Life-Span Development Quizlet 2

"Life-span Development" by John W.
Santrock (chapters 1-12)

Study online at https://quizlet.com/_23pldo
1. Erikson's theo- Trust versus mistrust - infancy (first year).

ry's first stage
2. Erikson's the- Autonomy versus shame and doubt - infancy (1 to 3

ory's second years).
stage
3. Erikson's theo- Initiative versus guilt - early childhood (preschool years,

ry's third stage 3 to 5 years).
4. Erikson's theo- Industry versus inferiority - middle and late childhood

ry's fourth stage (elementary school years, 6 years to puberty).
5. Erikson's theo- Identity versus identity confusion - (10 to 20 years).

ry's fifth stage
6. Erikson's theo- Intimacy versus isolation - early adulthood (20s, 30s).

ry's sixth stage
7. Erikson's the- Generativity versus stagnation - middle adulthood (40s,

ory's seventh 50s).
stage
8. Erikson's theo- Integrity versus despair - late adulthood (60s onward).

ry's eighth stage
9. Piaget's theory Theory stating that children actively construct their un-
derstanding of the world and go through four stages of
cognitive development.
10. Piaget's Cog- 1. The Sensorimotor stage

nitive Devel- 2. The preoperational stage
opment Theory 3. The concrete operational stage
Stages (4). 4. The formal operational stage
11. Vygotsky's theo- A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how cul-
ry ture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
12. Information-pro-
cessing theory
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"Life-span Development" by John W. Santrock (chapters 1-12)
Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information,
monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory
are the processes of memory and thinking.
13. Social cognitive The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, envi-
theory ronment, and cognition as the key factors in development.
14. Ethology Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology,

is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or
sensitive periods.
15. Bronfenbren- An environmental systems theory that focuses on five

ner's ecological environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, ex-
theory osystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
16. Habitation Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated

presentations of the stimulus.
17. Dishabituation Recovery of a habituated response after a change in

stimulation.
18. Sensorimotor The first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about
stage two years of age; infants construct an understanding of
the world by coordinating sensory experiences with mo-
toric actions.
19. Piaget's six sen- 1. Simple reflexes

sorimotor sub- 2. First habits and primary circular reactions
stages 3. Secondary circular reactions
4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions
5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
6. Internalization of schemes
20. Memory A central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to

all situations in which an individual retains information
over time.
21. Implicit memory Memory without conscious recollection; involves skills

and routine procedures that are automatically performed.
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22. Explicit memory Memory of facts and experiences that individuals con-
sciously know and can state.
23. Deferred imita- Imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days.
tion
24. Concepts Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or

ideas.
25. Developmental An overall score that combines subscores in motor, lan-

quotient (DQ) guage, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the
Gesell assessment of infants.
26. Bayley Scales of Scales developed by Nancy Bayley that are widely used
Infant Develop- to assess infant development. The current version has
ment three components: a mental scale, a motor scale, and an
infant behavior profile.
27. Emotion Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state

or interaction that is important to him or her. Emotion is
characterized by behavior that reflects (expresses) the
pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state of a person
is in or the transactions being experienced.
28. Primary emo- Emotions that are present in humans and other animals
tions and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sad-
ness, fear, and disgust.
29. Self-conscious Emotions that require self-awareness, especially con-

emotions sciousness and a sense of "me"; examples include jeal-
ousy, empathy, and embarrassment.
30. Basic cry A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer

silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched
than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry.
31. Anger cry A variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced
through the vocal cords.
32. Pain cry

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A sudden appearance of a long, initial loud cry without
preliminary moaning, followed by breath holding.
33. Reflexive smile A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli.
It happens during the month after birth, usually during
sleep.
34. Social smile A smile in response to an external stimulus, which early

in development is typically a face.
35. Stranger anxiety An infant's fear and wariness of strangers; it tends to

appear in the second half of the first year of life.
36. Social referenc- "Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how
ing to act in a particular situation.
37. Securely at- Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from
tached babies which to explore the environment.
38. Insecure Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver.

