NAME: VIMBEE A.

ERESUELA
COURSE: BOTANY 132
PROGRAM: MS AGRONOMY
PROFESSOR: DR. ROMEO R. LEROM

1. Discuss the plant growth regulators in plant. Explain its origin, function in plants,
chemical structure, applications to agriculture, specifically how we can utilize the
concepts in relation to plant growth and development of crops and lastly commercial
uses available to farmers.

Plant growth regulators, also known as plant hormones, are organic compounds that play
important roles in regulating various aspects of plant growth and development. These compounds are
synthesized by the plant in response to various internal and external signals, and they can be found in
various parts of the plant, including the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
The discovery of plant growth regulators dates back to the early 20th century, when
researchers first observed that extracts from plants could promote or inhibit plant growth. In the
1920s, the first plant hormone, auxin, was identified by the Dutch biologist Frits Went, who
discovered that it was responsible for the elongation of plant cells.

Since then, numerous plant growth regulators have been identified and studied,
including auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. Each of these
hormones has unique chemical structures and functions, and they interact with each other in
complex ways to regulate plant growth and development.

Plant growth regulators have a wide range of functions in plants. Some of the key
functions include stimulating or inhibiting cell division and elongation, Promoting or
inhibiting root growth, regulating fruit and seed development, promoting or inhibiting leaf
senescence and inducing or inhibiting flower and seed formation

Auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene are the classes of plant
growth regulators. Each of these classes has a unique chemical structure and function in the
plant.

Auxins are plant hormones that promote cell elongation and are important for
controlling the direction of plant growth. Indole acetic acid (IAA) is a well-known auxin that
is synthesized in the shoot tips of plants and can affect root growth, apical dominance, and
the formation of adventitious roots.

Commercial uses of auxin are Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) is used to promote root
formation in cuttings and is commonly used in the production of ornamental plants, trees, and
shrubs; and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) is used to control fruit drop in citrus and apple
crops and to promote fruit set in grapes and other fruits.

One example of auxin that can be use by farmers is a synthetic plant hormone called
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, commonly known as 2,4-D. This is a widely used herbicide
that mimics the natural auxin produced by plants, but at higher concentrations, it causes
uncontrolled growth and ultimately kills the plant. Farmers can use 2,4-D to control broadleaf
weeds in crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans, while minimizing harm to the crop itself.
2,4-D is often used in combination with other herbicides to create a more effective weed
control program.

Cytokinins are plant hormones that promote cell division and are important for
regulating shoot and root growth. Zeatin is a common cytokinin that is involved in cell
division and differentiation and can affect plant growth and development in response to
various environmental cues.

Commercial uses of cytokinins are 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) is used to promote cell

division and stimulate shoot growth in tissue culture systems. It is also used to delay leaf
senescence and promote fruit set in some crops and Kinetin is used to promote cell division
and delay leaf senescence in some crops like rice, tomato, cucumber, potato and soybean.

Farmers can use cytokinins in several ways to enhance plant growth and development.
Cytokinins can also be used to improve crop yields. For example, foliar application of
cytokinins can promote the growth of fruit and vegetables by increasing cell division and
elongation. Cytokinins can also improve seed germination, particularly in crops with low
natural germination rates.

Additionally, cytokinins can be used in tissue culture techniques to promote the

growth of new plant tissue from small samples, which is particularly useful for plant breeding
and cloning. Overall, cytokinins have a wide range of agricultural applications and are an
important tool for farmers to improve crop quality and yield.

Gibberellins are plant hormones that promote stem and leaf elongation and are
important for regulating seed germination, flowering, and fruit development. Gibberellic acid
is a well-known gibberellin that can affect plant growth and development in response to light,
temperature, and other environmental factors.

Commercial uses of gibberellins are gibberellic acid (GA3) is used to promote stem
elongation and fruit development in some crops. Also, it is also used to increase the size and
quality of fruits and vegetables and to promote seed germination and Paclobutrazol is a plant
growth retardant that inhibits gibberellin biosynthesis and is used to control vegetative
growth in fruit trees, ornamental plants, and turf grass.

Gibberellins can use by farmers to improve crop yields and quality. One example is
the use of gibberellic acid (GA3) in seed production. GA3 is often used to promote seed
germination in certain crops, particularly those with hard seed coats.

In addition to seed production, gibberellins can also use in fruit production. For
example, farmers can use gibberellins to increase the size and uniformity of fruit, particularly
in seedless grapes and oranges. Gibberellins can also be used to promote the development of
seedless fruits, which are often preferred by consumers.

