Unit-II Energy Management for Motors and Cogeneration

Energy Efficient Motor

Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated
specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 3.1). Design
improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements include the use of lower-loss
silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner
laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars in the rotor,
superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc. Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with
efficiencies that are typically 3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors. In keeping with the
stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiencyat
loads between 75 % and 100 % of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load
applications. The power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors.

Figure 3.1 Standard vs High Efficiency Motors

The selection of an energy-efficient motor should be based on several additional factors:
1. Electric power-saving and life-cycle cost comparison to standard motors
2. Improved ability to perform under adverse conditions such as abnormal voltage
3. Lower operating temperatures
4. Noise level
5. Ability to accelerate higher-inertia loads than standards motors
6. Higher operating efficiencies at all load points.
In general, energy-efficient motors can be justified on a payback basis because of the annual saving of
electric energy. This saving is a function of the hours of operation per year and kilowatt-energy reduction.
Furthermore, energy-efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and noise levels, greater ability
to accelerate higher-inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimizing Motor Losses in Operation

1. Power Supply Quality

Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is the actual volts and
frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and frequency variations and
voltage unbalance across the three phases. Motors in India must comply with standards set by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input power quality. The BIS standards specify that a motor should
be capable of delivering its rated output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/-3 %.
Fluctuations much larger than these are quite common in utility-supplied electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations
can have detrimental impacts on motor performance.
The general effects of voltage and frequency variation on motor performance are presented in below
table. Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not equal, can be still more
detrimental to motor performance and motor life.

Unbalance typically occurs as a result of supplying single-phase loads disproportionately from one of the
phases. It can also result from the use of different sizes of cables in the distribution system. An example of the
effect of voltage unbalance on motor performance is shown in Table

* Percent unbalance in voltage is defined as 100 (Vmax – Vavg) / Vavg, Where Vmax and Vavg are the largest
and the average of the three phase voltages, respectively.
The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include:
i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
ii) Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them from a separate line /
transformer
2. Motor Loading
Measuring Load
% Loading of the motor can be estimated by the following relation:
 % loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100 (Name plate
full load kW rating / name plate full load motor efficiency)
or
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100 √3 x kV x I
CosØ
• Never assume power factor
• Loading should not be estimated as the ratio of currents.
3. Reducing Under-loading
Probably the most common practice contributing to sub-optimal motor efficiency is that of under-
loading. Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and higher-than-necessary first cost for the
motor and related control equipment. Under-loading is common for several reasons. Original equipment
manufacturers tend to use a large safety factor in motors they select. Under-loading of the motor may also occur
from under utilization of the equipment. For example, machine tool equipment manufacturers provide for a motor
rated for the full capacity load of the equipment ex. depth of cut in a lathe machine. The user may need this full
capacity rarely, resulting in under-loaded operation most of the time. Another common reason for under-loading
is selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the desired level even when input voltages
are abnormally low. Finally, under-loading also results from selecting a large motor for an application requiring
high starting torque where a special motor, designed for high torque, would have been suitable.
A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that should be select-ed.
Another aspect to consider is the incremental gain in efficiency achievable by changing the motor. Larger motors
have inherently higher rated efficiencies than smaller motors. Therefore, the replacement of motors operating at
60 – 70 % of capacity or higher is generally not recommended. However, there are no rigid rules governing motor
selection; the savings potential needs to be evaluated on a case-to-case basis. When downsizing, it may be
preferable to select an energy-efficient motor, the efficiency of which may be higher than that of a standard motor
of higher capacity.
For motors, which consistently operate at loads below 40 % of rated capacity, an inexpensive and
effective measure might be to operate in star mode. A change from the standard delta operation to star operation
involves re-configuring the wiring of the three phases of power input at the terminal box.
Operating in the star mode leads to a voltage reduction by a factor of '√3'. Motor is electrically downsized
by star mode operation, but performance characteristics as a function of load remain unchanged. Thus, full-load
operation in star mode gives higher efficiency and power factor than partial load operation in the delta mode.
However, motor operation in the star mode is possible only for applications where the torque-to- speed
requirement is lower at reduced load.
As speed of the motor reduces in star mode this option may be avoided in case the motor is connected
to a production facility whose output is related to the motor speed. For applications with high initial torque and
low running torque needs, Del-Star starters are also available in market, which help in load following de-rating of
electric motors after initial start-up.
4. Sizing to Variable Load
Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions due to process requirements. A
common practice in cases where such variable-loads are found is to select a motor based on the highest anticipated
load. In many instances, an alternative approach is typically less costly, more efficient, and provides equally
satisfactory operation. With this approach, the optimum rating for the motor is selected on the basis of the load
duration curve for the particular application. Thus, rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would operate
at full capacity for only a short period, a motor would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak
anticipated load and would operate at overload for a short period of time. Since operating within the thermal
capacity of the motor insulation is of greatest concern in a motor operating at higher than its rated load, the motor
rating is selected as that which would result in the same temperature rise under continuous full-load operation as
the weighted average temperature rise over the actual operating cycle. Under extreme load changes,
e.g. frequent starts / stops, or high inertial loads, this method of calculating the motor rating is unsuitable since it
would underestimate the heating that would occur.
 Where loads vary substantially with time, in addition to proper motor sizing, the control strategy
employed can have a significant impact on motor electricity use. Traditionally, mechanical means (e.g. throttle
valves in piping systems) have been used when lower output is required. More efficient speed control mechanisms
include multi-speed motors, eddy-current couplings, fluid couplings, and solid-state electronic variable speed
drives.
5. Power Factor Correction
As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to lower
overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant's electrical system. Capacitors
connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to improve the power factor. The impacts of PF
correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in
cables upstream of the capacitor (and hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables
(leading to improved volt-age regulation), and an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.
It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the point of installation back to the
generating side. It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the motor, it won't improve
the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to the power generating side will improve, i.e.,
the benefits of PF would be only on upstream side.
The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the no-load reactive kVA (kVAR)
drawn by the motor, which can be determined only from no-load testing of the motor. In general, the capacitor is
then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR of the motor. (Higher capacitors could result in over-
voltages and motor burn-outs). Alternatively, typical power factors of standard motors can provide the basis for
conservative estimates of capacitor ratings to use for different size motors. The capacitor rating for power
connection by direct connection to induction motors is shown in Table 3.2.
From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases with decrease in speed
of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a low speed motor is more in com
Table 3.2 Capacitor Ratings For Power Factor Correction by Direct Connection To Induction Moors

