Control System

By:
Dr. Mandeep S Walia
Assistant Professor
Dept of ECE
CGC
 Syllabus

Unit 1: Introduction
Classification with understanding of Industrial Control system examples. Transfer function.
System with dead-time. System response. Control hardware and their models: potentiometers,
synchros, LVDT, DC and AC servomotors, Tacho generators, Electro hydraulic valves,
hydraulic servomotors, electro pneumatic valves, pneumatic actuators. Closed-loop systems.
Block diagram and signal flow graph analysis.
Unit 2: Feedback Control systems
Stability, steady-state accuracy, transient accuracy, disturbance rejection, insensitivity and
robustness. proportional, integral and derivative systems. Feed forward and multi-loop control
configurations, stability concept, relative stability, Routh stability criterion.
 Unit 3: Second Order systems
Time response of second-order systems, steady-state errors, and error constants. Performance
specifications in time domain. Root locus method of design. Lead and lag compensation.
Frequency-response analysis- Polar plots, Bode plot, stability in the frequency domain, Nyquist
plots. Nyquist stability criterion. Performance specifications in the frequency domain. Frequency
domain methods of design, Compensation & their realization in time & frequency domain. Lead
and Lag compensation. Op-amp-based and digital implementation of compensators. Tuning of
process controllers. State variable formulation and solution.

Unit 4: State variable Analysis

Concepts of state, state variable, state model, state models for linear continuous time functions,
diagonalization of transfer function, solution of state equations, concept of controllability &
observability. Introduction to Optimal control & Nonlinear control, Optimal Control problem,
Regulator problem, Output regulator, tracking problem. Nonlinear system – Basic concept &
analysis.
Recommended Books:
1. Gopal. M., “Control Systems: Principles and Design”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1997.
2. Kuo, B.C., “Automatic Control System”, Prentice Hall, sixth edition, 1993.
3. Ogata, K., “ Modern Control Engineering” , Prentice Hall, second edition, 1991.
4. Nagrath& Gopal, “Modern Control Engineering”, New Age International, New Delhi.
 What is a control system?
• A control system is a set of devices that work together to manage, command, direct, or
regulate the behavior of other devices or systems.

• It is designed to maintain a desired output or state by adjusting the input or feedback signals.

• In simple terms, a control system takes an input signal, processes it, and produces an output
signal based on the desired response.

• Control systems can be found in a variety of applications, from household appliances like
thermostats and ovens to complex industrial processes like manufacturing, robotics, and
aerospace.

• These systems are critical for ensuring consistent performance, improving efficiency, and
reducing costs. By automating tasks and processes, control systems can also improve safety
and reduce the risk of human error.
 Types of Control Systems

• There are three main types of control systems: open-loop, closed-loop, and
feedback control systems.
• Open-loop control systems are the simplest type and operate without any feedback.
They rely solely on the input signal to produce an output signal. An example of an
open-loop system is a washing machine that operates on a timer.
• Closed-loop control systems, on the other hand, use feedback to adjust the output
signal based on the input signal. They are more complex than open-loop systems
and can be found in applications such as temperature control systems.
• Feedback control systems are similar to closed-loop systems but also incorporate a
sensor to measure the output signal and compare it to the desired output signal.
This allows for more precise control and is commonly used in industrial automation.
Open-loop, closed-loop, and feedback control systems each have their own
advantages and disadvantages depending on the application.
• For example, open-loop systems are simple and inexpensive but lack
precision and accuracy.
• Closed-loop systems are more complex and expensive but offer greater
control and accuracy.
• Feedback control systems are the most precise and accurate but also
the most complex and expensive.
• It is important to understand the different types of control systems and
their applications to choose the best option for a given situation.
• Sensors are responsible for measuring the system's input or output
variables, such as temperature, pressure, or position.
• Controllers use this information to determine the appropriate action to take
and send commands to the actuators.
• Actuators then carry out these commands by adjusting the system's output
variables, such as opening or closing valves or turning on motors.
 Components of a Control System

A control system consists of several components that work together to achieve a

desired output. The main components include sensors, controllers, and actuators.

1.Input: The input is the reference signal or setpoint that represents the desired value or
state that the control system aims to achieve. It is the target value to be maintained or
achieved by the system.
2.Sensor/Measurement Device: Sensors are responsible for measuring the actual output
or process variable of the system. They provide feedback to the control system, allowing it
to compare the actual output with the desired setpoint.
3.Controller: The controller is the core of the control system. It receives feedback from
the sensors and calculates the error signal, which is the difference between the desired
setpoint and the actual output. Based on this error signal, the controller makes decisions
on how to adjust the system to reduce the error and achieve the desired output.
Actuator: The actuator is responsible for executing the control actions as determined
by the controller. It receives the control signals from the controller and converts them
into physical actions to influence the system. For example, in an HVAC system, the
actuator adjusts the valve or damper to control the airflow or temperature.

