LECTURE NOTES:

PHS 364 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

What Is Energy?
Energy makes change possible. We use it to do things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats
over the water. It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite
songs on the radio and lights our homes. Energy is needed for our bodies to grow and it allows our
minds to think.

Scientists define energy as the ability to do work. Modern civilization is possible because we have
learned how to change energy from one form to another and use it to do work for us and to live more
comfortably.

Forms of Energy
Energy comes in different forms:

 Heat (thermal)
 Light (radiant)
 Motion (kinetic)
 Electrical
 Chemical
 Nuclear energy
 Gravitational

All forms of energy can also be categorized into two:

 Stored (potential) energy

 Working (kinetic) energy

For example, the food you eat contains chemical energy, and your body stores this energy until you
use it when you work or play.
 Potential Energy Kinetic Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and the
Kinetic energy is motion — of waves,
energy of position — gravitational energy.
molecules, objects, substances, and objects.
There are several forms of potential energy.
Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of
atoms and molecules. Biomass, petroleum, natural
gas, and coal are examples of stored chemical
Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that
energy. Chemical energy is converted to thermal
travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
energy when we burn wood in a fireplace or burn
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and
gasoline in a car's engine.
radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy.
Sunshine is radiant energy, which provides the
Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by
fuel and warmth that make life on Earth possible.
tension. Compressed springs and stretched rubber
bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
Thermal Energy, or heat, is the vibration and
movement of the atoms and molecules within
Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of
substances. As an object is heated up, its atoms
an atom — the energy that holds the nucleus
and molecules move and collide faster.
together. Very large amounts of energy can be
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in the
released when the nuclei are combined or split
Earth.
apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of
uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun
Motion Energy is energy stored in the movement
combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a
of objects. The faster they move, the more energy
process called fusion.
is stored. It takes energy to get an object moving,
and energy is released when an object slows down.
Gravitational Energy is energy stored in an
Wind is an example of motion energy. A dramatic
object's height. The higher and heavier the object,
example of motion is a car crash, when the car
the more gravitational energy is stored. When you
comes to a total stop and releases all its motion
ride a bicycle down a steep hill and pick up speed,
energy at once in an uncontrolled instant.
the gravitational energy is being converted to
motion energy. Hydropower is another example of
Sound is the movement of energy through
gravitational energy, where the dam "piles" up
substances in longitudinal
water from a river into a reservoir.
(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is
produced when a force causes an object or
Electrical Energy is what is stored in a battery,
substance to vibrate — the energy is transferred
and can be used to power a cell phone or start a
through the substance in a wave. Typically, the
car. Electrical energy is delivered by tiny charged
energy in sound is far less than other forms of
particles called electrons, typically moving
energy.
through a wire. Lightning is an example of
electrical energy in nature, so powerful that it is
not confined to a wire.
We use many different energy sources to do work. Energy sources are classified into two groups —
renewable and nonrenewable. Renewable and nonrenewable energy can be converted into secondary
energy sources like electricity and hydrogen.

Basics of Electricity Generation

Electric Charge (Q)
 It is quantity of electricity
 There are two types; i.e. positive charge and negative charge,
 Charge is to electricity what mass is to matter,
 An electric charge is a monopole, i.e. it has only one pole
 S.I. unit for charge is Coulomb (C)

Electric Current (I)

 It is rate of flow of electric charge, i.e. I = Q/t
 S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere

Electric current can generate magnetic field

 It was discovered in the early 19th century that flow of electric current creates magnetic field,
i.e. electricity is the origin of magnetism. Whenever there is variation in an electric field (due
to flow of current) it results in magnetic field. Such magnets are called ‘electromagnets’
Unlike permanent magnets, electromagnets lose their magnetism once current stops flowing
through them.

Oersted’s experiment in 1820:

Examples of Electromagnets:
1) When current flows through a straight wire

2) SOLENIOD
When current flows through a wire coil it generates a magnetic field. This device is
called solenoid (see below).
So now we know that a current can create a magnetic field. But can a magnetic field create a
current flow? If so then we have a means of generating electricity.

Electromagnetic induction
When a loop of wire is moved through a magnetic field an electric current is produced (induced)
in the wire loop. This is electromagnetic induction, without any physical contact between the
wire and the magnet.

A generator (or an electricity generator) is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy by electromagnetic induction

Experiments showed that if a magnet just lie next to a wire loop no current flow is produced or
induced in the wire. However, if the magnet is moving a current is induced in the wire. The
faster the magnet moves, the greater the induced current.

