
also will that my maxim should become a universal law".
This is called the Categorical Imperative = Principle of Universalizability (something like The
Golden Rule). The basic idea is that we should adopt as action guiding rules (i.e., maxims) only those
that can be universally accepted. Consider someone wondering if they could break a promise if
keeping it became inconvenient. We might formulate the following maxim governing promises:
“I can break promises when keeping them becomes inconvenient.”
Can this be universalized? Kant says no because making promises then becomes, in essence,
contradictory. The thinking is that a promise is, by definition, something you keep. The above maxim
would lead to a contradiction of will, i.e., "I'll make a promise (something I keep), but I'll break it if I
choose". The more general way to understand the Principle of Universalizability is to think that we
must always ask the following questions: What if everyone did the action you are proposing? Or,
what if I were in the other person's position? This leads to the basic idea behind the Golden Rule.
Kant had another way of formulating the Categorical Imperative that is worth noting:
Never treat anyone merely as a means to an end. Rather, treat everyone as an end in
themselves.
We can understand this by noting an example, i.e., the slave society. What is wrong with the slave
society, following the above principle, is that a slave is treated as a means to the slave owner's ends,
i.e., as an instrument or tool, not as a person. The upshot is that no person's interests (or rights) can
be overridden by another's, or the majority.
Many think that this way of formulating the Categorical Imperative shows that
Kantianism is clearly anti-Utilitarian.
Some things to ask about Kantianism:
 Is it true that having good intentions is the only thing that counts morally?
 Must we always ignore good consequences?
 Is it always wrong to treat people merely as a means to an end? (Can we do otherwise?)
(9) Rights-based Theories
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We are to act in accordance with a set of moral rights, which we possess simply by being
human.
Rights-based views are connected to Kantianism and are Non-

consequentialist. The basic idea is that if someone has a right, then
others have a corresponding duty to provide what the right requires.
Most distinguish between positive and negative rights. A

positive right is one in which the corresponding duty requires a
positive action, e.g., giving a charitable donation in order to sustain
someone's right to life, shelter, education, etc. A negative right is one
in which the corresponding duty merely requires refraining from doing something that will harm
someone. Some claim -- e.g., Libertarians -- that only negative rights count morally. For instance, the
right to life does not require that we give what is needed to sustain life, rather merely that we refrain
from taking any action that would take life. [Note: others argue that there is really no significant
distinction between positive and negative rights, arguing that a positive right can be understood
negatively, and vice versa. Also, that there is no morally significant difference between, for example,
letting someone die and killing them. Obviously, this is a hotly disputed issue.
Some things to ask about Rights-based theories:
 Where do rights come from? From nature (we have them simply by being human) From
principles of Justice? Or, from Utilitarian procedures?
 How do we decide between competing rights?
(10) Contractarianism
The principles of right and wrong (or Justice) are those which everyone in society would
agree upon in forming a social contract.
Various forms of Contractarianism have been suggested. In general, the idea is that the principles or
rules that determine right and wrong in society are determined by a hypothetical contract forming
procedure. Here is John Rawls's example.
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Through a thought experiment, Rawls developed a way of getting people to come up with
universal principles of justice. The basic idea is nothing new -- i.e., of impartial developing a social
contract of universal principles -- but many find Rawls' novel method very appealing.
The idea is to start by thinking, hypothetically, that we are at the beginning of forming a
society and we want to know which principles of justice to ground the society. However, in this
'original position' we do this without knowing which position we will occupy in the future society -- we
don't know if we will be rich or poor, male or female, old or young, etc. We then advocate those
principles that will be in our self-interest (though we don't know what 'self' that will be). This forces
us to be impartial, and if we are rational, to propose universal principles. The idea of the thought
experiment is not to think that we actually begin again, and construct a society from scratch. Rather,
we can use the thought experiment as a test of actual principles of justice. If a principle is one that
would not be adopted by people in the original position, behind the 'veil of ignorance' (about who
they will be), then it is unjust and should be rejected.
Rawls claims that people in this original position will choose conservatively when developing
principles governing the distribution of benefits and burdens. This conservatism, Rawls claims, will
lead to the choosing two basic principles:
(1) that each member of the society should have as much liberty as possible without
infringing on the liberty of others; and
(2) the 'maximin' rule for decisions about economic justice -- namely, that they will choose
those rules that would maximize the minimum they would receive.
In other words, make the society in which the least well off are in the best possible position.
Deviations from equality of distribution of benefits and burdens is justified only if it advantages the
least well off. Rawls thought that some inequalities would be adopted because rewarding on the
grounds of merit and hard work, for example, would lead to a society in which there was a greater
production of social benefits, so the least well of would be better off than in a society of pure
equality.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Moral theories can help physicians to justify and reflect upon the ethical decisions that they make.
Moral theories are different from other theories: while they can help us to justify the ethical
decisions that we make, they are often not predictive. While there are some reasons for being
cautious about moral theories, they also hold great potential for enriching critical reflection upon our
decisions.
Relate to Practice:
As a future professional, how these moral theories affect our chosen field of profession? Does it
affect your decision in some circumstances? Why or why not?
65
Note:
Please watch the video title “Moral Theories” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. Explain how will you apply the moral theories in your daily living. Justify.
References:
 https://home.sandiego.edu/~baber/gender/MoralTheories.html
Lesson 3 Jeremy Bentham Principles
Jeremy Bentham - English philosopher, economist, and

theoretical jurist, the earliest and chief expounder of utilitarianism.
The great work on which he had been engaged for many

years, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation, was published in 1789. In this book he defined the
principle of utility as “that property in any object whereby it tends
to produce pleasure, good or happiness, or to prevent the
happening of mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness to the party
whose interest is considered.”
Mankind, he said, was governed by two sovereign motives, pain and pleasure; and the
principle of utility recognized this state of affairs. The object of all legislation must be the “greatest
happiness of the greatest number.” He deduced from the principle of utility that, since
all punishment involves pain and is therefore evil, it ought only to be
used “so far as it promises to exclude some greater evil.
Lesson 4 John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill - English philosopher, economist, and

exponent of Utilitarianism. He was prominent as a publicist in the
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reforming age of the 19th century, and remains of lasting interest as a logician and
an ethical theorist.
The ethical theory of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is most extensively articulated in his
classical text Utilitarianism (1861). Its goal is to justify the utilitarian principle as the foundation of
morals. This principle says actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human
happiness. So, Mill focuses on consequences of actions and not on rights nor ethical sentiments.
Lesson 5 Principle of Utility
The principle of utility states that actions or behaviors are right in

so far as they promote happiness or pleasure, wrong as they tend to
produce unhappiness or pain. Hence, utility is a teleological
principle. The feelings of pleasure and pain are biological events
involving our central nervous system, which are controlled by our
cerebral cortex. We obviously experience pleasure when we perform
certain acts that fulfill biological functions such as eating, drinking, and
having sex. We also experience pleasure when we perform certain intellectual activities, such as
reading a philosophy textbook, playing guitar, or drawing a picture. We sometimes, but not always,
experience pleasure when we do the right thing. Conversely, we experience pain when these
functions are left unfulfilled.
Lesson 6 Principle of the greatest number
Jeremy Bentham developed a quantifiable method for determining what was beneficial and
what was detrimental. He called this method utilitarianism, because its basic unit, the “util,” acted
like a monetary unit. Bentham’s protégé, John Stuart Mill, refined this system to include human
rights. His “harm principle” is an outstanding element in his version of utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism in business can lead to a bottom-line mentality in which decisions are based on
achieving the greatest good for the organization as it pertains to the greatest number of
stakeholders, including shareholders and all others affected by the actions of the organization The
outcome is the determining factor, not the intent of the actors or whether people are treated
humanely.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Although the ultimate aim of Aristotelian virtue ethics was eudaimonia, later philosophers began
to question this notion of happiness. If happiness consists of leading the good life, what is good?
More importantly, who decides what is good? Jeremy Bentham (1748–1842), a progressive
British philosopher and jurist of the Enlightenment period, advocated for the rights of women,
freedom of expression, the abolition of slavery and of the death penalty, and the
decriminalization of homosexuality. He believed that the concept of good could be reduced to
one simple instinct: the search for pleasure and the avoidance of pain. All human behavior could
be explained by reference to this basic instinct, which Bentham saw as the key to unlocking the
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workings of the human mind. He created an ethical system based on it, called utilitarianism.
Bentham’s protégé, John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), refined Bentham’s system by expanding it to
include human rights. In so doing, Mill reworked Bentham’s utilitarianism in some significant
ways.
Relate to Practice:
Utilitarian believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing the number of good
things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing the number of bad things (such
as pain and unhappiness). They reject moral codes or systems that consist of commands or taboos
that are based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural beings. In your own
opinion, does this makes morality be true or justifiable and will make a positive contribution to a
human being? Why or why not?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Utilitarianism” as to summarization of this topic and an additional
reference.
Self-Assessment:
below.
Imagine that the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency gets wind of a plot to set off a dirty bomb
in the capital of the Philippines. Agents capture a suspect who, they believe, has information about
where the bomb is planted.
1. Is it permissible for them to torture the suspect into revealing the bomb's whereabouts? Why
or why not?
2. Can the dignity of one individual be violated in order to save many others? Justify.
References:
 http://faculty.msj.edu/whiter/UTILITY.htm
 https://www.iep.utm.edu/mill-eth/
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jeremy-Bentham
 https://opentextbc.ca/businessethicsopenstax/chapter/utilitarianism-the-greatest-good-for-
the-greatest-number/
 https://www.iep.utm.edu/util-a-r/
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General Instruction: Place your answers at the given worksheet attached at the back of this
Instructional Learning Guide. Reproducing the worksheet is strictly prohibited. Please write your
answers legibly and neatly.
Feminist Ethics
a. What are the main goals of feminist ethics?
b. What are some key misunderstandings about feminist ethics?
The Divine Command Theory
c. What are the premises of Rachels’s argument against the divine command theory?
d. According to Rachels, why should even religious people reject the divine command
theory? Do you agree with Rachels?
FINAL COVERAGE

This shall be the basis of the teacher in the formulation of the Summative evaluation given at
the end of the chapter.
your USB content).
answers.
teacher.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
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1. Differentiate between utilitarian models and Quantitative model.
2. Identify and can discuss the different moral theories.
3. Mastery in the skill of identifying the different perspective of universal values.
4. Obtain essential skill in differentiating generation X-ers work ethics, Millenial work
ethics and generation Z-ers work ethics.
5. Gain knowledge about the top ethical issues in clinical setting nationwide and in the
Philippines.
CHAPTER 10 - Perspective of Universal Values
Lesson 1 Peace
The values enshrined in the United Nations Charter, respect

for fundamental human rights, social justice and human dignity
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and respect for the equal rights of men and women, serves as overarching values to which
suppliers of goods and services to the UN are expected to adhere.
In a speech at Tubingen University in Germany, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan

emphasized that PROGRESS, EQUAL RIGHTS, HUMAN DIGNITY are acutely needed in this age
of globalization.
Annan further stated that three years ago, in the Millennium Declaration, all states reaffirmed
certain fundamental values as being “essential to the international relations in the twenty-first
century”: freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and shared
responsibility. They adopted practical, achievable targets- the Millennium Development Goals – for
relieving the blight of extreme poverty and making such rights as education, basic health care and
clean water a reality for all.
The function of most of these basic values is to make it possible for every human to realize or
maintain the very highest or most basic universal core values of life, love and happiness.
PEACE – Peace has to be seen as a basic condition for freedom and happiness, for without peace
there cannot be real freedom. Wherever there is fight, threat or hostility, our freedom and happiness
are inhibited or totally prevented.
Lesson 2 Freedom
Freedom – means the experience of unrestricted and to be as much as possible independent of the
social pressure of others. A basic condition for happiness is however the experience of an inner, or
mental freedom; freedom from all kinds of stress, worry, anxiety, problems, obligations and fears
often directly or indirectly caused by the respectless egocentric or power-oriented mentality of many
others in our society.
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For many people in the world it would be much easier to attain happiness if others in their
society would show a little more respect for the value of freedom of all other people in that society.
For basically an outer freedom from dominance, repression, burden, obligations and duties creates
also an inner freedom from problems of worry, stress and fears.
And this shows also a huge responsibility for politicians and all other people in power, and it
asks for their integrity, empathy and respect for freedom is for any human a basic condition for
happiness, one of our very highest human values.
Lesson 3 Social Progress
Social progress is defined as the capacity of a society to

meet the basic human needs of its citizens, establish the
building blocks that allow citizens and communities to enhance
and sustain the quality of their lives, and create the conditions
for all individuals to reach their full potential. Our research
supports the development of effective measurement tools for
social progress.
Lesson 4 Equal Rights
Equality originates from aequalis, aequs and

aequalitas. These are old French or Latin words. These
French or Latin words mean even, level and equal. Thus,
the meaning of the word “equality” used in political
science corresponds to the meaning from which it
originates.
Every person has certain claims to equality. There are

two very important forms of legal or formal equality. One is
equality before law and equal protection of law. What is to be
noted here is that the legal member of the legal association can
legitimately claim that all the citizens must be treated equally
by law and no discrimination is to be allowed.
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Every individual has the right to claim equal liberties with others and when the state authority
can ensure this, it will be assumed that justice will no longer be far away. The state must see that in
regard to the allotment of rights and liberties, the principle of equality has been most scrupulously
observed. If equality is violated, justice will not be achieved. Justice is always hand in glove with
equality. In a state, all the opportunities and position shall be opened to all. There shall be no place
of discrimination.
Lesson 5 Human Dignity
The English word dignity comes from the Latin word, dignitas which means “worthiness”.
Dignity implies that each person is worthy of honor and respect for who they are, not for just what
they can do. In other words, human dignity cannot be earned and cannot be taken away. It’s an
inalienable gift given to us by God and every other good thing in life depends on the safeguarding or
our fundamental dignity. As the Universal of Human Rights puts it, “recognition of the inherent
dignity… of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world.”
Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and to be
treated ethically.
Human dignity originates from God and is of God because we are made in God’s own image
and likeness. Human life is sacred because the human person is the most central and clearest
reflection of God among us. Human beings have transcendent worth and value that comes from God;
this dignity is not based on any human quality, legal mandate or individual merit or accomplishment.
Human dignity is alienable – that means it is an essential part of every human being and is an
intrinsic quality that can never be separated from other essential aspects of the human person.
Human beings are qualitatively different from any other living being in the world because they
are capable of knowing and loving God unlike any other creature. Belief in the dignity of the human
person is the foundation of morality.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
The philosophy of most basic knowledge is in the first place about an understanding and awareness
of our human nature, and most basic universal human values. It contains concise basic information
about social, psychological, cultural and moral human qualities and basic universal human value sin
relation to political, economic, ecological, religious, judicial and educational issues in all societies. By
its nature, this basic knowledge tends to create a basic understanding and more agreement between
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people and cultures. However, by this basic and realistic nature, some of this information can also
be experienced as confronting.
Universal values are formed by implied behavioral standards that are necessary to live in a
Relate to Practice:
Universal values are a notion that is not obvious to define because a value is associated with morality
and ethics, which is difficult to transpose, or refer to the level of a certain group or individual. In your
own opinion, explain why universal values are necessary for human survival.
Note:
Please watch the video title “The Ten Most Important Human Values”” as to summarization of this
topic and an additional reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. Create a scenario wherein human dignity is compromised.
2. Identify other human values aside from the five given in the lecture content and why
are these values necessary for human survival.
3. Discuss why is human dignity important
References:
Pimentel raised the question at the hearing of the Senate committee on women, children, family
relations and gender equality on Tuesday .The senator said that some discriminatory acts may be
covered by Republic Act No. 11313 or the Safe Spaces Act, which covers forms of sexual harassment
and use of words or gestures that ridicule on the basis of sex, gender, or sexual orientation, among
others acts."Ang dapat nating sagutin talaga is, ano ang maitutulong ng SOGIE bill para mawala o
ma-address 'yung mga na-share na karanasan ng discrimination? Kasi marami nang nagsasabi na
ang pakiramdam, punishable na rin naman sila ngayon by set of laws," Pimentel said during the
hearing.
1. What are your arguments regarding the Sogie Bill?
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2. Do you agree to this bill? Why or why not? Please justify.
3. Does the SOGIE Bill will give equality to the Filipino people? Justify your answer.
4. What are pros and cons of SOGIE Bill?
Chapter 11- Work Ethics for Every Generation
Lesson 1 Baby boomers work ethics
The Baby Boomers Generation
Baby boomers were born between 1946 and 1964. The oldest the 79 million Baby Boomers
reached age 65 in 2011 and the youngest will get there by 2029.
Following World War II, the average age of marriage dropped, and the number of children increased
dramatically, making the Baby Boomer generation substantially larger than the Traditionalists.
Conveniently, this population explosion corresponded with a post-war economic boom (aided by
the G.I. Bill and the growth of consumer suburbs).
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But in the early years of the boom, schools were overcrowded, colleges didn’t have enough seats,
and competition for starting jobs was intense. As a result, the young Baby Boomers learned to
compete for resources and success.
Common Characteristics of Baby Boomers
 Work-Centric: Baby Boomers are extremely hardworking and motivated by position, perks,