Plant/Process: The plant or process refers to the system being controlled. It can be a
physical system like a manufacturing process, a chemical reactor, an electrical circuit,
or even a complex mechanical system.
Feedback Loop: The feedback loop is the pathway through which the measured
output (feedback) is fed back to the controller. By comparing the feedback with the
desired setpoint, the controller can make appropriate adjustments to the system.

Communication Network: In modern control systems, there is often a communication

network that facilitates data exchange between different components of the control
system. This network allows for remote monitoring, data logging, and integration with
other systems.

Power Supply: Control systems require a reliable power supply to operate the various
components effectively. The power supply provides the necessary electrical energy for
sensors, controllers, and actuators.
Each component plays a crucial role in the control system.

• Without sensors, the system would not be able to measure the input or output
variables accurately.
• Without controllers, the system would not be able to make decisions based on this
information.
• And without actuators, the system would not be able to adjust its output variables
to achieve the desired result.
 Application of Control system in industries

Control systems play a crucial role in various industries, helping to automate and optimize
processes, enhance efficiency, ensure safety, and maintain quality.
Manufacturing Industry:
1. Process Control: Control systems regulate variables like temperature, pressure, flow
rate, and level in manufacturing processes, ensuring consistent product quality and
minimizing waste.
2. Robotics: Industrial robots are controlled using sophisticated control systems for
precise and efficient operations in tasks such as welding, assembly, and material
handling.
Automotive Industry:
1. Engine Control: Control systems manage fuel injection, ignition timing, and exhaust
emission control to optimize engine performance and fuel efficiency.
2. Vehicle Stability Control: Systems like ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) and ESC
(Electronic Stability Control) help maintain vehicle stability and improve safety.
 Application of Control system in industries

Power Generation:
1. Power Plant Control: Control systems manage the operation of power plants,
including boiler controls, turbine controls, and generator voltage regulation.
2. Smart Grids: Modern power distribution systems utilize control systems for
efficient energy distribution, load balancing, and demand response.
Oil and Gas Industry:
1. Wellhead Control: Control systems manage the production rate of oil wells,
optimizing extraction and preventing reservoir damage.
2. Pipeline Control: Control systems regulate the flow of oil and gas in pipelines,
ensuring safe and efficient transportation.
 Application of Control system in industries

Aerospace Industry:
1. Flight Control Systems: Control systems in aircraft manage various flight
parameters, such as altitude, heading, speed, and stabilize the aircraft during flight.
2. Thrust Vector Control: In space applications, control systems regulate rocket nozzle
orientation to control the direction of thrust.
Chemical Industry:
1. Batch Control: Control systems are used to manage chemical reactions in batches,
ensuring precise control over reactant ratios and reaction conditions.
2. Continuous Process Control: Control systems monitor and adjust variables in
continuous chemical processes to maintain desired product specifications.
Water and Wastewater Treatment:
1. Water Quality Control: Control systems monitor and adjust water treatment
processes to maintain water quality standards.
2. Wastewater Treatment: Control systems optimize wastewater treatment
processes for effective pollutant removal.
Food and Beverage Industry:
1. Process Automation: Control systems automate food processing and packaging
operations, ensuring consistent product quality and safety.
2. Temperature and Humidity Control: Control systems regulate environmental
conditions in storage and production facilities to preserve food quality.
 Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems in the following ways.
Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems
• Control Systems can be classified as continuous-time control systems and discrete-time
control systems based on the type of signal used.
• In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete
time control systems, there exist one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

• Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems
based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
• SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output.
Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than
one input and more than one output.
 Difference between System and Control System

Input Proper Input Control Desired

System System
Output Output

(May or may not

be desired)
 Classification of Control System
(Depending on control action)

Open Loop Control Closed Loop Control

System System
 Open Loop Control System

Open-loop Control System

Definition: An open-loop system is a type of control system in which the
output of the system depends on the input but the input or the controller
is independent of the output of the system. These systems do not contain
any feedback loop and thus are also known as non-feedback systems.

Controller Process

Example
• Traffic light controllers •Electric Clothes Drier
• Washing Machine •Shades or Blinds on a window
•Electric Bulb •Stepper Motor or Servo Motor
•Electric Hand Drier •Inkjet Printers
•Door Lock System
 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLES

➢ Electric hand drier – Hot air (output)

comes out as long as you keep your
hand under the machine, irrespective of
how much your hand is dried.