This is the principal behind simple electric generators in which a wire loop is rotated between
two stationary magnets. This produces a continuously varying voltage which in turn produces
an alternating current.

See figures below:

Therefore to generate electricity, all we really need to do is have some (mechanical) mechanism
turn a crank that rotates a loop of wire between stationary magnets. The faster we can get this
crank turned, the more current we can generate.

Popular Methods of Turning the Crank:

 Let water fall on it (Hydro Power)

 Direct a nozzle of steam at it (Coal or Nuclear Fired Steam Plant)
 Let the wind turn it (windmill)
Energy Sources
When we use electricity in our home, the electrical power was probably generated by burning coal, by
a nuclear reaction, or by a hydroelectric plant at a dam. Therefore, coal, nuclear and hydro are called
energy sources. When we fill up a gas tank, the source might be petroleum or ethanol made by
growing and processing corn.

Energy sources are divided into two groups — renewable (an energy source that can be easily
replenished) and nonrenewable (an energy source that we are using up and cannot recreate).
Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce electricity.

Renewable Energy Source

Renewable energy sources include:

 Solar energy from the sun, which can be turned into electricity and heat
 Wind
 Geothermal energy from heat inside the Earth
  Biomass from plants, which includes firewood from trees, ethanol from corn, and biodiesel
from vegetable oil
 Hydropower from hydroturbines at a dam

Nonrenewable Energy

We get most of our energy from nonrenewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels — oil,
natural gas, and coal. They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions
of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or
"fossils") of dead plants and creatures like microscopic diatoms. Another nonrenewable energy source
is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat
and ultimately electricity.

Most of the gasoline used in our cars and motorcycles and the diesel fuel used in our trucks are made
from petroleum oil, a nonrenewable resource. Natural gas, used to heat homes, dry clothes, and cook
food, is nonrenewable. The propane that fuels our outdoor grills made from oil and natural gas, both
nonrenewable.

These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for
example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We
can't make more petroleum in a short time.
Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review (2008)
Source: Nigeria Energy Commission
Source: Nigeria Energy Commission
Conservation of Energy:
To scientists, "conservation of energy" does not mean saving energy. Instead, the law of conservation
of energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn't disappear.
We change it from one form of energy into another.

A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical energy.
Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of
energy in the universe stays the same.
Source: US National Energy Education Development Project (Public Domain)

Energy Efficiency and Energy conservation

"Energy efficiency" is a measure of the amount of useful energy you get from any type of system. A
perfectly energy-efficient machine would change all the energy put in it into useful work. In reality,
converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of useable or desirable energy.

In fact, most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is a good example. Your
body is like a machine, and the fuel for your machine is food. Food gives you the energy to move,
breathe, and think. But your body isn't very efficient at converting food into useful work. Your body
is less than 5% efficient most of the time. The rest of the energy is lost as heat.

There are many things we can do to use less energy (conservation) and use it more wisely
(efficiency).

Energy conservation is any behavior that results in the use of less energy. Turning the lights off
when you leave the room and recycling aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.

Energy efficiency is the use of technology that requires less energy to perform the same function. A
compact fluorescent light bulb that uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce the same
amount of light is an example of energy efficiency. However, the decision to replace an incandescent
light bulb with a compact fluorescent is an act of energy conservation.
Units for Costing and Comparing Energy
Different types of energy are measured by different physical units:

 Barrels or gallons for petroleum

 Cubic feet for natural gas
 Tons for coal
 Kilowatthours for electricity

To compare different fuels, we need to convert the measurements to the same units.

One practical way to compare different fuels is to convert physical units of measure (such as weight
or volume) into a common unit of measurement based on the energy content of each fuel. The British
thermal unit (Btu) is a widely used measure of energy content.

What Is a Btu?
It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of liquid water by 1°F at the
temperature that water has its greatest density (approximately 39°F).