avoidant babies
39. Insecure resis- Babies who often cling to the caregiver, then resist the
tant babies caregiver by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by
kicking or pushing away.
40. Insecure disor- Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and
ganized babies disoriented.
41. Preoperational Piaget's second stage, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of

stage age, during which children begin to represent the world
with words, images, and drawings, and symbolic thought
goes beyond simple connections of sensory information
and physical action; stable concepts are formed, mental
reasoning emerges, egocentrism is present, and magical
beliefs are constructed.
42. Egocentrism The inability to distinguish between one's own perspec-

tive and someone else's (salient feature of the first sub-
stage of preoperational thought).
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43. Conservation In Piaget's theory, awareness that altering an object's

or a substance's appearance does not change its basic
properties.
44. Zone of proxi- Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children
mal development to master alone but can be mastered with the assistance
(ZPD) of adults or more-skilled children.
45. Social construc- An approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learn-
tivist approach ing and asserts that knowledge is mutually built and con-
structed. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
46. Executive atten- Involves action planning, allocating attention to goals,

tion error detection and comprehension, monitoring progress
on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
47. Sustained atten- Focused and extended engagement with an object, task,
tion event, or other aspect of the environment.
48. Short-term mem- The memory component in which individuals retain in-
ory formation for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no
rehearsal of the information.
49. Executive func- An umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of

tioning higher-level cognitive processes linked to the develop-
ment of the brain's prefrontal cortex. The concept involves
managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed be-
havior and self-control.
50. Theory of mind Awareness of one's own mental processes and the men-
tal processes of others.
51. Self-understand- The child's cognitive representation of self, the substance

ing and content of the child's self-conceptions.
52. Moral develop- Development that involves thoughts, feelings, and behav-
ment iors regarding rules and conventions about what people
should do in their interactions with other people.
53.
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Heteronomous The first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory,
morality occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. Justice
and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties
of the world, removed from the control of people.
54. Autonomous In Piaget's theory, older children (about 10 years of age

morality and older) become aware that rules and laws are created
by people and that in judging an action one should con-
sider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.
55. Conscience An internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that

involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior.
56. Gender identity The sense of being male or female, which most children
acquire by the time they are 3 years old.
57. Gender role A set of expectations that prescribes how females or

males should think, act, and feel.
58. Gender typing Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
59. Social role theo- A theory that gender differences result from the contrast-
ry ing roles of men and women.
60. Psychoanalytic A theory deriving from Freud's view that the preschool
theory of gender child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex par-
ent, by approximately 5 or 6 years of age renounces this
attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently
identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopt-
ing the same-sex parent's characteristics.
61. Social cognitive A theory emphasizing that children's gender development

theory of gender occurs through the observation and imitation of gender
behavior and through rewards and punishments children
experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappro-
priate behavior.
62. Gender schema The theory that gender typing emerges as children devel-
theory op gender schemas of their culture's gender-appropriate
and gender-inappropriate behavior.
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63. Authoritarian A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the

parenting child to follow their directions and to respect their work
and effort. This type of parent places firm limits and
controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange.
The parenting style is associated with children's social
incompetence.
64. Authoritative A parenting style in which parents encourage their chil-

parenting dren to be independent but still place limits and con-
trols on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is
allowed, and parents are warm and nurturing toward the
child. The parenting style is associated with children's
social competence.
65. Neglectful par- A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved

enting in the child's life; it is associated with children's social
incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
66. Indulgent parent- A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved
ing with their children but place few demands or controls on
them. This style of parenting is associated with children's
social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
67. Coparenting Support parents provide for each other in jointly raising
their children.
68. Neo-Piagetians Developmentalists who argue that Piaget got some things
right but that his theory needs considerable revision. They
have elaborated on Piaget's theory, giving more emphasis
to information processing, strategies, and precise cogni-
tive steps.
69. Long-term mem- A relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge
ory amounts of information for a long period of time.
70. Working memory A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and

assemble information when making decisions, solving
problems, and comprehending written and spoken lan-
guage.
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71. Strategies Deliberate mental activities that improve the processing

of information.
72. Elaboration An important strategy for remembering that involves en-

gaging in more extensive processing of information.
73. Fuzzy trace theo- States that memory is best understood by considering
ry two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim mem-
ory trace, and (2) gist. In this theory, older children's
better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by
extracting the gist of information.
74. Critical thinking Thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluat-

ing the evidence.
75. Mindfulness Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible

while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.
76. Creative thinking The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come
up with unique solutions to problems.
77. Convergent Thinking that produces one correct answer and is char-
thinking acteristic of the kind of thinking tested by standardized
intelligence tests.
78. Divergent think- Thinking that produces many answers to the same ques-
ing tion and is characteristic of creativity.
79. Brainstorming A technique in which individuals are encouraged to come

up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other's
ideas, and say almost anything that comes to mind.
80. Metacognition Cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing.
81. Intelligence Problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and
adapt to the experiences of everyday life.
82. Individual differ- The stable, consistent ways in which people differ from
ences each other.
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83. Mental age (MA) Binet's measure of an individual's level of mental develop-
ment, compared with that of others.
84. Intelligence Quo- A person's mental age dividend by chronological age,

tient (IQ) multiplied by 100.
85. Normal distribu- A symmetrical distribution with most scores falling in the
tion middle of the possible range of scores and a few scores
appearing toward the extremes of the range.
86. Triarchic theory Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analyti-

of intelligence cal intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intel-
ligence.
87. Culture-fair tests Tests of intelligence that are designed to be free of cultural
bias.
88. Mental retarda- A condition of limited mental ability in which an individual

tion has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional test of
intelligence, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.
89. Metalinguistic Refers to knowledge about language, such as under-

awareness standing what a preposition is or being able to discuss
the sounds of a language.
90. Whole-language An approach to reading instruction based on the idea

approach that instruction should parallel children's natural language
learning. Reading materials should be whole and mean-
ingful.
91. Phonics ap- The idea that reading instruction should teach the basic
proach rules for translating written symbols into sounds.
92. Perspective tak- The social cognitive process involved in assuming the
ing perspective of others and understanding their thoughts
and feelings.
93. Self-esteem The global evaluative dimension on the self. It's also re-
ferred to as self-worth or self-image.
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94. Self-concept Domain-specific evaluations of the self.
95. Self-efficiency The belief that one can master a situation and produce
favorable outcomes.
96. Preconventional The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral develop-

reasoning ment. The individual's moral reasoning is controlled pri-
marily by external rewards and punishments.
97. Heteronomous Kohlberg's first stage of preconventional reasoning in

morality which moral thinking is tied to punishment.
98. Individualism, in- Kohlberg's second stage of preconventional reasoning, in

strumental pur- which individuals pursue their own interests but also let
pose and ex- others do the same.
change
99. Conventional The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory

reasoning of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by
certain standards, but these are the standards of others
such as parents or society.
100. Mutual interper- Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this

sonal expecta- stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others
tions, relation- as a basis of moral judgments.
ships, and inter-
personal confor-
mity
101. Kohlberg's third Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and in-

stage of moral terpersonal conformity.
development.
102. Social systems The fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral develop-
morality ment, in which moral judgments are based on under-
standing the social order, law, justice, and duty.
103. The fourth stage Social systems morality

in Kohlberg's
10 / 17
theory of moral
development
104. Postconvention- The highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral develop-

al reasoning ment. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative
moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on
a personal moral code.
105. Social contract The fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason
or utility and indi- that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend
vidual rights the law.
106. Universal ethical The sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral
principles development, in which individuals develop a moral stan-
dard based on universal human rights.
107. Justice perspec- A moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the
tive individual and in which individuals independently make
moral decisions.
108. Care perspective The moral perspective of Carol Gilligan, which views
people in terms of their connectedness with others and
emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships
with others, and concerns for others.
109. Domain theory of States that there are different domains of social knowl-
moral develop- edge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional,
ment and personal domains. These domains arise from chil-
dren's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal
with different forms of social experience.
110. Social conven- Thoughts about social consensus and convention, in con-
tional reasoning trast with moral reasoning, which stresses ethical issues.
111. Gender stereo- Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs
types about females and males.
112. Androgyny The presence of positive masculine and feminine charac-

teristics in the same individual.
11 / 17
113. Popular children Children who are frequently nominated as a best friend
and are rarely disliked by their peers.
114. Average children Children who receive an average number of both positive
and negative nominations from peers.
115. Neglected chil- Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend
dren but are not disliked by their peers.
116. Rejected chil- Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend
dren and are actively disliked by their peers.
117. Controversial Children who are frequently nominated both as a best

children friend and as being disliked by their peers.
118. Intimacy in Self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.

