Nowra High School

Preliminary Mathematics Extension 1

Topic 1: Combinatorics
Solutions
 1. Multiplication Principle

Counting Example

Mr McGrath has 6 shirts, 3 pairs of pants and 7 scarves.

How many different outfits does this trendy individual have?

Total outfits = 6 × 3 × 7 = 126

The Multiplication Principle

▪ The multiplication principle states that if there are 𝑚 ways to choose an object, and 𝑛 options
v
to choose another object, then there are 𝑚 × 𝑛 ways of choosing both objects.

Example 1

A three-digit number if to be made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

How many numbers can be made if:

a) Digits can be repeated?
5 × 5 × 5 = 125

b) Digits cannot be repeated?

5 × 4 × 3 = 60

c) If the first digit must be odd?

3 × 5 × 5 = 75

2
Example 2

A license plate involves 3 different letters followed by 3 different digits.

a) How many different license plates are possible?
26 × 25 × 24 × 10 × 9 × 8 = 11 232 000

b) What is the probability of obtaining the license plate below, if the plates are created at random?

1
11 232 000

Example 3

There are 10 runners in a marathon, with medals awarded for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd.
Given that Josh, Nash, and Jwal are contestants in the race, how many possible combinations for first,
second and third are there if:
a) There are no restrictions?
10 × 9 × 8 = 720

b) Josh, Nash, and Jwal got medals?

3×2×1=6

c) Jwal came first?

1 × 9 × 8 = 72

d) Jwal got a medal?

3 × (1 × 9 × 8) = 216

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.01 on p. 92 – Every 2nd question

3
 2. The Pigeonhole Principle

Flashback

A license plate involves 2 digits, followed by 2 letters, followed by 2 more digits, all at random.
a) How many different license plates are possible?
10 × 10 × 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 = 6 760 000

b) What is the probability the last digit is prime?

4 2
=
10 5

c) Find the probability the plate will say “69LM40”.

1
6 760 000

The Pigeonhole Principle

▪ If (𝑛 + 1) pigeons are placed into 𝑛 pigeonholes, at least 1 pigeonhole must contain at least 2 pigeons.

Examples

a) At NHS there are 900 students. How many must be selected at random before we can be sure we have
selected 2 students who share a birthday?
366 pigeonholes (birthdates), so we would need to select 367
students to be sure we have at least two who share a birthday.

b) What is the minimum number of people needed to guarantee that at least two people have the same
initials for their first name and surname?
Number of different initials = 26 × 26 = 676

∴ 677 people needed

4
The Generalised Pigeonhole Principle

▪ If 𝑛 pigeons are sitting in 𝑘 pigeonholes, where 𝑛 > 𝑘, then there is at least one pigeonhole with at

𝑛
least pigeons
𝑘

Example
5
If you have 5 pigeons sitting in 2 pigeonholes, then one of the pigeonholes must have at least = 2.5
2
pigeons.

However, since the boxes can’t have half-pigeons (we hope), then one of them must in fact contain 3
pigeons.

Examples

a) At NHS there are 7 Year 11 Maths classes, and 117 students in total.
Show that there is at least 1 maths class with 17 students.
117
= 16.7 … > 16
7
∴ By the PHP, at least one class must contain at least 17 students.

b) 𝑛 cows are put into two paddocks. If there is at least 1 paddock with 15 cattle, what is the value of 𝑛 ?
𝑛
> 14
2
𝑛 > 28
∴ 𝑛 = 29

c) There are 50 baskets of apples. Each basket contains no more than 24 apples.
Show that there are at least 3 baskets containing the same number of apples.
50
= 2.083̇ > 2
24
∴ By the PHP, at least one basket contains at least 3 apples

d) 𝑥 number of wizards are sorted into 4 houses.

