Nucleation & Growth

• Nucleation is the first step in which monomers, eg. atoms, ions, or molecules, form a new
thermodynamic configuration or structure at the atomic or molecular level.
• Growth is the subsequent step during which monomers are incorporated onto the surface of the
nuclei, which may also coalesce or aggregate, leading to an increase in size.
• Nucleation can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous nucleation occurs when a
few particles come into correct juxtaposition in the course of their random movement through the
bulk of the medium.
• Heterogeneous nucleation occurs when the surface of some different substance, such as a dust
particle or the wall of the container, acts as the centre upon which the first atoms, ions, or molecules
of the crystal become properly oriented.
• Nucleation and growth are common mechanisms that generate first-order phase transitions and self-
assembly processes within a substance or mixture. For example, nucleation and growth are involved
in crystallization from solution, freezing of water into ice, and formation of nanostructures from
liquid metals.

Introduction to Homogeneous & Heterogeneous nucleation: -

Homogeneous nucleation: -
Homogeneous nucleation is the formation of a new phase or structure within a uniform substance without
any pre-existing nucleation sites. It is a spontaneous and random process that requires supercooling or
superheating of the medium. Some bullet points about homogeneous nucleation are:

• Homogeneous nucleation is much more difficult than heterogeneous nucleation, which starts at
nucleation sites on surfaces.
• Homogeneous nucleation involves the creation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase,
which has a free energy cost.
• The rate of homogeneous nucleation depends on several factors, such as the temperature, pressure,
degree of supersaturation, number of molecules in the system, and interfacial tension.
• Homogeneous nucleation can be described by classical nucleation theory (CNT), which predicts the
free energy barrier and the critical size of the nucleus for a given system.
• Homogeneous nucleation can be observed in various phenomena, such as cloud formation,
crystallization of metals and polymers, bubble formation in liquids and glasses, and phase transitions
in alloys.

• Where ∆f is the free energy change accompanying the formation of a spherical new phase particle.
r is the radius of the particle.
∆g is the Gibbs free energy change per unit volume.
γ is the surface energy per unit area of the interface separating the parent and the product
phases.
Heterogeneous nucleation: -
• Heterogeneous nucleation is a process in which a new
phase or structure forms on a pre-existing surface or
particle that has a different composition or structure from
the parent phase.
• Heterogeneous nucleation is more common and easier
than homogeneous nucleation, because the surface or
particle lowers the energy barrier and provides a template
for the orientation of the new phase or structure.
• Heterogeneous nucleation can occur in various systems, such as liquids, vapours, solids, and
solutions. Examples include ice formation on dust particles in clouds, crystal growth on impurities in
solutions, and metal solidification on mold walls.
• Heterogeneous nucleation depends on several factors, such as the nature and size of the surface or
particle, the degree of supersaturation or supercooling of the parent phase, and the interfacial
energies between the phases involved.
• Heterogeneous nucleation can be described by classical nucleation theory (CNT), which predicts the
critical radius and free energy of formation of a nucleus on a surface or particle. However, CNT has
some limitations and assumptions that may not be valid for complex systems.
• The β particle nucleates on the surface of δ, which is a foreign inclusion in the matrix of α

Critical radius for nucleation: -

• Critical radius for nucleation is the minimum particle size from which an aggregate is
thermodynamically stable and can grow into a new phase.
• Critical radius for nucleation depends on the free energy change of the system, which has two
components: volume energy and surface energy .
• Volume energy is proportional to the difference in chemical potential between the initial and final
phases, while surface energy is proportional to the surface tension and area of the interface.
2γTm
• The critical radius for nucleation is given by 𝑟 = (ΔHfΔT) ,
where γ is the surface free energy
Tm is the melting temperature
ΔHf is the latent heat of fusion
ΔT is the undercooling value.
• The critical radius for nucleation can be reduced by increasing the degree of supercooling or
supersaturation, which increases the driving force for phase change.