Using Btu for Comparing Electricity Generation Fuels

Suppose you have been assigned the responsibility of purchasing fuel for a large electric utility
company. You need to keep costs down for you and your electricity customers. Which fuel would you
choose to generate electricity — coal, oil, or natural gas? In 2007, average prices of fuel delivered to
electric power plants were:

 $35.48 per short ton of coal

 $43.50 per 42-gallon barrel of oil
 $7.31 per thousand cubic feet of natural gas

The prices of each fuel look quite different, but you can compare the prices of their energy content by
first converting to Btu.
A short ton of coal contains about 21 million Btu, a barrel of oil contains about 6 million Btu, and a
thousand cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas contains about 1 million Btu. After dividing price by energy
content, you can see which fuel is least expensive:

Btu (Energy $/Million

Price
Content) Btu
21 million per short
Coal $35.48 per ton $1.69
ton
$43.50 per
Oil 6 million per barrel $7.25
barrel
Natural
$7.31 per Tcf 1 million per Tcf $7.31
Gas

So coal is actually the least expensive fuel on a price-per-energy content basis.

Of course, cost is not the only factor to consider when selecting a fuel. Environmental restrictions and
equipment costs are some of the other factors that should be taken into account.

Btu Quick Facts

A single Btu is insignificant in terms of the energy use in a single household or in the Nation's energy
consumption. In 2008, the United States used over 99 quadrillion (written out, 1 quadrillion is a 1
followed by 15 zeros) Btu of energy.

One Btu is approximately equal to the energy released by burning one of these matches.

Source: Stock photography (copyrighted)

Btu Content of Common Energy Units

 1 barrel (42 gallons) of crude oil = 5,800,000 Btu

 1 gallon of gasoline = 124,000 Btu (based on U.S. consumption, 2008)
 1 gallon of diesel fuel = 139,000 Btu
 1 gallon of heating oil = 139,000 Btu
  1 barrel of residual fuel oil = 6,287,000 Btu
 1 cubic foot of natural gas = 1,028 Btu (based on U.S. consumption, 2008)
 1 gallon of propane = 91,000 Btu
 1 short ton of coal = 19,988,000 Btu (based on U.S. consumption, 2008)
 1 kilowatthour of electricity = 3,412 Btu

Examples of Converting Different Energy Sources to Btu

Example 1:

There is a natural gas furnace in home ‘A’ that used 81,300 cubic feet of natural gas for heating last
winter. Another home (B) has an oil furnace that used 584 gallons of heating oil last winter. To
determine which home used more energy for heating, you can convert the natural gas and heating oil
consumption figures into Btu, as follows:

Natural Gas: 81,300 cubic feet (your house) x 1,028 Btu per cubic foot = 83,576,400 Btu
Heating Oil: 584 gallons (neighbor's house) x 139,000 Btu per gallon = 81,176,000 Btu

Answer: Home (A) used more energy to heat the house!

Example 2:

You work for an electric power company. Your company’s power generators can run on one of two
fuels: natural gas or residual fuel oil. Your job is to switch fuels when the cost of the fuel you are
currently using becomes more expensive than the other fuel. This will keep costs down for you and
your electricity customers. Your company’s generators are currently using residual fuel oil, but fuel
oil prices have been going up much faster than natural gas prices. Based on the fuel costs below, you
need to decide if it is time to switch to natural gas:

$7.30 per thousand cubic 1.028 million Btu per $7.10 per million
Natural Gas: ÷
feet thousand cubic feet = Btu
Residual fuel $9.19 per million
$57.75 per barrel ÷ 6.287 million Btu per barrel =
oil: Btu

Answer: When you convert the fuels into the same units, you see that residual fuel oil now costs more
than natural gas. You decide to switch to natural gas to save money.

Btu Conversion Factors

Energy Source Physical Units and Btu (Weighted Averages, 2008)

Electricity 1 kilowatthour = 3,412 Btu
(but 7,000 to 10,000 Btu of primary energy to generate the
electricity)
Natural Gas 1 cubic foot = 1,028 Btu
Motor Gasoline 1 gallon = 124,000 Btu
Diesel Fuel 1 gallon = 139,000 Btu
Heating Oil 1 gallon = 139,000 Btu
Propane 1 gallon = 91,333 Btu
Wood 1 cord = 20,000,000 Btu

Impact of Energy Sources on the Environment

Energy sources have different impacts or effects on the environment. Some of these effects may
include emissions (of chemical compounds), waste, and land or water use impacts, among others.
Many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as "greenhouse gases" and they cause
“the greenhouse effect”

The Greenhouse Effect

The "greenhouse effect" is the heating of the Earth due to the presence of greenhouse gases. It is
named this way because of a similar effect produced by the glass panes of a greenhouse. Shorter-
wavelength solar radiation from the sun passes through Earth's atmosphere, then is absorbed by the
surface of the Earth, causing it to warm. Part of the absorbed energy is then reradiated back to the
atmosphere as long wave infared radiation. Little of this long wave radiation escapes back into
space; the radiation cannot pass through the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The main
greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorocarbons The greenhouse gases
selectively transmit the infared waves, trapping some and allowing some to pass through into space.
The greenhouse gases absorb these waves and reemits the waves downward, causing the lower
atmosphere to warm.(www.eb.com:180)

Types of Greenhouse Gases?