and prestige. Baby Boomers relish long work weeks and define themselves by their
professional accomplishments. Since they sacrificed a great deal to get where they are in their
career, this workaholic generation believes that Generation X and Generation Y should pay
their dues and conform to a culture of overwork. Baby Boomers may criticize younger
generations for a lack of work ethic and commitment to the workplace.
 Independent: Baby Boomers are confident, independent, and self-reliant. This generation

grew up in an era of reform and believes they can change the world. They questioned
established authority systems and challenged the status quo. In the legal workplace, Baby
Boomers are not afraid of confrontation and will not hesitate to challenge established
practices.
 Goal-Oriented: With increased educational and financial opportunities than previous

generations, Baby Boomers are achievement-oriented, dedicated, and career-focused. They
welcome exciting, challenging projects and strive to make a difference.
 Competitive: Since Baby Boomers equate work and position with self-worth, they are quite
competitive in the workplace. They are clever, resourceful and strive to win. Boomers believe
in hierarchal structure and rankism and may have a hard time adjusting to workplace
flexibility trends. They believe in "face time" at the office and may fault younger generations
for working remotely.
 Self-Actualization: Because the Baby Boomers grew up in a time of mass middle-class

affluence, they had time and energy for self-actualization, and the Traditionalists values of
conformity and loyalty started to fall apart. Work for the Baby Boomers shifted from a source
of stability to a means of self-actualization and self-expression, moderating the Traditionalist
love of hierarchical management with an emphasis on structural fairness and equal
opportunity.
How Baby Boomer Values and Ethics Impacted the Legal Workplace
The Baby Boomers entered the legal profession at a

time of expansion and change, bringing with them their
long-established competitive and workaholic ways and
importing their views on social change and self-expression.
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In law firms, corporations, and other legal employers, Boomers insisted on a modicum of
feedback and argued for yearly standardized performance reviews to level the playing field for all
employees. With the booming economy, it was relatively easy to advance up the ranks to law firm
partnership, even though hard work and substantial billable hours were still required. The joke
among many Boomer law partners is that they’d never be able to make partner today, and probably
wouldn’t have had the credentials to even be hired as an associate.
Over the course of Boomer careers, firm salaries and equity pay-outs exploded, and they’d largely
avoided student loans and other debt, due to the expansion of public education and the booming
economy, leaving partners at the top of a seemingly endlessly widening pyramid.
Outside of the relatively conservative firm context, Boomers used the legal workplace to fight for
their deeply-held beliefs, advancing the rights of women and minorities in the courts via impact
litigation. Women started to become a more frequent presence in the legal workplace (as attorneys,
rather than secretaries), opening up opportunities, but also creating areas of frisson and conflict.
As women flooded into the workplace, the birthrate dropped substantially, resulting in the baby-
bust Generation X—25% smaller than the Baby Boomers.
As the booming economy slowed down, Generation X entered the workplace, bringing derision and
concern over their “slacker” values, but also a degree of tech-savvy knows how that the legal
profession had never before seen.
This generational segment constituted a large majority of law firm leaders, corporate executives,
senior paralegals, and legal managers. By 2010, nearly 70% of law firm partners were Baby
Boomers. However, the oldest Boomers began reaching retirement age in 2011. This sets the stage
for an unprecedented turnover of leadership in the coming years.
Lesson 2 Generation X-ers Work Ethics
Who are the Generation X’ers?

According to Pew Research Centre, they are those who were born between 1965 and 1979.
In a world that’s so concerned about Millennials (born after 1980) and Baby Boomers (born between
1960 and 1964), one can argue that Generation X’ers are the neglected “middle child”.
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The nap pods, open spaces, free meals, colorful workplaces, playgrounds, and lavish gardens
that Millennials would die to work in and Baby Boomers covet are the makings of Generation X’ers.
They are the architects of the productive offices of the 21 st century.
One of the highest paid women in the world. Born in 1968, Laura is the famous CEO of Williams-
Sonoma, a retail company specializing in kitchenware and home furnishings.
How Generation X is Shaping the Workplace Culture?