➢ Automatic washing machine

– This machine runs according to the
pre-set time irrespective of whether
washing is completed or not.
➢ Bread toaster - This
machine runs as per
adjusted time
irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
 Open Loop Control System

Motor Motor
Controller
Conveyor

Did the Conveyor start, and if it did,

is it running at the right speed?
 Closed Loop Control System

A closed loop control system is a mechanical or electronic device that automatically

regulates a system to maintain a desired state or set point without human
interaction. It uses a feedback system or sensor. Closed loop control is contrasted
with open loop control, where there is no self-regulating mechanism and human
interaction is typically required

Command Error
Signal, + Controller Process Output
Setpoint -

Measurement
A simple example of a closed-loop control system is a home thermostat. The
thermostat can send a signal to the heater to turn it on or off. It uses a
temperature sensor to detect the current air temperature. When the temperature
is below the set point, it turns the heater on. When the sensor detects the
temperature is above the set point, it turns the system off.
 Closed Loop Control System Examples

➢ Automatic Electric Iron- Heating elements are

controlled by output temperature of the iron.
Closed Loop Control System

Rotary Encoder

Motor Motor
Controller
Conveyor

Feedback speed and position

 Open Loop Closed Loop
Any change in output has no effect Changes in output, affects the input
on the input i.e. feedback does which is possible by use of feedback.
not exists.

Output measurement is not Output measurement is necessary.

required for operation of system.

Feedback element is absent. Feedback element is present.

Error detector is absent. Error detector is necessary.

It is inaccurate and unreliable. Highly accurate and reliable.

Highly sensitive to the disturbances. Less sensitive to the disturbances.

 Highly sensitive to the Less sensitive to the environmental
environmental changes
changes
Bandwidth is small. Bandwidth is large.
Simple to construct and cheap. Complicated to design and hence
costly.
Generally are stable in nature. Stability is the major
consideration while designing
Highly affected by nonlinearities. Reduced effect of nonlinearities.
To achieve the required objective, a good control system must satisfy the
following requirements.
1. Accuracy :
– A good control system must be highly accurate.
– The open loop systems are generally less accurate and hence
feedback is introduced to reduce the error in the system.
2. Sensitivity :
– A good control system should be very insensitive to environmental
changes, age etc. But, must be sensitive to the input commands.
– The performance should not be affected by small changes in the
certain parameters of the system.
3) External disturbance or noise :
– All the physical systems are subjected to external disturbances and
noise signals during operation.
– A requirement of a good control system is that system is insensitive
to noise and external disturbances but sensitive to the input
commands.
4) Stability :
– A concept of stability means output of system must follow
reference input and must produced bounded output for bounded
input.
– A good control system is one which is stable in nature.
5) Bandwidth :
– This requirement is related to the frequency response of the
system.
– For the input frequency range, it should give satisfactory output.
6) Speed :
– A system should have good speed. This means output of the
system should approach to its desired value as quickly as possible.
– System should settled down to its final, value as quickly as
possible.
7) Oscillations :
– The system should exhibits suitable damping i.e. the controlled
output should follow the changes in the reference input without
unduly large oscillations or overshoots.
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 What is LAPLACE TRANSFORMER?

• French mathematician, Pierre Simon De Laplace (1749-1827).

• Converting differential equations into algebraic equations

• A differential equation is an equation that contains one or more

functions with its derivatives. The derivatives of the function
define the rate of change of a function at a point.
LaplaceTransform

➢ To evaluate the performance of an automatic control

system commonly used mathematical tool is “Laplace
Transform”
➢ Laplace transform converts the differential equation
into an algebraic equation in ‘s’.

➢ Laplace transform exist for almost all signals of

practical interest.

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Advantages of Laplace Transform

➢ Solution of integrated differential systems can be easily

obtained.

➢ Initial conditions are automatically incorporated.

➢ Laplace transform provides an easy & effective solution
of many problems arising in automatic control systems.

➢ Laplace transform allows the use of graphical

techniques, for predicting the system performance.

3535
Laplace Transform- Definition

Laplace transform converts the differential

equation into an algebraic equation in ‘s’.
The Laplace transform of a function, f(t), is defined as

F (s) = L  f (t)  =  f (t )e −st dt (1-1)
0

where F(s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the Laplace
transform operator, and f(t) is some function of time, t.