Source: Environmental Protection Agency (Public Domain)

The main types of greenhouse gases are:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 Methane (CH4)
 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Industrial Gases:
o Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
o Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
o Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
Diagram to help explain the process of global warming and how greenhouse gases create the "greenhouse effect"
www.eecs.umich.edu/mathscience/funexperiments/agesubject/lessons/images/diagrampage.html
 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless non-flammable gas and is the most prominent
Greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere. It is recycled through the atmosphere by the process
photosynthesis, which makes human life possible. Photosynthesis is the process of green plants and
other organisms transforming light energy into chemical energy. Light Energy is trapped and used to
convert carbon dioxide, water, and other minerals into oxygen and energy rich organic
compounds. (Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 25) Carbon Dioxide is emitted into the air
as humans exhale, burn fossil fuels for energy, and deforest the planet. Every year humans add over
30 billion tons of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by these processes, and it is up thirty percent since
1750 (www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html).

Fossil Fuels were created chiefly by the decay of plants from millions of years ago. We use coal,
oil and natural gas to generate electricity, heat our homes, power our factories and run our
cars. These fossil fuels contain carbon, and when they are burned, they combine with oxygen,
forming carbon dioxide. The two atoms of oxygen add to the total weight.

This graph shows the increase of carbon dioxide in the air over the past few centuries
Ice Core samples and samples at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, reveal an increase CO2 concentrations

Pie chart shows how CO2 is produced

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html
 Cars also contribute to CO2 in the atmosphere.
www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106/index.html

Deforestation is another main producer of carbon dioxide. The causes of deforestation are logging
for lumber, pulpwood, and fuel wood. Also contributing to deforestation are clearing new land for
farming and pastures used for animals such as cows. Forests and wooded areas are natural carbon
sinks. This means that as trees absorb carbon dioxide, and release oxygen, carbon is being put into
trees. This process occurs naturally by photosynthesis, which occurs less and less as we cut and burn
down trees. As the abundance of trees declines, less carbon dioxide can be recycled. As we burn
them down, carbon is released into the air and the carbon bonds with oxygen to form carbon dioxide,
adding to the greenhouse effect.

Deforestation and Forest Fires contribute to an increase in CO2 levels

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html
 Methane
Methane is a colorless, odorless, flammable gas. It is formed when plants decay and where there
is very little air. It is often called swamp gas because it is abundant around water and
swamps. Bacteria that breakdown organic matter in wetlands and bacteria that are found in cows,
sheep, goats, buffalo, termites, and camels produce methane naturally. Since 1750, methane has
doubled, and could double again by 2050. Each year we add 350-500 million tons of methane to the
air by raising livestock, coal mining, drilling for oil and natural gas, rice cultivation, and garbage
sitting in landfills.(www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html) It stays in the atmosphere for only 10
years, but traps 20 times more heat than carbon dioxide.

Methane is on the rise since 1750

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html
Rice cultivation has developed into a large business; farmland has doubled in the past 45
years.(www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html) It feeds 1/3 of the World's population. It grows
mostly in flooded fields, where bacteria in waterlogged soil releases methane.

Livestock such as cows, sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, and termites release methane as
well. Bacteria in the gut of the animal break down food and convert some of it to methane. When
these animals belch, methane is released. In one day, a cow can emit ½ pound of methane into the
air. Imagine 1.3 billion cattle each burping methane several times per minute!

Cows such as these contribute a large amount of methane to the air.

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html
 Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is another colorless greenhouse gas, however, it has a sweet odor . It is primarily
used as an anesthetic because it deadens pain and for this characteristic is called �laughing
gas.� This gas is released naturally from oceans and by bacteria in soils. Nitrous oxide gas risen by
more than 15% since 1750. Each year we add 7-13 million tons into the atmosphere by using
nitrogen based fertilizers, disposing of human and animal waste in sewage treatment plants,
automobile exhaust, and other sources not yet identified. It is important to reduce emissions because
the nitrous oxide we release today will still be trapped in the atmosphere 100 years from now. (World
Book Volume 13)

Nitrous Oxide has been on the rise since 1750

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitmap.html

Nitrogen based fertilizer use has doubled in the past 15 years. These fertilizers provide nutrients
for crops; however, when they breakdown in the soil, nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere. In
automobiles, nitrous oxide is released at a much lower rate than carbon dioxide, because there is more
carbon in gasoline than nitrogen.