(a) Schematic curves for volume free energy and surface free energy contributions to the total free
energy change attending the formation of a spherical embryo/nucleus during solidification.
 (b) Schematic plot of free energy versus embryo/nucleus radius, on which is shown the critical free
energy change (Δf) and the critical nucleus radius (r)

Plastic Deformation
• Plastic deformation is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-
reversible change of shape in response to applied forces.
• Plastic deformation can be observed in many materials such as metals, plastics, soils, rocks and
concrete.
• The mechanisms causing plastic deformation vary widely. In metals, it is a result of dislocations or slip
of atomic planes over each other. In brittle materials, it is caused by the slippage of microcracks.
• Slip and twinning are two prominent mechanisms of plastic deformation in metals. Slip involves the
sliding of blocks of crystal over one another along different crystallographic planes called slip planes.
Twinning involves a portion of crystals taking up an orientation related to the rest of the untwined
lattice in a symmetrical and defined way.
• Plastic deformation can be used to shape objects into desired forms by applying controlled heat and
pressure. However, if the stress is too high or too fast, it may cause fracture or rupture of the
material.

Slip: -
• Plastic deformation is the process in which the object changes its size or shape in a way that is not
reversible because of the applied force.
• Slip is one of the mechanisms of plastic deformation in metals, which involves the sliding of blocks of
crystal over one another along certain crystallographic planes and directions.
• The crystallographic planes and directions for which slip can occur are called slip systems. The
magnitude and direction of slip are represented by the Burgers vector.

• Slip occurs by the passage of dislocations on close-packed planes, which are planes containing the
greatest number of atoms per area and in close-packed directions (most atoms per length).
• The number and type of slip systems depend on the crystal structure of the metal. For example, face-
centered cubic (fcc) crystals have 12 slip systems, body-centered cubic (bcc) crystals have up to 48
slip systems, and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystals have only a few slip systems.
Twinning: -
• Plastic deformation by twinning is a type of permanent shape change that occurs in some crystalline
materials when subjected to high stress.
• Twinning involves the formation of a mirror-symmetric region within the crystal lattice, called a twin,
that has a different orientation from the rest of the material.
• Twinning can occur by two mechanisms: mechanical twinning and deformation twinning. Mechanical
twinning happens when an external force causes a sudden reorientation of the crystal planes.
Deformation twinning happens when an applied stress induces a gradual change in the lattice
structure.

• Twinning can affect the mechanical properties of materials, such as strength, ductility and toughness.
Depending on the material and the type of twinning, it can either enhance or reduce these
properties.
• Twinning is more common in materials with low symmetry and high stacking fault energy, such as
metals with hexagonal close-packed (HCP) or body-centered cubic (BCC) structures. Examples include
titanium, magnesium, zirconium and iron.

Difference between Sip & Twinning: -

Slip Twinning
Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain growth: -
Recovery: -
• Plastic deformation is the permanent change in shape or size of a material under stress.
• Recovery is the process of reducing internal defects and restoring the original properties of a material
after plastic deformation.
• Plastic deformation in recovery occurs when a material undergoes partial or complete annealing,
which is heating and cooling at controlled rates.
• During recovery, some of the dislocations and vacancies that were created by plastic deformation are
eliminated or rearranged, resulting in lower internal energy and higher ductility of the material.
• Recovery can also affect other properties of the material such as electrical conductivity, hardness,
strength and grain size depending on the temperature and time of annealing.

Recrystallization: -
• Plastic deformation is the permanent change in shape or size of a material under stress
• Recrystallization is the process of forming new grains with low dislocation density and more uniform
orientation
• Plastic deformation and recrystallization are related phenomena that occur during metal working
processes such as rolling, forging and annealing
• Plastic deformation increases the dislocation density and stored energy in the material, which drives
recrystallization
• Recrystallization reduces the dislocation density and stored energy in the material, which improves its
ductility and mechanical properties
• The rate and extent of recrystallization depend on factors such as temperature, time, degree of
deformation, initial grain size and alloy composition