parison to the high speed motor for the same HP of the motor. Since a reductions in line current, and associated
energy efficiency gains, are reflected backwards from the point of application of the capacitor, the maximum
improvement in overall system efficiency is achieved when the capacitor is connected across the motor terminals,
as compared to somewhere further upstream in the plant's electrical system. However, economies of
scale associated with the cost of capacitors and the labor required to install them will place an economic limit on
the lowest desirable capacitor size.
Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to unreliable operation.
For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor andassociated drive
transmission equipment. Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature, would increase. Providing
adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses.
The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer : for every 10°C increase in motor operating
temperature over the recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is estimated to be halved
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses) and for dirt/dust
in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
• Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in motor load from
the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should be understood.
• Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when to lubricate
their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over-lubrication can also create
problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter the motor and saturate the motor
insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment. Improper alignment can
cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to both the motor and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect regularly the
connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.
Age
Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled steel, the
electrical properties of which do not change measurably with age. However, poor maintenance (inadequate
lubrication of bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a deterioration in
motor efficiency over time. Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect on motor performance.
For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive atmosphere, and humidity can
impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling can lead to misalignment. However,
with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained

Loss Distribution

1. Power Losses
The power losses (I2 R in the motor windings) consist of two losses: the stator power losses I2 R and
the rotor power losses I2 R.
The stator power loss is a function of the current flowing in the stator winding and the stator winding
resistance—hence the term I2 R loss:

When improving the motor performance, it is important to recognize the interdependent relationship of
the efficiency and the power factor. Rewrite the preceding equation and solve for the power factor:

Therefore, if the efficiency is increased, the power factor will tend to decrease. For the power factor to
remain constant, the stator current I1 must decrease in proportion to the increase in efficiency. To increase the
power factor, the stator current must be decreased more than the efficiency is increased. From a design
standpoint, this is difficult to accomplish and still maintain other performance requirements such as breakdown
torque. However,