Note: The L operator transforms a time domain function f(t)

into an s domain function, F(s). s is a complex variable:
s = a + bj,

3636
Laplace of function
 Standard Laplace Transform
f (t ) F ( s ) = L[ f (t)]
1 or u(t) 1
s
e−t 1
s+
sin t 
s2 +  2
cos  t s
s2 +  2
e −  t si n  t 
(s +  )2 +  2
e−t c o s t s+
(s +  )2 +  2
t 1
s2
tn n!
sn+1
e−t t n n!
(s +  )n+1
 (t ) 1

* U s e w h e n roots are c o m p l e x .

3939
 Applications of Laplace Transform
• convert complex differential equations to a simpler form having
polynomials.

• convert derivatives into multiple domain variables

• convert the polynomials back to the differential equation using

Inverse Laplace transform.

• In the telecommunication field send signals to both sides of the

medium.
• For example, when the signals are sent through the
phone then they are first converted into a time-varying wave and
then superimposed on the medium.

• Electrical Circuit Analysis, Digital Signal Processing, System

Modelling, etc.
Inverse Laplace Transform
• In the inverse Laplace transform, we are provided with the

transform F(s) and asked to find what function we have initially.

The inverse transform of the function F(s) is given by:

• f(t) = L-1{F(s)}

• For example, for the two Laplace transform, say F(s) and G(s), the

inverse Laplace transform is defined by:

L-1{aF(s)+bG(s)}= a L-1{F(s)}+bL-1 {G(s)}

Where a and b are constants.

Transfer Function

➢ The relationship between the input & output of a system

is given by the transfer function.
➢ Definition: The ratio of Laplace transform of the output
to the Laplace transform of the input under the
assumption of zero initial conditions is defined as
“Transfer Function”.

4242
 How to calculate the transfer function of CS

• Determining the transfer function of a control system are as

follows:

1.We form the equations for the system.

2.Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations,

assuming initial conditions as zero.

3.Specify system output and input.

4.In last take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and
the Laplace transform of the input
Transfer Function

LT
System c(t) System C(s)
r(t) R(s)
g(t) G(s)

For the system shown,

L{c(t)}= C(s)
c(t)= output L{r(t)}= R(s)
r(t)= input L{g(t)}= G(s)
g(t)= System function

Therefore transfer function G(s) for above system is given by,

Laplace of output C (s)

G(s)= =
Laplace of input R(s)

4444
 Transfer Function of closed loop system

Error Gain for CL system is given by;

Signal
C(s)
R(s) E(s) G(s) =
G(s) C(s) E(s)
+-
Output C(s) = G(s).E(s) − − − − − −(3)
Input
Substitute value of E(s) from eq. 1 to 3
B(s) H(s) C(s) = G(s).(R(s) − B(s))
C(s) = G(s).R(s) − G(s).B(s) − − − − −−(4)
Feedback
Signal
Substitute value of B(s) from eq. 2 to 4
Error signal is given by;
C ( s ) = G(s) R(s) − G(s).H(s).C(s)
E(s) = R(s) − B(s) − − − − − (1) G(s).R(s) = C(s) + G(s).H(s).C(s)
 R(s) = E(s) + B(s)
G(s).R(s) = C(s)(1 + G(s).H(s))
Gain of feedback network is given by; Transfer function is given by;
B(s)
H (s) = C(s) G(s)
C(s) T.F.= =
B(s)= H (s).C(s) − − − − − −(2) R(s) 1 + G(s).H(s) 45
 Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic System

❖A dynamic system is a system or process in which motion occurs, or

includes active forces, as opposed to static conditions with no motion.

❖A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that

represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.

❖Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be
represented in many different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical models,
depending on one’s perspective.

❖The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations.

❖Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular
system—for example,
❖Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and
 Cont..
❖Mathematical models may assume many different forms. Depending on the
particular system and the particular circumstances, one mathematical model may be
better suited than other models.
❖For example,
❖in optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use state-space
representations.
❖for the transient-response or frequency-response analysis of single-input, single-
output, linear, time-invariant systems, the transfer-function representation may
be more convenient than any other.
❖Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and
computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes
Simplicity Versus Accuracy
❖In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise between the
simplicity of the model and the accuracy of the results of the analysis
 Cont..
Linear Systems
❖A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies.
❖The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the
simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the
two individual responses.
❖Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated
by treating one input at a time and adding the results.

❖In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if cause and effect are

proportional, thus implying that the principle of superposition holds, then the
system can be considered linear
 Cont..
Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems

❖A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions

only of the independent variable.

❖Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-

parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant
differential equations—that is, constant-coefficient differential equations.

❖Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients

are functions of time are called linear time-varying systems.