Grain growth: -
• Plastic deformation is the permanent change in shape or size of a material under applied stress.
• Grain growth is the increase in size of grains or crystals in a polycrystalline material due to thermal
energy.
• Plastic deformation and grain growth are related phenomena that affect the mechanical properties
and microstructure of metals and alloys.
• Some factors that influence plastic deformation and grain growth are:
- Temperature: Higher temperatures facilitate both processes by increasing the mobility of atoms
and reducing the resistance to slip and diffusion.
- Strain rate: Higher strain rates increase plastic deformation by promoting dislocation generation
and movement, but decrease grain growth by reducing the time for recrystallization and
coarsening.
- Grain size: Smaller grains have higher strength and lower ductility due to the Hall-Petch effect,
which states that the yield stress increases with decreasing grain size. Smaller grains also have
higher driving force for grain growth due to their higher surface energy per unit volume.
- Grain boundary structure: The type and orientation of grain boundaries affect the ease of plastic
deformation and grain growth. For example, low-angle boundaries have low energy and high
mobility, while high-angle boundaries have high energy and low mobility. Coincident site lattice
(CSL) boundaries are special types of high-angle boundaries that have lower energy and higher
mobility than random boundaries due to their geometric compatibility.
Introduction to Strengthening mechanisms: -
• Plastic deformation is a type of permanent deformation that occurs when a material is subjected to a
stress that exceeds its elastic limit.
• Plastic deformation involves the movement and multiplication of dislocations, which are linear
defects in the crystal structure of metals and other materials.
• Dislocations allow plastic deformation to occur at much lower stresses than those required to break
all the bonds across a slip plane simultaneously.
• Strengthening mechanisms are methods to increase the resistance of a material to plastic
deformation by hindering the motion of dislocations.
• Some common strengthening mechanisms are:
- Grain size reduction: Smaller grains create more grain boundaries, which act as barriers for
dislocation movement.

- Solid solution strengthening: Adding impurity atoms to a metal alters its lattice parameters and
creates lattice strain, which impedes dislocation glide and climb.
 - Strain hardening: Deforming a metal plastically increases its dislocation density, which results in
more interactions and entanglements among dislocations, making further deformation more
difficult.

- Precipitation hardening: Forming fine particles of a second phase within a metal matrix creates
coherent or semi-coherent interfaces that can pin or cut dislocations.

Lever rule & Phase diagram: -

• Plastic deformation is the permanent change in shape or size of a material under applied stress
beyond its elastic limit.
• Lever rule is a method of calculating the relative amounts of two phases in a binary alloy system at
equilibrium and constant temperature, using a simple balance analogy.
• Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the phases present in an alloy system as a function of
composition and temperature, showing the regions of stability and phase transformations.
• Plastic deformation affects the phase diagram and lever rule by changing the composition,
microstructure, and properties of the alloy during processing or service.
• For example, plastic deformation can induce solid-state phase transformations such as martensitic
transformation, recrystallization, precipitation, etc., which alter the phase fractions and compositions
according to the lever rule.
• Plastic deformation can also cause diffusion, segregation, or mixing of alloying elements, which shift
the phase boundaries and invariant points on the phase diagram.
• Plastic deformation can influence the mechanical properties of alloys such as strength, ductility,
toughness, fatigue resistance, creep resistance, etc., depending on the type and extent of deformation
and the phases involved.
 Heat Treatment
• Heat treatment is a process of applying controlled heating and cooling to a material to alter its
physical and mechanical properties without changing its shape.
• Heat treatment can be used to improve the hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, wear resistance,
corrosion resistance and fatigue resistance of metals and alloys.
• Heat treatment can also be used to relieve internal stresses, refine grain structure, improve
machinability and modify electrical and magnetic properties of materials.
• There are different types of heat treatment processes depending on the desired outcome. Some
common ones are:
• Annealing: Heating a material to a high temperature and then cooling it slowly to reduce its hardness
and increase its ductility. This process also improves the homogeneity and stability of the material.
• Normalizing: Heating a material to a high temperature and then cooling it in air to produce a uniform
grain structure. This process enhances the mechanical properties of the material and eliminates
residual stresses.
• Hardening: Heating a material above its critical temperature and then quenching it rapidly in water,
oil or air to increase its hardness and strength. This process also reduces the ductility and toughness
of the material.
• Tempering: Heating a hardened material to a lower temperature than hardening and then cooling it
slowly to reduce brittleness and increase toughness. This process also improves the dimensional
stability and wear resistance of the material.
• Case hardening: Heating a low carbon steel surface to a high temperature in the presence of carbon-
rich substances such as charcoal or cyanide salts and then quenching it rapidly to form a hard outer
layer (case) over a soft core. This process increases the wear resistance and fatigue strength of the
surface without affecting the core properties.