Fluorocarbons
Fluorocarbons is a general term for any group of synthetic organic compounds that contain fluorine
and carbon. Many of these compounds, such as chlorofluorocarbons(CFC�s), can be easily
converted from gas to liquid or liquid to gas. Because of these properties, CFC�s can be used in
aerosol cans, refrigerators, and air conditioners. Studies in the 1970�s showed that when CFC�s
are emitted into the atmosphere, they break down molecules in the Earth's ozone layer (World
Book). Since then, the use of CFC�s has significantly decreased and they are banned from
production in the United States.
The substitute for CFC�s are hydrofluorocarbons (HFC's). HFC�s do not harm or breakdown the
ozone molecule, but they do trap heat in the atmosphere, making it a greenhouse gas, aiding in global
warming. HFC�s are used in air conditioners and refrigerators. The way to reduce emissions of this
gas is to be sure that in both devices the coolant is recycled and all leaks are properly fixed . Also,
before throwing the appliances away, be sure to recover the coolant in each.

Refrigerators and Air Conditioners using CFC's were a huge problem for the ozone layer, but now HFC's are a
problem for the climate.
www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Consequences of “greenhouse effect”:

 Global warming (flooding, droughts, desertification, hunger, diseases, poverty, etc.)
 Climate change
Read on :

Global Warming
Naturally, if there are more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, this greenhouse effect will be
more significant and raise the temperature of Earth more than if humans didn't emit as much
greenhouse gases. Peter Tans, a physicist with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations
(NOAA) Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Lab says, �There is no doubt that both land and ocean
surface temperatures have gone up significantly in the last 100 years or so.�
(www.abcnew.com/sections/us/global106.html) This statement supports the trend of global warming,
but does not acknowledge the source. The director of NOAA�s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Lab at
Princeton, Jerry Malhan, says, �The Earths surface temperature has warmed about one degree
Fahrenheit in the last 100 years, and there is no credible hypothesis for this, other than the net effect
of greenhouse gases." (www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.index.html) Jerry Malhan offers a
quote supporting the theory of global warming and also states that it is directly related to the increase
of greenhouse gases. �The planet is heating up and the evidence suggests that human activities are
having a significant impact,� Jane Lubchenco said.
(www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106/index.html) Jane was the past President of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, who briefed President Clinton on global warming in
July, 1997. The world's leading authority on global warming, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), is a United Nations sponsored organization made up of 2500 scientists from around
the world. They have concluded by consensus that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible
human influence on global climate." They project that global warming will have severe impacts on
human health, natural ecosystems, agriculture, and coastal communities.
(www.toowarm.org./factsheets/basfact.html)

This evidence supports the common belief that Global Warming is occurring due to the increased
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and
HFC�s.

Average yearly temperature rise: 1860-1998

www.evirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Effects of Global Warming on Environment

There are many environmental problems coming from the increase concentration of greenhouse
gases in Earth's atmosphere. As Jeff Rubin of ABC NEWS reported, �Several signs indicate that
we've begun changing Earth's climate: increased water vapor in the atmosphere, glaciers and polar
ice caps appear to be melting, floods and droughts are becoming more severe, and sea levels have
risen, on average, between 4 and 10 inches since
1990.� (www.abc.com/sections/us/global106.html) Experts concur, �We are already beginning to
see this (global warming) taking place - a lot more flooding, a lot more droughts,� Jane Lubchenco
said. Jerry Malham added, �By 2100, we might get a 2 foot sea level rise, but the catch is, levels
might continue to rise 2 or 3 feet per century, for 1000
years.�(www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html) These rises in sea level can increase the
salinity of freshwater throughout the world, and cause coastal lands to be washed under the
ocean. Warmer water and increased humidity may encourage tropical cyclones, and changing wave
patterns could produce more tidal waves and strong beach erosion on the coasts.