❖An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft control

system. (The mass of a spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)
TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE FUNCTION

Transfer Function
❖ The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of
the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
❖ Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:

where y is the output of the system and x is the input.

Cont..
❖ For a linear, time-invariant system the transfer function G(s) is

❖ Where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and

❖ Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output of the system, where we assume that all initial
conditions involved are zero.

❖It follows that the output Y(s) can be written as the product of G(s) and
X(s), or
Electrical systems
• Most of the electrical systems can be modelled by three basic elements :
• Resistor,
• inductor, and
• capacitor.

• Circuits consisting of these three elements are analyzed by using

Kirchhoff's Voltage law and Current law.

• The transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace transform the

• differential equation and rearrangingthem as a ratio of output to input.

Current-voltage relationship of R,L&C
 Example
• Consider the parallel RLC network excited by a current source. Find the (a) differential
equation representation and (b) transfer function representation of the system.

54
Mechanical Systems

• Mechanical systems can be divided into two basic systems.

1. Translational systems and
2. Rotational systems

• Translational systems:
1.Mass: represents an element which resists the motion due to inertia. According to Newton's
second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to mass times acceleration.

55
• 2. Dash pot: This is an element which opposes motion due to friction.

• If the friction is viscous friction, the frictional force is proportional to velocity. This force is also
known as dampling force.

• Thus we can write as,

• Where B is the damping coefficient.

s,
• 3. Spring: The third element which opposes motion is the spring.

• The restoring force of a spring is proportional to the displacement.

Thus
Where K is known as the stiffness of the spring or simply spring constant

56
Rotational systems:
• Corresponding to the three basic elements of translation systems, there are three basic elements
representing rotational systems.
• 1. Moment of Inertia: This element opposes the rotational motion due to Moment of inertia. The
opposing inertia torque is given by,

• Where α, ω, and θ are the angular acceleration, angular velocity and angular displacement
respectively. Jis known as the moment of inertia of the body.
• 2. Friction: The damping or frictional torque which opposes the rotational motion is given by,

• Where B is the rotational frictional coefficient.

• 3. Spring: The restoring torque of a spring is proportional to the angular displacement θ and is
given by,

57
• If three elements of rotational systems are similar in nature to those of translational systems
no separate symbols are necessary to represent these elements.

• For basic elements of mechanical systems, we able to write differential equations for the system,
when these mechanical systems are subjected to external forces.

• This is done by using the D' Alembert's principle which is similar to the Kirchhoff's laws in
Electrical Networks. Also, this principle is a modified version of Newton's second law of
motion.

• The D' Alembert's principle states that,

• "For any body, the algebraic sum of externally applied forces and the forces opposing the motion
in any given direction is zero".

• To apply this principle to any body, a reference direction of motion is first chosen.

• All forces acting in this direction are taken positive and those against this direction are taken as
negative.
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For example, consider a translational mechanical system
• Let us take a reference direction of motion of the body from left
to right.
• Let the displacement of the mass be x.
• We assume that the mass is a rigid body, i.e., every particle in the
body has the same displacement, x.
• Let us enumerate the forces acting on the body as,
1. external force = f • This is the differential equation
2. resisting forces : governing the motion of the mechanical
translation system.
• The transfer function can be easily
obtained by taking Laplace transform.
Thus,

59
• consider a rotational mechanical system
• Similarly, the differential equation governing the
motion of rotational system can also be obtained.
Torque:

60
 Analogous system
• The system have the same type of equations even though they have different physical appearance.

• Mechanical systems, fluid systems, temperature systems etc. may be governed by the same types of
equations as that of electrical circuits.

• Designing and constructing a model is easier in electrical systems.

• The system can be built up with cheap elements,
• the values of the elements can be changed with ease and
• experimentation is easy with electrical circuits.

• Once a circuit is designed with the required characteristics, it can be readily translated into a
mechanical system.

• It is not only true for mechanical systems but also several other systems like acoustical, thermal,
fluid and even economic systems.

61
Analogous quantities based on force voltage analogy

Analogous quantities based on Force - Current analogy

62
Example
• Write the equations describing the motion of the mechanical system shown
in Figure below. Also find the transfer function X1(s)/F(s)

Solution:
• The first step is to identify the displacements of masses
M1 and M2 as X1 and X2 in the direction of the applied
external force!
• Next we write the equilibrium equation for each of the masses by
identifying the forces acting on them.
Let us first find out the forces acting on mass M 1

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64
• From eqns. (1) & (2), force voltage analogous electrical circuits can be drawn as shown in fig.

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66