Generation X’ers brings a culture of work ethic, quality, and reciprocal relationships in the workplace.
They can work with Millennials and serve as mentors in helping them learn crucial people skills like
relationship building, adaptability, communication styles, employee motivation, empathy, group
dynamics as well as various management and leadership styles.
Xers are more pessimistic than both of those larger generations that they’ll have enough
money for their retirement
Generation X can increase the chances of younger Millennials to be successful in their role as future
managers and leaders. Success in the workplace is not defined by intelligence alone. There are several
forces at play including influence, emotional intelligence, and relationships — something that
Generation X’ers have applied for years.
Below are some of the things a Generation X’er can do to shape up the future of the
workplace.
1. Mentor a promising Millennial and share to him the judgment, understanding, and knowledge
gained.
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2. Delegate work and new projects to Millennials and teach them the value of collaboration and
autonomy. The next leaders in the workplace should be able to make decisions on their own.
3. As they say, “it takes two to tango.” Generation X should not dismiss the opportunity to learn
something new especially about technology from their Millennial counterparts.
4. Being able to take risks and explore new possibilities (one thing that most Baby Boomers failed
to do in the comfort of their cubicles).
5. Listen to Millennials and not being afraid to implement their new ways of doing things.
Knowing the characteristics of Generation X in the workplace is important. This will help you
understand what drives them, what perks they desire, and what helps them succeed. Here are some
of them:
1# Don’t be a nagging leader
Generation X’ers are known for their organizational skills. They know how to pace themselves and get
work done in a timely manner. Leaders who nag for constant updates may end up harboring
resentments from his Gen X workers. Of course, there are some activities that need constant
monitoring and they’re an exception to this rule.
Generation X’ers are independent and autonomous. They have learned to work at an early age while
their parents are away at work — enabling them to develop a sense of independence and strong work
ethics which are evident up to these days.
They can be as workaholic as they want to be but their bosses should know their limit on how they
treat them. Efforts that are not compensated are problematic and need legal assistance if it happens
that the issues are not addressed properly. This is why all workers are protected by employment law
to ensure that no one can get away from any forms of unjust treatment in the workplace.
2# Give them a challenge
Generation X’ers are adaptable. It’s what makes them thrive even in a very technology-dependent
workplace. And they love challenges too! Their strong work ethics enables them to work well in
challenging situations. They can start a project from scratch and see it through to completion.
3# Flexible work hours
Working flexible hours is not just a Millennial thing. It’s a lifestyle that Generation X’ers and Baby
Boomers yearn for as they learn the value and importance of work-life balance. Remember, Gen X’ers
grew up seeing their parents putting in long hours of stressful work just to climb up that corporate
ladder. Flex options can include working from home in certain days.
4# Treat them as entrepreneurs
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Generation X’ers have an unquenchable business-minded spirit. As a matter of fact, 41% of Gen X’ers
label themselves as entrepreneurs and many are already transitioning from employees to business
owners.
Entrepreneurs have a unique skill set that you can leverage for your business — this ranges from
project management to campaign creations. Learn how to use these to your advantage and give your
Generation X workers the opportunity and the environment to show off these skills.
5# Always give feedback
Feedbacks are important to Generation X’ers because they value professional development and growth
— traits they learned from their hardworking Baby Boomer parents. Gen X’ers want to cultivate a
healthy relationship with their supervisors so dish out those quarterly reports and give feedback
whenever its due.
Like their Millennial counterparts, Generation X’ers are more likely to leave a company when they don’t
see any room for growth. The oldest Gen X’ers will still be in the workplace for at least a decade while
the younger members of the generation are expected to work for over 30 years. This means that they
will be playing critical roles in your business for quite some time.
Now is the time focus on Generation X and stop treating them as neglected workers. Why? Because
they bring so much to the table.
Lesson 3 Millennial Work Ethics
If you are like most business leaders, you've no doubt noticed a trend in the way employees
behave in recent years. Most likely you consider it a negative trend—too much entitlement, not
enough loyalty, no work ethic, only interested in themselves, and so on.
You should consider that perhaps these are not negative trends, just different ones. Things
aren't always what they seem with Millennial employees.
To better understand who your Millennial employees are and what drives them to succeed,
perhaps it's easiest to understand who they are not. You. That's right. They may even be your
offspring but in the workplace, they bear little resemblance to you from yesteryear.
Xers and Millennials
Gen Xers (Generation X, born between 1965 and 1979) and Millennials (born after 1980) are
operating in this world with a completely different perspective. Their definitions of loyalty, time, and
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success are often quite different from yours. Rest assured they do recognize all of these concepts—
they value them in very important and different ways.
The key to your organization's future success is understanding how the Millennials view the world
and using that knowledge to motivate them in a way that works. Here's a hint: meet them where
they are and they will achieve your underlying goals; try to force them to fit your definitions and they
will run for the door every time.
There are some pervasive myths about our youngest working generation. This is what they are—
myths. You can tailor your workplace to meet you and your employees' needs. When you find a way
to create an environment conducive to both parties, your company will thrive.
Myth: Younger Generations of Millennials Have No Work Ethic
This is untrue. Millennials have a self-centered work ethic. This is not necessarily as negative as it
seems. Millennial employees are dedicated to completing their task well. They have not been raised
in a way that demands them to look around and see what should be done next.
Instead, they ask "what is my job" and go about figuring the best, fastest way to complete that task.
Then they consider themselves done. This is a key differentiator between your employees and
yourself.
Your younger employees tend to view their jobs as something to do in between weekends (this is not
specific to Millennials, as many different aged employees are guilty of this). For most, early
employment has nothing to do with a career path; it is a way to earn money to have fun in their free
time.
When you understand what motivates your employees you are better able to set mutual expectations
for success. Instead of being frustrated that your youngest employees are not interested in climbing
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your corporate ladder, embrace their true motivation—reliable spending money—and use it to your
advantage.
When you tell an employee, "I understand this is not your lifelong career, but I expect you to earn
your paycheck every week here," they are much more likely to respond than if you try to motivate
with promises of promotions and titles down the road.
Understanding that being at the job isn't as important to Millennials as completing the assigned task
also opens up new opportunities for motivation and reward. Younger employees are very likely to
respond to offers of paid time off.
Myth: Millennials Don't Want to Put in the Hours to Get Ahead
Millennial employees are willing to put in the time to do the job, however, they are uninterested in
"face time." Gen Xers and Millennials view time as a currency.
While Baby Boomers tend to see time as something to invest, the younger generations view it as a
valuable currency not to be wasted. These are the generations that demand work-life balance and
paid time off. They want to get the job done, then put it behind them and enjoy life.
Boomer managers have a tendency to lose the interest of their Millennial employees by looking too
far into the future. Millennials live in a time frame based on right now. Their world has proven that
nothing is a guarantee—they've seen nationwide layoffs, war, endless scandals across all aspects of
life and soaring divorce rates.
They have learned that there's not a lot you can rely on. Many of the older people touted as heroes,
leaders, sages, and entrepreneurs are not as worthy of their respect as they were taught.
As a result, they are not interested in promotion plans for five years from now. They don't even want
to know what will happen at the end of the summer. Life is uncertain. To reach the Millennial
employee and reduce turnover, make it certain.
Tell your employee that you have a plan. Take pains to ensure it is in a timeframe short enough for
them to envision. Be prepared to fulfill your promise. Once fooled, the Millennial employees will file
you away with the rest of the unreliable older people they see in the news.
This approach feeds into their reality while simultaneously building trust and buying you more time.
Reward small successes along the way, string these milestones together, and you will soon realize
longer tenures among your staff.
Myth: Millennial Employees Have No Respect for Authority
Millennial and Gen-X employees have great respect for leaders and loyalty. However, as a
rule, they don't respect authority just because. For the younger generations, every ounce of loyalty
and respect must be earned. But when it is earned, it is given fiercely.
In fact, loyalty to the individual's leaders or a boss is the number one reason Gen Xers and
Millennial employees stay in a job, especially during the first three, tenuous years. Dissatisfaction
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with the boss is the number one reason they quit.
So in order to increase retention, managers must take a flipped view on leadership—it is no