Flooding form global warming may be already happening.

www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html

Picture of a typhoon from space

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html
 The effects of droughts on crops
www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html

Effects of Global Warming on Society

Agriculturally, Dr. Sylvan H. Wittwer believes that global warming is good for the human race,
because it helps increase food production. "The most determinant factor in agriculture production is
climate. History reveals that for food production, warming is better than cooling." Dr. Wittwer says
that carbon dioxide is an essential nutrient for the production of food, and food is one of the most
important things in our lives. As the temperature rises, more farmland will be open towards the poles
and the length of the growing season will also lengthen. With all the people who go hungry each day,
Dr. Wittwer believes food production should be one of our main concerns. Dr. Wittwer is the
scientific pioneer who conducted the original studies on atmospheric CO2 enhancement of the
production of food crops.(www.comnett.net/~wit/food.html)

Increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and global warming could also lead to
more health concerns. A statement released from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) said, "Climate change is likely to have wide-ranging and mostly adverse impacts on human
health, with significant loss of life." As temperatures increase towards the poles, similar to farmland,
insects and other pests migrate towards Earth's poles. These insects and pests could be allowed to
migrate up to 550 Km or 550 miles. Some insects carry diseases such as malaria and dengue
fever. Thus, an increase in these particular insects and pests closer to the poles results in an increase
in these diseases. This could lead to 50 to 80 million additional cases of Malaria annually, a 10-15%
increase. "Malaria and dengue fever are already beginning to spread pole wards", said Jane
Lubchenco, past president of American Association for the advancement of science.
(www.epa.gov/oppeoeel/globalwarming/impacts/health/index.html) Physician Paul Epstein, of
Harvard's School of Public Health, says "Climate change is already a factor in terms of the
distributions of malaria, dengue fever, and cholera." (www.aloha.net~jhanson/page70.htm)

The most obvious health effect is directly from the heat itself. With an increase in heat waves,
there will be more people who will suffer from heatstroke, heart attacks and other ailments aggravated
by the heat. According to the EPA, "In July 1995, a heat wave killed more than 700 people in the
Chicago area alone." (www.epa.gov/oppeoeel/globalwarming/impacts/health/index.html) If this is
happening already from heat, imagine what would occur in the future with global warming. Hot
conditions could also cause smoke particles and noxious gases to linger in the air and accelerate
chemical reactions that generate other pollutants. (www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html) This
leads to an increase in risk of respiratory diseases like bronchitis and asthma.

Global warming causes the oceans to warm and expand, inducing a rise in sea level. Eventually, the
rising waters could take away land inhabited by people, forcing them to move. Dr. Robert
Buddemieir, of the Kansas Geological Survey said, "Bangledesh is massively populated, achingly
poor, and something like a sixth of the country is going to go away"
(www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html) Bangladesh cannot afford to build barriers to hold back
the sea, so people would have to move inland, increasing the populations density and leading to an
increase in hunger and disease. (www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html) The Maldive Islands in
the Indian Ocean have the same problem They are a nation of 1190 islands with an average height of
about 1.5 meters above sea level. If the sea level rises, more than 200,000 people will have to
abandon their homes. (www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitmap.html) Warming of the oceans could also
promote toxic algae which can lead to cholera.

Graph showing history of sea level and extrapolating possible increases in sea level over the next century
The blue line represents the history of sea level. The yellow line is a high estimate of sea level extrapolated. The
red line a central estimate, and the green line is a low projection.
www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

The Present ways of Producing Energy

 This pie graph shows the breakdown of how the world produces its energy
www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Fossil fuels, chiefly coal, oil and natural gas, now supply most of the world's energy. Only a small
amount comes from renewable sources , which do not release gases that trap heat in the atmosphere.
If we could get more of our energy from renewable sources, we could reduce the amount of fossil
fuels we burn. By the year 2050, renewable sources could provide forty percent of the energy needed
in the world. Use of renewable energy can help both to slow global warming and to reduce air
pollution. (www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/gcc/cell.html#pos6)

These fossil fuels, coal, oil, and natural gas also emit greenhouse gases when burned. Coal emits
high amounts of greenhouse gases, and the world may be supplied with enough of it to last over 100
years. Oil emits high amounts of greenhouse gases and also other types of air pollution harmful to
the environment. The world's oil supply is also estimated to last over 100 years. Natural Gas is the
lowest of all fossil fuels in greenhouse gas emissions; supplies are projected to last over 100 years.
(www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/gcc/cell.html#pos6)