If there are at least 55 wizards in at least 1 house, find 𝑥.
𝑥
> 54
4
𝑥 > 216
∴ 𝑥 = 217

5
e) A box contains 4 red, 6 green, 8 blue, 10 yellow and 12 white balls. What is the minimum number of
balls that must be chosen randomly from the box to guarantee obtaining 8 balls of the same colour?

Before obtaining 8 of the same colour, we could select 4 red,

6 green, 7 blue, 7 yellow and 7 white, giving us 31 in total.
Thus, when we select the 32nd ball, we will know
for certain that we will have at least 8 of one colour.
∴ 32

2022 HSC Question

A sports association manages 13 junior teams. It decides to check the age of all players. 2
Any team that has more than 3 players above the age limit will be penalised.

A total of 41 players are found to be above the age limit.

Will any team be penalised? Justify your answer.

41
= 3.15 … = 3 remainder 2
13
∴By the PHP, there will be at least one team with at
least 4 players above the age limit, and will be penalised.

Challenge Questions

1. There are five points inside an equilateral triangle of side length 2.

Show that at least two of the points are within 1 unit distance from each other
If we draw the equilateral triangle, we can split the figure into 4 equal triangles which are also
equilateral with side lengths of 1.

By the PHP, if we have 5 points inside the triangle, there must be at least one smaller triangle
containing 2 points.

Since the side lengths of the smaller triangle are 1 unit, thus there must be 2 points within 1 unitof
each other.

6
2. 15 people attend a party and shakes the hand of every person they meet.
Show that there are at least 2 people in attendance who have shaken the same number of hands.
For this problem, our pigeonholes will be number of handshakes and the pigeons will be people at the
party.
We have 15 guests at the party.
It seems like we have 15 pigeonholes:
0, 1, 2, 3, … 14
However, this is not the case! We cannot have 0 handshakes and 14 handshakes both as possibilities
for number of handshakes. 14 shakes means that someone has met everyone at the party, which
means there is no one who has shaken 0 hands. This tells us that there is in fact only 14 pigeonholes
for 15 pigeons.
Thus by the PHP, there must be at least 2 people who have shaken the same number of hands.

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.02 on p. 97 – Every 2nd question

7
 3. Factorial Notation

Flashback – 2021 HSC

The members of a club voted for a new president. There were 15 candidates for the position of president
and 3543 members voted. Each member voted for one candiate only.

One candiate received more votes than anyone else and so became the new president.

What is the smallest number of votes the new president could have received?

A. 236

B. 237

C. 238

D. 239
3543 ÷ 15 = 236 remainder 3
This means 3 people could have received 237 votes,
thus at least 238 votes are required to be elected president

Factorial Definition

▪ 𝑛! = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × … × 2 × 1
▪ 0! = 1
▪ 𝑛! is the number of ways 𝑛 distinct objects can be ordered

Example 1

a) In a classroom of 15 seats and 15 students, how many different seating plans are possible?
15!

b) Jake insists on sitting in the back right corner. How many plans are now possible?
14!

c) Sophie, Amelie and Eric are huge nerds an insist on sitting in the three seats at the front in any order.
How many plans are now possible?
12! × 3!

8
Example 2

a) Without a calculator, find the value of:

6!
3! 3!

6×5×4×3×2×1
=
3×2×1×3×2×1
6×5×4
=
3×2×1
= 20

b) Simplify:
(𝑛 + 1)!
(𝑛 − 1)!

(𝑛 + 1) × 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × … × 1
=
(𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × (𝑛 − 3) × … × 1
= (𝑛 + 1)𝑛

Challenge Question

If 𝑛 > 𝑟, show that:

𝑛!
= 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) . . . (𝑟 + 1)
𝑟!

𝑛! 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × … × (𝑟 + 1) × 𝑟 × (𝑟 − 1) × … × 1
=
𝑟! 𝑟 × (𝑟 − 1) × … × 1

= 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑟 + 1)

9
2011 HSC Question

Alex’s playlist consists of 40 different songs that can be arrange in any order.
a) How many arrangements are there for the 40 songs? 1

40!

b) Alex decides that she wants to play her three favourite songs first, in any order. 1

How many arrangements of the 40 songs are now possible?