Annealing: -
• Heat treatment is a process of heating and cooling metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing their shape.
• Annealing is a type of heat treatment that involves heating a metal to a high temperature and
then cooling it slowly to soften it and improve its ductility, machinability and toughness.
• The main steps of annealing are:
• Heating: The metal is heated to a temperature above its recrystallization point, where new grains
form in the metal structure. The heating time depends on the size and composition of the metal.
• Holding: The metal is held at the annealing temperature for a sufficient time to allow complete
recrystallization and homogenization of the metal structure. The holding time also depends on
the size and composition of the metal.
• Cooling: The metal is cooled slowly to room temperature, usually in air or in a furnace. The
cooling rate affects the final properties of the metal. A slower cooling rate results in larger grains
and lower hardness and strength, while a faster cooling rate results in smaller grains and higher
hardness and strength.
• Some examples of metals that undergo annealing are steel, copper, brass, aluminum and silver.
 Process Annealing

Full Annealing

Normalizing: -
• Normalizing is a heat treatment process that involves heating a metal or alloy to a high
temperature and then cooling it in air.
• The purpose of normalizing is to improve the mechanical properties and microstructure of the
metal or alloy, such as hardness, ductility, toughness, grain size and homogeneity.
• Normalizing can also reduce internal stresses, remove segregation, refine carbides and eliminate
coarse structures that may have formed during previous processing or casting.
• Normalizing is typically applied to carbon and low-alloy steels, cast irons, copper alloys and some
stainless steels.
• The normalizing temperature depends on the type and composition of the metal or alloy, but it is
usually above the upper critical temperature (Ac3) for hypoeutectoid steels and below the lower
critical temperature (Ac1) for hypereutectoid steels.
• The cooling rate in normalizing is faster than in annealing but slower than in quenching. This
results in a finer and more uniform grain structure than annealing, but a coarser and less uniform
grain structure than quenching.
• Normalizing can be followed by other heat treatment processes, such as tempering, stress
relieving or hardening, to achieve the desired properties and performance of the metal or alloy.
Hardening: -
• Heat treatment in hardening is a process of increasing the hardness and wear resistance of a
metal or alloy by heating it to a high temperature and then rapidly cooling it, usually by
quenching in water or oil.
• Hardening heat treatments involve dissolving solute-rich precipitates in the metal at high
temperature, creating a supersaturated solid solution that is unstable at lower temperatures.
• When the metal is quenched, the solute atoms do not have enough time to diffuse out of the
solution and form a new phase. Instead, they are trapped in a distorted lattice structure that is
harder and stronger than the original one.
• The degree of hardening depends on several factors, such as the composition of the metal, the
temperature and time of heating, the cooling rate and medium, and the presence of alloying
elements that can form hardening precipitates or intermetallic compounds.
• Some common examples of metals and alloys that can be hardened by heat treatment are
carbon steels, stainless steels, tool steels, aluminum alloys, copper alloys, titanium alloys, and
nickel-based superalloys.

Tempering: -
• Heat treatment in tempering is a process of reheating and cooling hardened steel or cast iron to
improve its toughness and reduce its brittleness .
• Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its
hardest state.
• Tempering is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the lower critical
temperature (the temperature at which the crystalline phases of the alloy begin combining to
form a single-phase solid solution called austenite) for a certain period of time, then allowing it to
cool in still air.
 • The exact temperature and time of tempering determine the amount of hardness removed, and
depend on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished
product .
• Tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite (a very hard
microstructure formed when steel is quenched), forming a microstructure called "tempered
martensite".
• Depending on the temperature of reheating, tempering can be classified into three main
categories: low temperature tempering (up to 200°C), medium temperature tempering (200-
350°C), and high temperature tempering (350-550°C).
• Low temperature tempering retains the hard microstructure of martensite, but reduces its
brittleness. Medium temperature tempering produces a structure called troostite, which is
composed of cementite phase in a ferrite matrix. High temperature tempering produces a
structure called sorbite, which is softer and more ductile than troostite.