longer enough to hire the right people and show them the way, now you must be the right person to
win their affection. Sounds a little touchy-feely for the workforce? Yes, but the more quickly leaders
understand this new relationship, the faster you will see the reward: retention of Millennial
employees.
There is one big caveat to the "be the person they want you to be" approach to leadership,
however. Millennials have a tendency to seek tight bonds; they want a boss who is close, caring, and
aware. You can be all that as when you manage Millennials. However, be careful to define with them
the line you don't want to cross—the boss as an advocate to the boss as a friend. That is a slippery
slope.
Friendship can be especially tempting in situations where managers and employees are close
in age, or work very close together. When activities outside of the office become too regular, too
casual, or largely social in nature, it is time to examine how this will affect your role as a boss and
leader.
Myth: They Don't Want to Grow Up
Many people do not want to grow up. Millennial employees may not know how to grow up the
way previous generations did. The youngest generations in today's workforce are facing delayed
adulthood. They are getting married later, having children later and just generally facing the "real
world" later.
This isn't the result of a mutated maturity gene, it just is. And, to be honest, Boomers may
have had a lot to do with why it's this way. As parents, Boomers had a tendency to coddle their
children and use their own good fortune to make sure their children didn't experience adversity.
As career models, Boomers demonstrated the toll of working long hours and paying their
dues in a way that made their children less likely to follow in their footsteps. Many parents worked
very hard without receiving much in the way of advancement. Millennials today look at the corporate
ladder and think, "there must be another way."
Advice for Managing Millennials
Don't waste time wishing your Millennial employees were different. You'd do better to spend
your time changing your own way of regarding your workforce. Your task is to work to understand
the newer generations, then use that knowledge to reposition how you interact with, motivate,
and reward your staff. Take attire for instance. Your 18-year-old self would have gladly donned
whatever uniform was necessary to fit the company mold. You did what was necessary to fit in.
Today's youth want to stand out. They want their individuality to shine through even when required
to provide a consistent standard of service and performance. Balancing corporate needs with
individual desires will take some creative thinking. Home Depot is one company that has addressed
this dilemma at a very basic level—company uniforms. They simply require that all employees wear a
standard Home Depot apron. Be yourself underneath (within reason) and show the customer that
you are on the Home Depot team with this bright orange apron.
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There may be a standard you can modify to accommodate individual preferences. A valuable
employee in a suit is just as valuable in a t-shirt (or at least a collared shirt). The myths surrounding
today's young employees are not always what they seem. Attitudes toward work, life, loyalty,
and respect have all changed, but each is still considered valuable. In fact, some of the demands
made by today's youth are creating positive benefits for employees in every generation.
Flexibility and respect for the individual, as well as the organization, are good for everyone.
The adjustments you make to accommodate the changing attitudes of today's youth will be returned
to you with decreased turnover, improved morale, and measurable business results. And when
frustration mounts, just remember things aren't always what they seem. Open your mind to the
possibility that there is a benign, generational reason for the disconnect between what you want and
what your Millennial employees are providing, and you may just find room to create a
shared vision of success.
Lesson 4 Generation Z-ers Work Ethics