3! × 37!

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.03 on p. 101 –Q2 onwards, every 2nd question

10
 4. Permutations

Flashback

How many ways can 10 people arrange themselves in a line if 3 people must be standing next to each
other?
We’ll consider the 3 people as one “object” that can be arranged in 3! ways.

Now instead of 10 objects, we have 8, thus:

8! × 3!

Permutation Definition

▪ A permutation is the number of different ways of selecting 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 total objects in a certain
s
order, without replacement
𝑛 𝑛!
▪ 𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

Example 1

How many six-digit passwords can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, … 9 if repitition is not allowed and:
a) There are no other conditions?
10𝑃6 = 151 200

b) The number must be even?

The last digit has 5 options, leaving us 9 options for the first 5 digits:
5 × 9𝑃5 = 75 600

c) The number must not contain a 5

9𝑃6 = 60 480

11
Example 2

How many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls stand in a line, if the boys and girls are to alternate?

Consider if we went boy, girl, boy, girl, etc:

5×5×4×4×3×3×2×2×1×1
However we’ll have to double this, as we could instead organise them girl, boy, girl, boy, etc
5! × 5! × 2 = 28 800

Further Permutations

How many different ways can we arrange the letters of the word SUM?

3! = 6

What about the word ADD ?

3!
3=
2!

▪ The number of different ways 𝑛 objects can be arranged in which 𝑎 objects are of one kind, 𝑏 objects
are of another kind (etc) is found by:
𝑛!
number of ways =
𝑎! 𝑏!

Example 3

a) How many ways can the letters of the words MATHEMATICAL be arranged?
12 letters, 2 M’s, 3 A’s and 2 T’s:

12!
=
2! 3! 2!

= 19 958 400

b) How many ways could 3 identical black blacks and 3 identical white balls be arranged in a line?

6 objects, 3 black balls, 3 white balls:

6!
=
3! 3!
= 20

12
Example 4

How many ways can the letters of the word WOLLONGONG be arranged if:
a) There are no restrictions?
10 letterswith 2 L’s, 3 O’s, 2 N’s and 2 G’s
10!
= 75 600
2! 3! 2! 2!

b) The two L’s must be together?

If we consider the two L’s as one object:

9!
= 15 120
3! 2! 2!

c) The letter W must be first?

9!
= 7560
2! 3! 2! 2!

Circular Arrangements

If 𝑛 distinct objects are arranged in:

▪ A line, there are 𝑛! different combinations.

▪ A circle, there are (𝑛 − 1)! different combinations

Example 5

A bag contains 5 different coloured balls – blue, green, red, yellow, and orange. In how many ways can we
arrange the balls:
a) In a line?
5! = 120

b) In a circle?
4! = 24

13
c) In a line with the first ball not being blue or green?
3 options for the first ball, and then 4 balls remaining to arrange:
3 × 4! = 72

d) In a line with red, blue, and yellow together?

We’ll treat the red, blue and yellow balls as one object which can be arranged in 3! ways.
Thus we have 3 ‘objects’:
3! × 3!

e) In a circle with blue and green being next to each other?

Treating the blue and green as one object which can be arranged in 2 ways, we have 4 objects to
arrange in a circle:
3! × 2 = 12

Example 6

If 6 people were seated around a circular tables at random, what is the probability that 3 specific people
will be together?

If 6 people are seated at a circular table, there are 5! possible combinations.

How many ways can we seat the three people together?

If we group the 3 people together as one object which can be arranged in 3! ways, then we have 4 objects
to seat around the table in 3! ways.

3! × 3! 3
𝑃= =
5! 10

14
2010 HSC Question

At the front of a building there are five garage doors. Two of the doors are to be painted red, one is to be
painted green, one blue and one orange.
a) How many possible arrangements are there for the colours on the doors? 1

5!
= 60
2!

b) How many possible arrangements are there for the colours on the doors if the two red doors 1
are next to each other?