1996 Processes Carbon Dioxide was Produced

Country (region) OIL Natural Gas Coal
World 44.7% 18.4% 36.9%
Canada 51.8% 30% 18.2%
United States 45% 21.3% 33.7%
European Union 56.2% 19% 24.8%
China 17.4% 1.1% 81.5%
Japan 64.6% 9.9% 25.5%
Nigeria
This chart shows what percentage of CO2 comes from Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal. For example, in 1996, 44.7% of
the world's CO2 emissions came from the combustion of oil.
http://infoweb.magi.com/~dwalsh/wfsesr.html

Solutions for Producing "Cleaner"Energy

 Hydro power, currently supplying only six percent of the world's energy, is a renewable energy
source. Energy is produced by hydraulic turbines that rotate with the force of rushing water (higher to
lower elevation). It is one of the most clean and cheapest way of producing energy, but it can also
change the flow of rivers and increase sediment which kills fish. It is a large
investment for developing countries. (www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106)

]
Hydro Power plant on a river
www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Denmark is currently the world leader in wind power. By 2030, fifty percent of Denmark's energy
could be produced by wind power. Randall Swisher, executive director of the American WInd
Energy Association says, "If this country made an aggressive development push, by 2020 eighteen
percent of the country's energy could be supplied by wind
power." (www.abc.com/sections/us/global106.html) Wind power emits no greenhouse gases, but it
takes up large amounts of land. In order for it to be a reliable source, scientists must develop better
power storage techniques. Another concern of people is noise pollution that the large windmills
produce along with the reliability of wind.

A field of wind mills

www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Solar power uses photovoltaic cells (PV's) to gather thermal energy directly from the sun and use
it to produce electricity. One community could be supplied by one field of PV's . Passive solar cells
could also be used to heat water, replacing the need for today's hot water heaters. PV's do not emit
any greenhouse gases, but they are very expensive and more development is needed in order for this
to be realistic energy source for the future. (www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html)
 A field of PV's gathering sunlight to produce power
www.abcnews.com/sections/us/global106.html

Nuclear power is strong is Europe with about forty-two percent of their energy produced by
fission. Nuclear generation provides about 17% of world electricity, avoiding the emission of up to
2.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide annually. France produces 76% and Lithuania produces 85.6% of
its energy by nuclear fission.(http://infoweb.magi.com/~dwalsh/wfsesr.html) In the United States,
people are antinuclear because of 3 Mile Island in 1979 and Chernobyl in 1986. However, many
experts say that it is a safe, clean, and reliable source of energy. Nuclear Fission produces no
greenhouse gases, but does produce highly toxic radioactive wastes.

Nuclear power plants have had success in Europe, but not in the United States
www.envirolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html

Kyoto Protocol
One of the major conventions concerning global warming resulted in the Kyoto Protocol, held in
Kyoto, Japan, between December 1-11, 1997. Delegates from all over the world were present in order
to find a universal agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The results had most developed
nations doing most of the reducing; the United States must cut emissions 7%, Japan 6%, and the
European Union 8% below 1990 levels. (www.state.gov/global/oes/fs_kyoto_climate_980115.html)
 The United States proposed a plan to have these levels cut over a five year period between 2008-
2013. The United States also said it will not sign the protocol if other developing/undeveloped
countries do not sign it as well, fearing the economy will falter. The U.S. was successful in emissions
trading with other countries who have less emissions. This means that the U.S. or other developed
countries can purchase emission permits from other countries who have extra permits. This stresses
the importance of flexibility the U.S. was looking for when it said it cannot lower the emission levels
until at least 2008. Again, the U.S. is trying to look out for it's own economy first. If a country shall
fail in completing its goal, the country will then not be able to receive joint implementation
projects. However, this Protocol is not yet law; it must be ratified by at least 55 countries, accounting
for 55% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions.