Gibberellins are also used to control the growth of certain crops, particularly in the
production of ornamental plants. For example, farmers can use gibberellins to increase the
height and size of flowers, or to control the branching and growth of certain plants. For
example, Specifically, in roses gibberellins are used to promote the elongation of rose stems,
which can increase the size of the flowers and make them more attractive.
 Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that regulates plant responses to
environmental stresses such as drought, salt, and cold temperatures. ABA can also promote
seed dormancy and regulate stomatal closure to conserve water during times of stress.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that plays an important role in regulating
plant growth and development, particularly in response to environmental stresses such as
drought, high salinity, and cold temperatures. It has some commercial uses in agriculture.

One example of ABA's commercial use is in the storage of fruits and vegetables.
ABA can be applied to harvested fruits and vegetables to delay their ripening and prevent
decay during storage and transportation. This can help to extend the shelf life of produce and
reduce waste.

Another commercial use of ABA is in the production of seedless fruits. By applying

ABA to developing fruit, farmers can prevent seed formation and produce seedless fruits,
which are often preferred by consumers.

Finally, ABA can also be used to induce dormancy in plants. This is particularly
useful in the propagation of woody plants, such as trees and shrubs, where dormancy is
needed to promote successful root development before transplanting.

Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that is involved in regulating various aspects of

plant growth and development, including fruit ripening, leaf senescence, and the response to
environmental stresses such as flooding and drought. Ethylene is also involved in regulating
the response of plants to other plant growth regulators, such as auxins and gibberellins.

There are several commercial applications of ethylene that can be used by farmers to
enhance crop yields and quality. Here are a few examples. Farmers can use ethylene to
initiate the ripening process in certain fruits, such as bananas, tomatoes, and avocados.
Ethylene generators are commonly used in the food industry to control the ripening of these
fruits during storage and; Ethylene can also use by farmers to promote seed germination in
certain crops. For example, some farmers treat tomato seeds with ethylene gas to enhance
germination rates and improve crop yields; Ethylene can use by farmers to induce flowering
in certain crops, such as pineapple and mango. By exposing these crops to high
concentrations of ethylene, farmers can promote the formation of flowers and ultimately
increase yields; and Ethylene also plays an important role in plant responses to stress, such as
drought and pathogen attack. Farmers can use this knowledge to improve crop resilience and
reduce losses due to environmental stresses.

The concepts of plant growth regulators (PGRs) can be utilized in various ways to
enhance the growth and development of crops. Here are some ways in which PGRs can be
used. First for rooting of cuttings, plant growth regulator like auxins are commonly used to
stimulate the rooting of cuttings. They are applied as a solution to the cuttings or to the
rooting medium to promote root development. Second for seed germination plant growth
regulator like gibberellins are used to break seed dormancy and promote seed germination.
Gibberellins can be applied to seeds before planting to promote uniform germination and
seedling emergence. Third for fruit ripening like ethylene is responsible for fruit ripening. It
can be applied to fruits to promote ripening, especially in fruits that do not ripen well after
harvest. Fourth for control of plant height, plant growth regulators can be used to control the
height of crops. For example, plant growth retardants can be applied to reduce the height of
tall crops like wheat and barley, making them less susceptible to lodging (falling over). Fifth
for delaying flowering, PGRs can be used to delay flowering in crops. This can be useful in
crops where early flowering can reduce yield or in ornamental plants where delayed
flowering can extend the flowering season. And lastly, for seed production, plant growth
regulator like gibberellins can be used to increase seed production in crops. Gibberellins can
be applied at specific stages of seed development to increase the size and number of seeds
produced.

It is important to note that the use of PGRs should be based on sound scientific principles and
should be used responsibly. Overuse or misuse of PGRs can have negative effects on plant
growth and development, crop yield, and the environment.

Basically, plant growth regulators are naturally occurring substances that play important
roles in regulating plant growth and development. Understanding these regulators can be
useful for optimizing plant growth and increasing crop yields in agriculture.

2. Discuss the growth centers in plants, provide concrete examples. How it is

differentiated from growth in animals.
Plants are unique organisms that have the ability to grow and develop throughout their
lives. One of the key mechanisms that enable plants to grow and develop is the presence of
growth centers. Growth centers are regions of the plant where cell division and differentiation
occur, resulting in the formation of new tissues and organs.
Growth centers in plants are located in regions known as meristems. Meristems are
regions of undifferentiated cells that divide rapidly, leading to the formation of new cells that
differentiate into different cell types.

Plants have main growth centers, also known as meristems, which are responsible for the
continuous growth and development of plant tissues throughout their life cycle. These growth
centers in plants are apical meristem, intercalary meristem, lateral meristem, and marginal
meristem.

The apical meristem is responsible for primary growth, which is the growth of the plant in
length. The apical meristem is located at the tips of the stems and roots. As new cells are
produced by the apical meristem, they differentiate into various tissues that contribute to the
growth of the plant. For example, the apical meristem of a shoot tip can produce new leaves,
while the apical meristem of a root tip can produce new root hairs.