4! = 24

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.04 on p. 109 – Every 2nd question

15
 5. Combinations

Flashback

a) How many 4-digit numbers can you make using the digits 1-8 and using no digit twice?
8 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 1680

b) How many different ways could you rearrange the letters of the word ISOSCELES?
9!
= 30 240
3! 2!

c) How many different ways can 9 people be arranged in a circle, if 2 people have already chosen their
seats?
7! = 5040

Combination Definition

▪ A combination is the number of different ways of making an undordered (order is not important)
selection of 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 objects in total.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑃𝑟 𝑛!
▪ 𝐶𝑟 = = (𝑛
𝑟! − 𝑟)!𝑟!

▪ (𝑛𝑟) = 𝑛
𝐶𝑟

Example 1

A bag contains 5 different coloured balls: red, blue, green, yellow, orange.
How many different ways can you randomly select two balls from the bag?

5
𝐶2 = 10

16
Example 2

Five letters are chosen from the letters of the word KEYBOARD, without ordering them. How many
combinations are there if the selection:
a) Has no restriction?
8
𝐶5 = 56

b) Must contain all 3 vowels?

5
𝐶2 = 10

c) Must contain the letter Y?

7
𝐶4 = 4 = 35

d) Must contain the letter K, but not D?

6
𝐶4 = 15

Example 3

a) How many different ways can we choose a Mathletics team of 5 students from an extension class of 15
students?
15
𝐶5 = 3003

b) The team must have 3 girls and 2 boys. If the class contains 7 girls and 8 boys, how many different
combinations are there?
7
𝐶3 × 8𝐶2 = 980

c) Find the probability that Katie and Matt will be chosen on the team.

6
𝐶2 × 7𝐶1 = 105

105 3
𝑃= =
980 28

17
d) Find the probability that neither will make the team 

6
𝐶3 × 7𝐶2 = 420

420 3
𝑃= =
980 7

2021 HSC Question

A committee containing 5 men and 3 women is to be formed from a group of 10 men and 1
8 women.

In how many ways can the committee be formed?

10
𝐶5 × 8𝐶3 = 14 112

18
2022 HSC Question

The diagram shows triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 with points chosen on each of the sides. On side 𝐴𝐵, 3 points are chosen.
On side 𝐴𝐶, 4 points are chosen. On side 𝐵𝐶, 5 points are chosen.

How many triangles can be formed using the chosen points as vertices?

A. 60 B. 145 C. 205 D. 220

One vertex on each side of triangle ABC:

3 × 5 × 4 = 60

Two vertices on side AC:

4
𝐶2 × 8 = 48

Two vertices on side BC:

5
𝐶2 × 7 = 70

Two vertices on side AB:

3
𝐶2 × 9 = 27

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.05 on p. 116 – Every 2nd question

19
 6. Binomial Expansions

Flashback

a) A mixed netball team of 3 men and 4 women is selected from 8 male and 11 female candidates.
How many different teams are possible?
8
𝐶3 × 11𝐶4 = 18 480

b) 5 people are selected at random from a group of 12 and then seated around a circular table. How
many ways can this be done?
12
𝐶5 × 4! = 19 008

Binomial Expansions

▪ The expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is called a binomial expansion.

▪ The coefficients of each term can be found by using Pascal’s Triangle or by computing combinations.