friendships
119. Constructivist A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the impor-

approach tance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge
and understanding with guidance from the teacher.
120. Direct instruc- A structured, teacher-centered approach that is char-

tion approach acterized by teacher direction and control, mastery of
academic skills, high expectations for students' progress,
maximum time spent on learning tasks, and efforts to
keep negative affect to a minimum.
121. Mindset The cognitive view, either fixed or growth, that individuals
develop for themselves.
122. Puberty A period of rapid physical maturation, occurring primarily

in early adolescence, that involves hormonal and bodily
changes.
123. Menarche A girl's first menstruation.
124. Hormones Powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine

glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.
12 / 17
125. Corpus callosum The location where fibers connect the brain's left and right
hemispheres.
126. Amygdala The region of the brain that is the seat of emotions.
127. Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder in which the individual consistently

follows a binge-and-purge pattern.
128. Hypothetical-de- Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents

ductive have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best
reasoning guesses, about ways to solve problems.
129. Adolescent ego- The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents.

centrism
130. Imaginary audi- Adolescents' belief that others are interested in them as
ence they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior
motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "on
stage".
131. Personal fable The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an ado-
lescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or invul-
nerability).
132. Cognitive con- Effective control of thinking in a number of areas, includ-

trol ing controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts,
and being cognitively flexible.
133. Dual-process A view of thinking in which decision making is influenced

model by two systems - one analytical and one experimental -
that compete with each other.
134. Top-dog phe- The circumstance of moving from the top position in ele-
nomenon mentary school to the lowest position in middle or junior
high school.
135. Service learning A form of education that promotes social responsibility

and service to the community.
136. Narcissism
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A self-centered and self-concerned approach toward oth-
ers.
137. Crisis Marcia's term for a period of identity development during

which the adolescent is exploring alternatives.
138. Commitment Marcia's term for the part of identity development in which
adolescents show a personal investment in identity.
139. Identity diffusion Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have not yet
experienced a crisis (explored meaningful alternatives) or
made any commitments.
140. Identity foreclo- Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have made
sure a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
141. Identity morato- Marcia's term for the status of individuals who are in the
rium midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent
or vaguely defined.
142. Identity achieve- Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have un-
ment dergone a crisis and have made a commitment.
143. Ethnic identity An enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense
of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and
feelings related to that membership.
144. Rite of passage A ceremony or ritual that marks an individual's transition

from one status to another. Most of these focuses on the
transition to adult status.
145. Juvenile delin- An adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior
quent that is considered illegal.
146. Erik Eriksson This man recognized Freud's contributions but believed
that he misjudged some important dimensions of human
development. This man believed that behavior is social
and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people.
147. Jean Piaget

14 / 17
This man believed that we go through four stages in
understanding the world. Each stage is age-related and
consists of a distinct way of thinking. According to him, the
child's cognition is qualitatively different from one stage to
another.
148. Lev Vygotsky This man argued that children actively construct their
knowledge. He gave social interaction and culture far
more important roles in cognitive development than one
of his colleagues did.
149. Piaget's theory States that children go through four stages of cognitive
development as they actively construct their understand-
ing of the world. Two processes underlie this cognitive
construction of the world: organization and adaptation.
150. B.F. Skinner This man believed that through operant conditioning the
consequences of a behavior produce changes in the
probability of the behavior's occurrence.
151. Albert Bandura A leading architect of social cognitive theory. He empha-

sizes that cognitive processes have important links with
the environment and behavior.
152. Jean Piaget This cognitive developmentalist studied his own children's
development in infancy.
153. Trust versus mis- Erikson's first psychosocial stage. The development of
trust trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expecta-
tion that the world will be a good and pleasant place to
live.
154. Autonomy ver- Erikson's second stage. After gaining trust in their care-
sus shame and givers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their
doubt own. They start to assert their sense of independence or
autonomy. They realize their will. If infants and toddlers
are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are
likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
155.
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Initiative versus Erikson's third stage of development. As preschool chil-
guilt dren encounter a widening social world, they face new
challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible
behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child
is irresponsible and is made to feel anxious.
156. Industry versus Erikson's fourth developmental stage. Children now need
inferiority to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and
intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child
may develop a sense of inferiority - feeling incompetent
and unproductive.
157. Identity versus Erikson's fifth developmental stage. Individuals need to