Opinion
The world's leading scientists project that during our children's lifetimes global warming will raise
the average temperature of the planet by 2 to 6 degrees Fahrenheit, or 1-3.5 degree Celsius. In contrast
the Earth is only 5 to 9 degrees Fahrenheit or about 3-6 degrees Celsius warmer today than it was
10,000 years ago during the last ice age. Man-made global warming is occurring much faster than at
any other time in at least the last 10,000 years.
(www.toowarm.org/factsheets/basfact.html#How) This information would suggest that the warming
Earth is experiencing now is not a natural phenomenon, but caused by the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases.
While evidence is strong to support the notion of human contribution to the global warming
problem, an alternative view is that recent global warming is a natural occurrence. Some theorists
believe that the Earth's climate works in a cycle, cooling, and then warming itself. Scientists point out
the fact that 75 million years ago, the Earth's average temperature was ten degrees higher than it is
today. Conditions were warmer and more humid, but life sustained.
(www.enviolink.org/orgs/edf/sitemap.html)
Another phenomenon to take into account is the "little ice age", which occurred from 1550-1850
A.D. Conditions around the world were cooler than usual; many bodies of water froze over. The
average global temperature since the little ice age has risen by one degree Fahrenheit! Shouldn't it be
expected that after that ice age was over that the temperature on Earth would rise at least one degree?
The bottom line is that it may seem that only human actions are causing global warming, but it is
very possible that global warming is nothing to worry about and is just part of the global temperature
cycle. Both theories are credible, but neither has yet been proven.

Recycling Saves Energy in Production of New Products

Recycling means to use something again. Newspapers can be used to make new newspapers.
Aluminum cans can be used to make new aluminum cans. Glass jars can be used to make new glass
jars. Recycling often saves energy and natural resources.

Natural resources are things of value provided by the Earth. Natural resources include land, plants,
minerals, and water. By using materials more than once, we conserve natural resources.

It almost always takes less energy to make a product from recycled materials than it does to make it
from new materials. Using recycled aluminum scrap to make new aluminum cans, for example, uses
95% less energy than making aluminum cans from bauxite ore, the raw material used to make
aluminum.

In the case of paper, recycling saves trees and water. Making a ton of paper from recycled paper saves
up to 17 trees and uses 50% less water.

How Was Oil Formed?

Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants (diatoms) that lived millions of years ago in a
marine (water) environment before the dinosaurs. Over millions of years, the remains of these animals
and plants were covered by layers of sand and silt. Heat and pressure from these layers helped the
remains turn into what we today call crude oil. The word "petroleum" means "rock oil" or "oil from
the earth."

Products Made from a Barrel of Crude Oil

Did You Know Crude Oil Can Be Sweet or Sour?

Crude oil is called "sweet" when it contains only a small amount of sulfur and "sour" if it contains a
lot of sulfur. Crude oil is also classified by the weight of its molecules. "Light" crude oil flows freely
like water, while "heavy" crude oil is thick like tar.

After crude oil is removed from the ground, it is sent to a refinery by pipeline, ship, or barge. At a
refinery, different parts of the crude oil are separated into useable petroleum products. Crude oil is
measured in barrels (abbreviated "bbls").

How Was Natural Gas Formed?

The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one carbon atom
and four hydrogen atoms. Millions of years ago, the remains of plants and animals (diatoms) decayed
and built up in thick layers. This decayed matter from plants and animals is called organic material
— it was once alive. Over time, the sand and silt changed to rock, covered the organic material, and
trapped it beneath the rock. Pressure and heat changed some of this organic material into coal, some
into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas — tiny bubbles of odorless gas.

How coal was formed

Coal is a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. Coal is a
combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons.
The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years
ago, when the Earth was partly covered with swampy forests.

For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of
water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers
helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.
Coal and the Environment

What Are Some Environmental Concerns In Coal Mining?

Without proper care, mining can have a negative impact on ecosystems and water quality and alter
landscapes and scenic views. Debris that chokes mountain streams can result from surface mining like
mountaintop removal, and acidic water can drain from abandoned underground mines.

Today restoring the land damaged by surface mining is an important part of the mining process.
Because mining activities often come into contact with water resources, coal producers must also go
to great efforts to prevent damage to ground and surface waters.

What Emissions and Byproducts Are Produced from Burning

Coal?
The combustion of coal produces several types of emissions that adversely affect the environment.
The five principal emissions associated with coal consumption in the energy sector are:

 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), which has been linked to acid rain and increased incidence of
respiratory illnesses
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx), which have been linked to the formation of acid rain and
photochemical smog and to depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer
 Particulates, which have been linked to the formation of acid rain and increased incidence of
respiratory illnesses
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is the primary greenhouse gas emission from energy use.
 Mercury, which has been linked with both neurological and developmental damage in humans
and other animals. Mercury concentrations in the air usually are low and of little direct
concern. However, when mercury enters water — either directly or through deposition from
the air — biological processes transform it into methylmercury, a highly toxic chemical that
accumulates in fish and the animals (including humans) that eat fish.