Nitriding: -
• Heat treatment in nitriding is a process that involves heating a metal or alloy to a high
temperature and then exposing it to a nitrogen-rich gas or plasma.
• The purpose of heat treatment in nitriding is to improve the surface hardness, wear resistance,
fatigue strength and corrosion resistance of the metal or alloy.
• The main types of heat treatment in nitriding are gas nitriding, plasma nitriding and salt bath
nitriding. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages depending on the material,
geometry and application of the workpiece.
• Gas nitriding uses ammonia as the nitrogen source and operates at temperatures between 500°C
and 600°C. It is suitable for low-alloy steels and produces a thick and uniform nitride layer.
However, it is slow, requires precise control of temperature and gas flow, and may cause
distortion or cracking of the workpiece due to thermal stresses.
• Plasma nitriding uses an electrically charged gas (plasma) as the nitrogen source and operates at
temperatures between 400°C and 600°C. It is suitable for high-alloy steels, stainless steels and
non-ferrous metals. It produces a thin but hard nitride layer with good adhesion. However, it is
expensive, requires special equipment and may cause surface oxidation or contamination due to
ion bombardment.
• Salt bath nitriding uses molten salts containing cyanides or cyanates as the nitrogen source and
operates at temperatures between 550°C and 580°C. It is suitable for cast iron, tool steel and
some stainless steels. It produces a thick but porous nitride layer with good lubricity. However, it
is hazardous, polluting, corrosive and may cause embrittlement or brittleness of the workpiece
due to carbon absorption.
Cyaniding: -
• Heat treatment in cyaniding is a process of hardening the surface of steel by introducing carbon
and nitrogen into it at high temperatures.
• The process involves heating the steel to a temperature above its critical point (around 800-
900°C) and then immersing it in a molten bath of sodium or potassium cyanide for a short time (a
few minutes).
• The cyanide bath provides a source of carbon and nitrogen atoms that diffuse into the surface
layer of the steel, forming a hard and wear-resistant case of iron-carbon-nitrogen compounds
(such as iron nitrides and iron carbides).
• The depth of the case depends on the temperature, time and concentration of the cyanide bath.
Typically, the case depth ranges from 0.1 to 0.75 mm.
• After cyaniding, the steel is quenched in water or oil to prevent the diffusion of carbon and
nitrogen atoms back to the core of the steel. This also produces a martensitic structure in the
case, which increases its hardness and strength.
• The core of the steel remains soft and ductile, providing toughness and resistance to shock
loading. The combination of a hard case and a soft core makes cyanided steel suitable for
applications that require high surface hardness and wear resistance, such as gears, cams, shafts,
etc.
• Cyaniding is a low-cost and simple process that can be applied to low-carbon steels and some low-
alloy steels. However, it has some disadvantages, such as:
• The cyanide bath is highly toxic and corrosive, posing environmental and safety hazards.
• The cyanided steel is prone to hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking due to the
presence of residual cyanide and hydrogen in the case.
• The cyanided steel has poor resistance to oxidation and corrosion at elevated temperatures due
to the formation of iron nitrides and iron carbides in the case.

Induction Hardening: -
• Heat treatment is a process of heating and cooling
metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing their shape.
• Induction hardening is a type of heat treatment that
uses electromagnetic induction to heat the surface
layer of a metal part rapidly and then quench it with
water or oil to harden it.
• Induction hardening has several advantages over
other heat treatment methods, such as:
• It is fast, precise and energy-efficient, as it only heats
the desired area of the part and does not require a
furnace or oven.
• It improves the wear resistance, fatigue strength and corrosion resistance of the metal part, as it
creates a hard and durable surface layer while preserving the ductility and toughness of the core.
• It is suitable for complex shapes and geometries, as it can be customized by adjusting the
frequency, power and duration of the induction coil.
• Induction hardening has some limitations and challenges, such as:
• It requires careful control of the heating and cooling parameters to avoid overheating, cracking or
distortion of the metal part.
 • It may cause changes in the microstructure, residual stresses and surface defects of the metal part,
which may affect its performance and quality.
• It may not be applicable for some metals or alloys that have low electrical conductivity, high
thermal conductivity or high hardenability.

Flame Hardening: -
• Heat treatment is a process of heating and cooling metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing their shape.
• Flame hardening is a type of heat treatment that involves applying a high-intensity flame to the
surface of a metal part to create a hardened layer.
• The steps of flame hardening are:
- Preheating: The part is heated to a temperature below the critical temperature to reduce
thermal shock and improve hardenability.
- Heating: The part is exposed to a flame that rapidly heats the surface to above the critical
temperature, where the metal undergoes a phase transformation from austenite to martensite.
- Quenching: The part is quickly cooled by air, water, oil or other media to lock in the martensitic
structure and increase the hardness and strength of the surface layer.
- Tempering: The part is reheated to a lower temperature to relieve internal stresses and
improve toughness and ductility.
• Flame hardening is used to improve the wear resistance, fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance
of metal parts that require a hard surface and a tough core, such as gears, shafts, rollers and cams.