Therefore, the stator losses are inversely proportional to the square of the efficiency and the power factor.
In addition, the stator loss is a function of the stator winding resistance. For a given configuration, the winding
resistance R is inversely proportional to the pounds ofmagnet wire or conductors in the stator winding. The more
conductor material in the stator winding, the lower the losses. The rotor power loss is generally expressed as the
slip loss:

Where N = output speed, rpm

Ns = synchronous speed, rpm
FW = friction and windage loss
The rotor slip can be reduced by increasing the amount of conductor material in the rotor or increasing
the total flux across the air gap into the rotor. The extent of these changes is limited by the minimum starting (or
locked-rotor) torque required, the maximum locked rotor current, and the minimum power factor required.
2. Magnetic Core Losses
Magnetic core losses consist of the eddy current and hysteresis losses, including the surface losses, in
the magnetic structure of the motor. A number of factors influence these losses:
1. The flux density in the magnetic structure is a major factor in determining these magnetic losses. The core loss
can be decreased by increasing the length of the magnetic structure and, as a consequence, decreasing the flux
density in the core. This will decrease the magnetic loss per unit of weight but, since the total weight will increase,
the improvement in losses will not be proportional to the unit loss reduction. The decrease in magnetic loading in
the motor also decreases the magnetizing current and thus influences the power factor.
2. The magnetic core loss can also be reduced by using thinner laminations in the magnetic structure. Typically,
manystandard motors use 24-gauge (0.025-in. thick) laminations. By using thinner laminations, such as 26- gauge
(0.0185-in. thick) or 29-gauge (0.014-in. thick), the magnetic core loss can be reduced. The reduction in the
magnetic core loss by the use of thinner laminations ranges from 10 to 25%, depending on the method of
processing the lamination steel and the method of assembling the magnetic core.
3. There has been considerable progress made by the steel companies to obtain lower magnetic losses in both
silicon and cold-rolled (low-silicon) grades of electrical steel. The magnetic core loss (Epstein loss) can be reduced
by using silicon grades of electrical steel or the improved grades of cold-rolled electrical steel. The type of steel
used by the motor manufacturer depends on his process capability. The cold-rolled electrical steel requires a proper
anneal after punching to develop its electrical properties, whereas the silicon grades of electrical steel are available
as fully processed material.
However, because of variables in the processing of the lamination steel into finished motor cores, the
reduction in core loss in watts per pound equivalent to the Epstein data on flat strips of the lamination steel is
seldom achieved. Magnetic core loss reductions on the order of 15–40% can be achieved by the use of thinner-
gauge silicon-grade electrical steels. A disadvantage of the higher-silicon lamination steel is that, at high
inductions, the permeability may be lower, thus increasing the magnetizing current required. This will tend to
decrease the motor power factor.
3. Friction and Windage Losses
Friction and windage losses are caused by the friction in the bearings of the motor and the windage loss
of the ventilation fan and other rotating elements of the motor. The friction losses in the bearingsare a function
of bearing size, speed, type of bearing, load, and lubrication used. This loss is relatively fixed for a given design
and, since it is a small percentage of the total motor losses, design changes to reduce this loss do not significantly
affect the motor efficiency. Most of the windage losses are associated with the ventilation fans and the amount of
ventilation required to remove the heat generated by other losses in the motor, such as the winding power losses
I2 R, magnetic core loss, and stray load loss. As the heat-producing losses are reduced, it is possible to reduce the
ventilation required to remove those losses, and thus the windage loss can be reduced. This applies primarily to
totally enclosed fan-cooled motors with external ventilation fans. One of the important by-products of decreasing
the windage loss is a lower noise level created by the motor.
4. Stray Load Losses
Stray load losses are residual losses in the motor that are difficult to determine by direct measurement
or calculation. These losses are load related and are generally assumed to vary as the square of the output torque.
The nature of this loss is very complex. It is a function of many of the elements of the design and the processing
of the motor. Some of the elements that influence this loss are the stator winding design, the ratio of air gap length
to rotor slot openings, the ratio of the number of rotor slots to stator slots, the air gap flux density, the condition
of the stator air gap surface, the condition of the rotor air gap surface, and the bonding or welding of the rotor
conductor bars to rotor lamination. By careful design, some of the elements that contribute to the stray loss can be
minimized. Thosestray losses that relate to processing, such as surface conditions, can be minimized by careful
manufacturing process control. Because of the large number of variables that contribute to the stray loss, it is the
most difficult loss in the motor to control.
Summary of Loss distribution:
Within a limited range, the various motor losses discussed are independent of each other. However, in
trying to make major improvements in efficiency, one finds that the various losses are very dependent. The final
motor design is a balance among several losses to obtain a high efficiency and still meet other performance criteria,
including locked-rotor torque, locked-rotor amperes, breakdown torque, and the power factor. The distribution of
electric motor losses at the rated load is shown in Table below for several horsepower ratings. It is important for
the motor designer to understand this loss distribution in order to make design changes to improve motor
efficiency. In a very general sense, the average loss distribution for standard NEMA design B motors can be
summarized as follows:

This loss distribution indicates the significance of design changes to increase the electric motor efficiency.
However, as the motor efficiency and the horsepower increase, the level of difficulty in improving the electric
motor efficiency increases. Consider the stator and rotor power losses only. To improve the motor full-load
efficiency, one efficiency point requires an increasing reduction in these power losses as the motor efficiency
increases:
These loss reductions can be achieved by increasing the amount of material, i.e., magnet wire in the stator winding
and aluminum conductors in the rotor or squirrel-cage winding. However, a loss deduction of only 5– 15% can be
achieved in these power losses without making other design modifications. These modifications can include a new
lamination design to increase the amount of magnet wire and aluminum rotor conductors that can be used,
combined with the use of lower-loss electrical-grade lamination steel in the magnetic structure and the use of a
longer magnetic structure. The level of difficulty and, consequently, the cost of improving the electric motor
efficiency increases as the horsepower rating increases.
This is illustrated in above Fig. which shows the decrease in per unit losses as the horsepower rating increases,
thus requiring a larger per unit loss reduction at the higher horsepower ratings for the same efficiency
improvement.

Technical Aspects of Energy Efficient Motors

• Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At lower temperatures, bearing
grease lasts longer; required time between re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures translate to long
lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in operating temperature.
• Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure of motor
winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy efficient motors
results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.
• Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managers should be
careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.

Duty Types for Electric Motors

As per IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses eight duty cycle designations to describe
electrical motor operating conditions:

The motor works at a constant load for enough time to reach

S1 Continuous duty
temperature equilibrium.
The motor works at a constant load, but not long enough to reach
S2 temperature equilibrium. The rest periods are long enough for the
Short-time duty
motor to reach ambient temperature.
Sequential, identical run and rest cycles with constant load.
S3 Intermittent periodic duty Temperature equilibrium is never reached. Starting current has little
effect on temperature rise.
Sequential, identical start, run and rest cycles with constant load.
Intermittent periodic duty
S4 Temperature equilibrium is not reached, but starting current affects
with starting
temperature rise.
Intermittent periodic duty Sequential, identical cycles of starting, running at constant load and
S5
with electric braking running with no load. No rest periods.
Continuous operation with Sequential, identical cycles of running with constant load and running
S6
intermittent load with no load. No rest periods.
Continuous operation with Sequential identical cycles of starting, running at constant load and
S7
electric braking electric braking. No rest periods.
Continuous operation with
Sequential, identical duty cycles run at constant load and given speed,
S8 periodic changes in load and
then run at other constant loads and speeds. No rest periods.
speed

*Unless otherwise specified, the duration of a duty cycle for codes S3 and S6 shall be 10 min and the cyclic
duration factor shall be one of the following values: 15 %, 25 %, 40 %, 60 %.
Energy Saving Opportunities in Personal Transportation System
Space Heating
Heat Tracing
Various Aspects of Cool Storage Systems
Types of Compressed-Air Systems
Speed Control and Duty Cycling
Cost Saving Recommendations of the Compressed-Air System
Load Cycling of Motors

Transformer and Reactor

Transformer Energy Saving Recommendations

Rewinding Motors
 Power Factor Improvement

The motor used in this example are NEMA design B premium high efficiency motors, rated 1800
rpm in drip proof enclosure (NEMA MG1-1993[B164]
a) The energy saving are dependent upon the percent ampere reduction due to the additional kVAR
Forms of cogeneration
Feasibility of Cogeneration
Electrical Interconnection