People ages 16 to 25, commonly known as Generation Z, consider themselves the
hardest-working generation yet won't tolerate being forced to work when they don't want to,
according to a new study.
Moreover, although they consider themselves to be the consummate "digital generation,"
they say they prefer face-to-face interactions at work.
Gen- Zers value individual expression and avoid labels. They mobilize themselves for a variety
of causes. They believe profoundly in the efficacy of dialogue to solve conflicts and improve the
world. Finally, they make decisions and relate to institutions in a highly analytical and pragmatic way.
That is why, for us, Gen Z is “True Gen.” In contrast, the previous generation— the millennials,
sometimes called the “me generation”—got its start in an era of economic prosperity and focuses on
the self. Its members are more idealistic, more confrontational, and less willing to accept diverse
points of view.
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Such behaviors influence the way Gen Zers view consumption and their relationships with
brands. Companies should be attuned to three implications for this generation: consumption as
access rather than possession, consumption as an expression of individual identity, and consumption
as a matter of ethical concern. Coupled with technological advances, this generational shift is
transforming the consumer landscape in a way that cuts across all socioeconomic brackets and
extends beyond Gen Z, permeating the whole demographic pyramid. The possibilities now emerging
for companies are as transformational as they are challenging. Businesses must rethink how they
deliver value to the consumer, rebalance scale and mass production against personalization, and—
more than ever—practice what they preach when they address marketing issues and work ethics.
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Look around your workplace and you are likely to see people from across the age span. A result of this
boost in age diversity are conversations about how generational differences will impact the functioning
of our organizations. After all, Millennials only want to communicate with coworkers via text — and
Baby Boomers don’t text, right? And you need to attract those tech-y Millennials with promises of
flexible work schedules, but their older counterparts all want a traditional workday, correct? Well,
actually, wrong.
So, what might really matter at work are not actual differences between generations, but
people’s beliefs that these differences exist. These beliefs can get in the way of how people collaborate
with their colleagues, and have troubling implications for how we people are managed and trained.
Importantly, these reactions can also impact interpersonal behaviors at work. Both threats and
challenges led to conflict at work (things like arguing or not getting along with colleagues) and
avoidance behaviors (things like keeping to oneself and avoiding interacting with others).
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Relate to Practice:
The differences in attitudes and traits caused by age gaps have resulted in a great deal of variability
in many of the measures of workplace ethics. In this case, as a future professional working in an
environment with different generations, how will you adapt and why is it necessary for you to adapt
in this environment?
Note:
Please watch the video title “Five Generations in the Modern Workplace” as to summarization of this
topic and an additional reference.
Self-Reflection:
1. How will you overcome generational differences at work?
2. How will you communicate across generations in order to have an efficient working
environment?
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1:
Title: Starbursting Activity
Materials:
 Notebook
 Ballpen
Procedure:
1. Draw or print out a large six-pointed star. Place it on your notebook. Or use the free star
bursting image below.
2. In the center of the star, write the word “ETHICS”
3. Write a one-word question at the tip of each point of the star: who, what, where, when, why,
how.
4. Brainstorm and write down questions that start with the word at each point of the star. Do
not attempt to answer the questions yet.
5. Continue to brainstorm questions until you have at least three questions for each point of the
star.
6. Once you have enough questions for discussion, begin to systematically answer the questions.
Jot short versions of each answer next to its question
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ETHICS
Activity 2:
Title: Misconception check
Materials:
 Notebook
 Ballpen
Procedure:
1. Think of a certain, not typical news that been aired for this year 2020.
2. Explain and elaborate clearly what happened.
3. Identify all factual information and set aside the misconception about ethics.
4. Write your synthesis about it in a long bond paper. Don’t forget to write the date of
accomplishment at the top right corner of the paper.
Activity 3
Title: Movie Application
Materials:
 Notebook
 Ballpen
 Laptop
 Flash drive
Procedure:
1. Think of a specific movie that somehow made an impact to you and nearly changed your
perspective about life.
2. Explain and elaborate clearly what happened.
3. Identify all conflicts in terms of its Ethical Dimensions e.g. Moral Decision and Moral
Judgment.
4. Write your synthesis about it in a long bond paper. Don’t forget to write the date of
accomplishment at the top right corner of the paper.
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Activity 4
Title: Worksheet 1 (Mores and Moral Significance in the Society)
FILL-IN THE TABLE
Materials:
 Ballpen
 Worksheet (provided by the instructor)
Procedure/Instructions:
1. The provided worksheet or answer sheet from the instructor is the only legit and
acceptable answer sheet upon submission.
2. Reproducing of the answer sheet is strictly prohibited.
3. Answer the work sheet neatly and with no superimpositions or erasures.
4. Worksheet shall be submitted only with the set deadline from the instructor.
5. Strictly no copy pasting, plagiarizing and answers should be answered in your own
words.
Activity 5
Title: Worksheet 2 (Life Decisions)
FILL-IN THE TABLE
Materials:
 Ballpen
 Worksheet (provided by the instructor)
5. Strictly no copy pasting, plagiarizing and answers should be answered in your own
words.
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WORKSHEET 1
Title: Worksheet 1 (Mores and Moral Significance in the Society)
FILL-IN THE TABLE
Directions: Give five (5) examples of mores in your society and explain the moral significance
of each. Complete the table below.
MORES MORAL SIGNIFICANCE IN THE SOCIETY
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WORKSHEET 2
Title: Worksheet 2 (Life Decisions)
FILL-IN THE TABLE
Directions: Recall five instances in your life when you made decisions primarily involving
reason and experience. List these instances below and answer the questions that follow:
Based on Reason Based on Experience
Questions:
1. When do you usually make decisions using your rationality?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. When do you usually make decisions involving your experience and why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What do you use more often in decision making, reasons or experience? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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 Your co-worker asks you to cover for him so he can sneak out of work early to go to his son’s
softball game.
1. Do you agree?
2. If he went anyway, would you keep silent?
 You’re about ready to sign a big new client to a contract worth over $50,000. Your boss is
under a lot of pressure to increase sales. He calls you into his office and tells you his job is on
the line, and he asks you to include the revenue for your contract in the sales figures for the
quarter that ends tomorrow. You know the contract is a sure thing but the client is out of
town and cannot possibly sign by tomorrow.
1. What do you do?
 The manufacturing cost of the widgets your company makes has dropped by 50%. One of
your customers, Sam, tells you he knows this because he is best friends with your company’s
VP of production and asks you for a discount on his order. Your boss okays the discount. Your
other customer, Sue (who is one of your best friends and knows nothing about the drop in
manufacturing costs), places the exact same order for widgets as Sam.
1. Do you offer her a similar discount?
2. Do you tell her about the drop in manufacturing costs?
 Company policy forbids co-workers to become romantically involved. You go to the same
church as someone from another department, and you find yourself becoming attracted to
this person.
1. Do you pursue the relationship?
 Your best friend is the VP of one of the companies with which your firm does business. You
take her out for lunch just to catch up on personal stuff, and you pick up the check. 1. Do you
declare this a “business lunch” and submit the receipt
91
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1:
Title: The Boy in Striped Pajama
Materials:
 Bondpaper (Long)
 Ballpen
Procedure:
5. Open your flash drive with the folder “Movies for Activities.”
6. Select “The Boy in Striped Pajamas”
7. Watch the movie and try to reflect on yourself the relevance and how did it affect your
perspective as a human being.
8. In a long bond paper, write your name at the top right corner together with the date of
accomplishment.
9. Write a synthesis about the movie – eg. Conflicts and how it was resolved.
10. Write your insight neatly and clearly.
Activity 2:
Title: MEME; Misunderstanding Ethical Misconceptions and Errors
Materials:
 Bondpaper (Long)
 Laptop
Procedure:
1. In a long bond paper, write your name at the top right corner together with the date of
accomplishment.
2. Create a meme (a unit of cultural information, as a concept, belief, or practice,that spreads
from person to person in a way analogous to the transmission of genes. Word origin. short
for mimeme) regarding generational differences in a workplace.
3. Be creative, informative and funny as much as possible.
Activity 3:
Title: Worksheet 3 (Utilitarianism Today)
Pop-up Questions
Materials:
 Worksheet provided by the instructor
 Ballpen
92
10.Strictly no copy pasting, plagiarizing and answers should be answered in your own
words.
WORKSHEET 3
Title: Worksheet 3 (Utilitarianism Today)
Pop-up Questions
Directions: Answer the following questions in your own opinion. Avoid copy-pasting. Anyone
caught shall be sanctioned accordingly.
1. What is your reaction to the news report about War on Drugs? Do you agree with
how the War on Drugs is being implemented? Why or Why not?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. Compare the pros and cons of the war on drugs. Give 5 strong arguments each in favor of
President Duterte’s policy on drugs and the CHR on the side.
President Duterte’s Policy CHR
3. From the list what would be considered by Mill as a higher form of pleasure as opposed to
the lower form of pleasure? Choose one and justify.
 Drinking beer.
 Going to a concert.
 Reading novels.
 Playing basketball.
 Praying.
4. In the movie, “Avengers: Infinity War”, the Antagonist, Thanos wanted to rule the world
in order to create balance that will ultimately save the world. However, in doing so, he will
kill half of the world’s population. Will you side with the Avengers to stop him or will you
let him do his plan? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Alimannao Hills, Peñablanca, Cagayan