Recent advances in heat treat technology: -

• Laser surface hardening: This is a process that uses a high-intensity laser beam to rapidly heat and
cool the surface of a metal, creating a hard and wear-resistant layer. Laser surface hardening can
improve the performance and durability of components such as gears, shafts, valves and molds.
• Cryogenic treatment: This is a process that exposes metals to extremely low temperatures (below -
150°C) for a prolonged period of time, usually after conventional heat treatment. Cryogenic
treatment can enhance the properties of metals such as hardness, toughness, fatigue resistance
and dimensional stability.
• Induction heating: This is a process that uses an alternating electric current to generate heat within
a metal part by inducing eddy currents. Induction heating can provide fast and precise heating for
various applications such as forging, annealing, brazing and welding.
 • Microwave heating: This is a process that uses electromagnetic waves to heat metals by causing
molecular vibrations. Microwave heating can offer advantages such as uniform heating, reduced
energy consumption and environmental benefits over conventional methods.
• Plasma nitriding: This is a process that introduces nitrogen atoms into the surface of a metal by
using a plasma discharge. Plasma nitriding can improve the corrosion resistance, wear resistance
and fatigue strength of metals such as steel, titanium and aluminum alloys.

TTT diagram: -
• Heat treatment is a process of heating and cooling metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing their shape
• TTT diagram (also known as time-temperature-transformation diagram or isothermal
transformation diagram) is a graphical representation of the transformation of a metal or alloy
during constant-temperature heat treatment
• TTT diagram shows the start and finish of various phases (such as austenite, ferrite, pearlite,
bainite, martensite) as a function of temperature and time
• TTT diagram can be used to design heat treatment processes that achieve desired microstructures
and properties in metals and alloys.
• The steps followed to determine a TTT diagram are:
Step 1: A large number of identical samples are cut and prepared from the same bar. The cross section of
the samples has to be small in order to react quickly to the changes in temperature.
Step 2: All the samples are placed in a furnace at the proper austenitizing temperature for sufficient
duration untill complete austenite phase in the microstructure is ensured.

Step 3: A set of samples are then transferred to molten salt bath held at a constant sub- critical
temperature (i.e., below 727°C and for example 700°C)
Step 4: Each sample in the set is held in the molten salt bath at this constant temperature for different
intervals of time and then quenched.

Step 5: After cooling each sample is checked for hardness and studied microscopically.
Step 6: The above steps are repeated for samples held at different sub-critical temperatures until sufficient
points.

The above procedure is carried out to draw the T-T-T diagram for one composition of iron and carbon. The entire
effort is repeated to draw T-T-T diagram for each combination of iron & carbon.
are determined to plot the curves on the diagram.

Microstructural effects bought about by these process and their influence on mechanical
properties: -
• Heat treatment is a process that involves heating and cooling of metals to alter their microstructure
and mechanical properties. Some of the effects of heat treatment are:
• It develops hardness, softness, tensile strength, yield strength, ductility, corrosion resistance and
creep rupture of metals.
• It changes the phase composition, grain size, shape and distribution of the microstructure
components such as ferrite, austenite, martensite and oxide particles.
• It reduces the anisotropy and improves the comprehensive performance of metals by optimizing
the length-width ratio of primary-α and volume fraction of β-phase.
• It helps to improve the machining effect and makes the metals versatile for different applications.
• Some of the common heat treatment processes are annealing, normalizing, hardening and
tempering. Each process has a different effect on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
metals. For example:
• Annealing is a process that involves heating the metal to a high temperature and then cooling it
slowly. It softens the metal, relieves internal stresses, promotes recrystallization and recovery, and
changes the morphology of carbides.
• Normalizing is a process that involves heating the metal to a high temperature and then cooling it
in air. It refines the grain size, improves the uniformity of microstructure, enhances the strength
and hardness, and reduces the brittleness of metals.
• Hardening is a process that involves heating the metal to a high temperature and then quenching it
rapidly in water or oil. It produces a martensitic microstructure that has high hardness, strength
and wear resistance, but low ductility and toughness.
• Tempering is a process that involves reheating the hardened metal to a lower temperature and
then cooling it slowly. It reduces the residual stresses, increases the ductility and toughness, and
modifies the hardness and strength of metals.