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + . . . + ( ) 𝑥 1 𝑦 𝑛−1 + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛−1 𝑛

20
Worked Example

Expand (𝑥 + 2)5
5 5 5 5 5 5
= ( ) 𝑥 5 ∙ 20 + ( ) 𝑥 4 ∙ 21 + ( ) 𝑥 3 ∙ 22 + ( ) 𝑥 2 ∙ 23 + ( ) 𝑥 1 ∙ 24 + ( ) 𝑥 ∙ 25
0 1 2 3 4 5

= 𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 + 40𝑥 3 + 80𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 + 32

Coefficient Properties

▪ The first and last coefficient in any row of Pascal’s Triangle will be 1, because:
𝑛
𝐶0 = 1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛

▪ The rows of Pascal’s Triangle are symmetric, because:

𝑛
𝐶𝑘 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑘

▪ Each number is the sum of the two above, because:

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝐶𝑘 = 𝐶𝑘−1 + 𝑛−1𝐶𝑘

Example 1

a) Expand (𝑏 + 5)4
4 4 4 4 4
= ( ) 𝑏 4 ∙ 50 + ( ) 𝑏 3 ∙ 51 + ( ) 𝑏 2 ∙ 52 + ( ) 𝑏1 ∙ 53 + ( ) 𝑏 0 ∙ 54
0 1 2 3 4

= 𝑏 4 + 20𝑏 3 + 150𝑏 2 + 500𝑏 + 625

b) Expand (2𝑦 − 3)6

6 6 6 6
= ( ) (2𝑦)6 ∙ (−3)0 + ( ) (2𝑦)5 ∙ (−3)1 + ( ) (2𝑦)4 ∙ (−3)2 + ( ) (2𝑦)3 ∙ (−3)3
0 1 2 3
6 6 6
+ ( ) (2𝑦)2 ∙ (−3)4 + ( ) (2𝑦)1 ∙ (−3)5 + ( ) (2𝑦)0 ∙ (−3)6
4 5 6

= 64𝑦 6 − 576𝑦 5 + 2160𝑦 4 − 4320𝑦 3 + 4860𝑦 2 − 2916𝑦 + 729

21
Example 2

a) Find 𝑥 if:
11 11
𝐶3 = 𝐶𝑥

𝑥 = 3, or 𝑥 = 11 − 3 = 8

b) Show that:
5 4 4
( )=( )+( )
4 3 4

4! 4!
RHS = +
(4 − 3)! 3! (4 − 4)! 4!

4! 4!
= +
3! 4!

4(4!) 4!
= +
4! 4!

5(4!)
=
4!

5!
=
(5 − 4)! 4!

5
= ( )
4

c) Find 𝑥 if:
𝑥 7 7
( )=( )+( )
3 2 3

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝐶𝑘 = 𝐶𝑘−1 + 𝑛−1𝐶𝑘

∴𝑥=8

22
Challenge Questions

a) Expand
1 5
(𝑥 + )
𝑥

0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5 1 5 4 1 5 3 1 5 2 1 5 1 1 5 0 1
= ( )𝑥 ( ) + ( )𝑥 ( ) + ( )𝑥 ( ) + ( )𝑥 ( ) + ( )𝑥 ( ) + ( )𝑥 ( )
0 𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 𝑥 5 𝑥

10 5 1
= 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + + 3+ 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

b) Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 if:

4
(1 + √3) = 𝑎 + 𝑏√3

4 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4
(1 + √3) = ( ) 14 (√3) + ( ) 13 (√3) + ( ) 12 (√3) + ( ) 11 (√3) + ( ) 10 (√3)
0 1 2 3 4

= 1 + 4√3 + 6(3) + 4(3√3) + 32

= 28 + 16√3

𝑎 = 28, 𝑏 = 16

23
2022 HSC Question

Find the coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 3 in the expansion of: 2

𝑥 8
(1 − )
2

8 𝑥 0 8 𝑥 1 8 𝑥 2 8 𝑥 3
= ( ) 18 (− ) + ( ) 17 (− ) + ( ) 16 (− ) + ( ) 15 (− ) + ⋯
0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2

8 28 56
= 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + ⋯
2 4 8

= 1 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 3 + ⋯

∴ Coefficients are 7 and − 7

▪ Maths in Focus Exercise 3.06 on p. 128 – Every 2nd question

24