identity confu- find out who they are during the adolescent years, what
sion they are all about, and where they are going in life. If
adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive
at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a
positive identity; if they do not, identity confusion reigns.
158. Intimacy versus Erikson's sixth developmental stage. At this time, indi-
isolation viduals face the developmental task of forming intimate
relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and
an intimate relationship with another, this stage will be
achieved, if not, isolation will result.
159. Generativity ver- Erikson's seventh developmental stage. The meaning of

sus stagnation this stage is the primary concern for helping the younger
generation to develop and lead useful lives. The feeling
of having done nothing to help the next generation is
stagnation.
160. Integrity versus Erikson's eighth and final stage of development. During
despair this stage, a person reflects on the past. If the person's life
review reveals a life well spent, the stage will be achieved;
if not, the retrospective glances likely will yield doupt and
gloom.
161. Erikson's eight 1. Trust versus mistrust

life-span stages 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3. Initiative versus guilt
16 / 17
4. Industry versus inferiority
5. Identity versus identity confusion
6. Intimacy versus isolation
7. Generativity versus stagnation
8. Integrity versus despair
17 / 17

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"Life-span Development" by John W.

Santrock (chapters 1-12)

1. Erikson's theo- Trust versus mistrust - infancy (first year).

2. Erikson's the- Autonomy versus shame and doubt - infancy (1 to 3

3. Erikson's theo- Initiative versus guilt - early childhood (preschool years,

4. Erikson's theo- Industry versus inferiority - middle and late childhood

5. Erikson's theo- Identity versus identity confusion - (10 to 20 years).

6. Erikson's theo- Intimacy versus isolation - early adulthood (20s, 30s).

7. Erikson's the- Generativity versus stagnation - middle adulthood (40s,

8. Erikson's theo- Integrity versus despair - late adulthood (60s onward).

10. Piaget's Cog- 1. The Sensorimotor stage

14. Ethology Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology,

15. Bronfenbren- An environmental systems theory that focuses on five

16. Habitation Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated

17. Dishabituation Recovery of a habituated response after a change in

19. Piaget's six sen- 1. Simple reflexes

20. Memory A central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to

21. Implicit memory Memory without conscious recollection; involves skills

24. Concepts Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or

25. Developmental An overall score that combines subscores in motor, lan-

27. Emotion Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state

29. Self-conscious Emotions that require self-awareness, especially con-

30. Basic cry A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer

32. Pain cry

34. Social smile A smile in response to an external stimulus, which early

35. Stranger anxiety An infant's fear and wariness of strangers; it tends to

38. Insecure Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver.

41. Preoperational Piaget's second stage, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of

42. Egocentrism The inability to distinguish between one's own perspec-

43. Conservation In Piaget's theory, awareness that altering an object's

46. Executive atten- Involves action planning, allocating attention to goals,

49. Executive func- An umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of

51. Self-understand- The child's cognitive representation of self, the substance

54. Autonomous In Piaget's theory, older children (about 10 years of age

55. Conscience An internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that

57. Gender role A set of expectations that prescribes how females or

58. Gender typing Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

61. Social cognitive A theory emphasizing that children's gender development

63. Authoritarian A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the

64. Authoritative A parenting style in which parents encourage their chil-

65. Neglectful par- A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved

70. Working memory A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and

71. Strategies Deliberate mental activities that improve the processing

72. Elaboration An important strategy for remembering that involves en-

74. Critical thinking Thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluat-

75. Mindfulness Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible

79. Brainstorming A technique in which individuals are encouraged to come

80. Metacognition Cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing.

84. Intelligence Quo- A person's mental age dividend by chronological age,

86. Triarchic theory Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analyti-

88. Mental retarda- A condition of limited mental ability in which an individual

89. Metalinguistic Refers to knowledge about language, such as under-

90. Whole-language An approach to reading instruction based on the idea

96. Preconventional The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral develop-

97. Heteronomous Kohlberg's first stage of preconventional reasoning in

98. Individualism, in- Kohlberg's second stage of preconventional reasoning, in

99. Conventional The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory

100. Mutual interper- Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this

101. Kohlberg's third Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and in-