Note: Respective for ISAP students only

NAME OF STUDENT: ___________________________ YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________

How to Use this Learning Guide:

Features of the Instructional Learning Guide: Chapter Outcomes

Chapter 2 – Foundation of Moral Valuation

Chapter 3 - Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

Chapter 5 – Sources of Authority

Chapter 6 – Theories of Senses of Self

Chapter 8 – Philosophical Perspective of Ethics

Chapter 9 – Moral Theories and Mental Frame

Chapter 11- Work Ethics for Every Generation

Subject: Ethics Units: 3 No. Of Class Hrs: 3 hrs lec / wk

PRELIM-COVERAGE (27 HOURS)

CHAPTER 1 – Dimensions of Ethics and Moral Behavior

Lesson 1: Introduction and historical perspective of ethics in the modern society

Intended Learning Outcomes:

CHAPTER END EVALUATION

CHAPTER 2 – Foundation of Moral Valuation

Ethics is a philosophical science. This means

 DESCRIPTIVE/SPECULATIVE – is a discipline in philosophy that posits the question:

Ethics is a science (normative science)

CHAPTER END EVALUATION

CHAPTER 3 - Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALITY

LESSON 2 Issue, Decision, Judgment and

To call something “right” in the abstract tells us little. To tell

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Developing a moral compass in children is a

 NON-MORAL STANDARD – refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

Somewhere between etiquette and law lie

LESSON 3 Level of Moral dilemma - individual, organizational, structural

A moral dilemma is a situation where:

1. You are presented with two or

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILLEMA IN THE WORKPLACE

Lesson 4 Foundation of morality and moral decision

In making moral decisions, Immanuel Kant runs to human

To explain this foundation of autonomy or freedom of moral act, Kant

Lesson 5 Descriptive and Normative

1. It is wrong to kill people just because they make you angry.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

IMPARTIALITY – also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness is a principle of justice

Lesson 2 Principle of Beneficence

BENEFICENCE - The generic definition of beneficence is

Lesson 3 Step Guide to Ethical Decision

THE SEVEN (7) STEP GUIDES TO ETHIC

AL DECISION MAKING AND MORAL REASONING

Lesson 4 Ethical Decision-Making Model - Shaun Taylor Model

Shaun Taylor's presentation: Geo-ethics Forums given at the 2014 Teaching Geo-Ethics

a) The context/facts of the situation

CHAPTER END EVALUATION

Chapter 5 – Sources of Authority

Many times, there’s a conflict

NEGATIVE FEELINGS TO CONTENT ON SOCIAL NETWORKS

LESSON 2 Authority of the law

Law is defined as a rule of action or a principle of

Lesson 3 Authority of one’s Religion

Often Religion and ethics are

NAME OF STUDENT: _________ YEAR AND SECTION: _