The intercalary meristem is responsible for the elongation of the plant in certain areas.
This type of meristem is found in the base of the leaves of grasses, such as corn and wheat.
When the intercalary meristem produces new cells, they contribute to the lengthening of the
leaf blade, allowing the plant to reach more sunlight for photosynthesis.

The lateral meristem is responsible for secondary growth, which is the growth of the plant
in thickness. The lateral meristem is located in the cambium layer, which is a thin layer of
cells that separates the primary xylem and phloem tissues in the stem and roots. As new cells
are produced by the lateral meristem, they differentiate into secondary xylem and phloem
tissues. For example, in a tree, the lateral meristem produces new xylem and phloem tissues
each year, contributing to the growth of the trunk.
The marginal meristem is found at the edge of leaves or leaf-like structures, such as the petals
of flowers. This meristem is responsible for the growth and development of the leaf or petal
margin, which can include the formation of serrations, lobes, or other distinctive shapes. For
example, in lettuce, the marginal meristem in lettuce leaves is responsible for the formation
of the serrated edges, which are important for photosynthesis and respiration.

The growth centers or meristems in plants has several applications in agriculture like
propagation, by utilizing the growth centers in plants, it is possible to propagate plants
through various techniques such as cuttings, grafting, and tissue culture. For example, stem
cuttings can be taken from the shoot apical meristem, and these cuttings can be used to grow
new plants with the same genetic makeup as the parent plant. Yield Improvement, the
understanding of the growth centers in plants can help farmers improve the yield of their
crops. By controlling the growth of the apical meristem, it is possible to promote the
development of more branches, leaves, and flowers, resulting in a higher yield. Crop
Improvement, the knowledge of growth centers in plants can help in the development of
new crop varieties. By selectively breeding plants with desirable traits, such as faster growth
or increased yield, it is possible to develop new varieties of crops that are better suited to
specific growing conditions or have improved nutritional content. Plant Training the
understanding of the growth centers in plants can help in training plants to grow in specific
ways. For example, by pruning the apical meristem of a tomato plant, it is possible to
encourage the development of more lateral shoots, resulting in a bushier plant that produces
more fruit. And Disease Management, by understanding the growth centers in plants, it is
possible to develop strategies to manage plant diseases. For example, by removing infected
tissues, such as the apical meristem, it is possible to prevent the spread of diseases and
improve the overall health of the plant.

Overall, the knowledge of growth centers in plants has numerous applications in

agriculture, allowing farmers and researchers to develop better crop management strategies
and improve the overall productivity and health of crops.

In contrast to animals, plant growth is indeterminate, meaning that it continues throughout

the plant's life. In animals, growth is determinate, meaning that it stops once the animal
reaches its adult size. Additionally, in animals, growth is regulated by hormones produced by
the endocrine system, while in plants, growth is regulated by plant growth regulators
produced by the plant itself. Finally, the growth of animal tissues is mostly due to an increase
in cell size, while in plants, it is mostly due to an increase in cell number.

3. Compare and contrast growth from development with at least 10 differences

including the examples.

Growth and development are two closely related but distinct processes that occur in
plants.

Growth refers to the increase in size or mass of an organism over time. In plants,
growth can occur through cell division, cell elongation, and cell differentiation. This can
result in an increase in plant height, width, and biomass. The process of growth is
continuous throughout the life of the plant, but the rate of growth can vary depending on
environmental factors such as light, temperature, and nutrients.
 Development, on the other hand, refers to the changes that occur in an organism as it
progresses through its life cycle. In plants, development includes processes such as
germination, flowering, fruiting, and senescence. These processes are controlled by internal
factors such as genetic programs and external factors such as light and temperature. Unlike
growth, development is a series of discrete, sequential events that occur in a specific order
and are often irreversible.

One way to differentiate between growth and development is to think of growth as the
accumulation of biomass, while development is the maturation of that biomass into functional
structures such as leaves, flowers, and fruit. For example, a young plant may undergo rapid
growth as it adds new cells and tissues to its structure, but it will not begin to flower and
produce fruit until it reaches a certain level of development.

Growth and development are different in several ways such as scope, time frame,
factors affecting growth vs. development, types of growth, types of development, timing,
regulation and impact

Scope. Growth in plants is usually limited to physical aspects such as size, while
development encompasses a wide range of areas such as morphological, physiological, and
reproductive. For example, the growth of a plant root involves an increase in length and
thickness, while its development involves the differentiation of tissues that enable it to absorb
nutrients from the soil.

Time frame. Growth in plants can be short-term or long-term, while development

typically takes a longer time frame. For example, the growth of a tomato plant may occur
rapidly during the vegetative phase, while its development into a mature fruit-bearing plant
can take several months.

Factors affecting growth vs. development. Different factors can affect growth and
development in plants. For example, nutrient availability, light intensity, and temperature can
affect the growth of a plant, while genetic factors and environmental cues can affect its
development.

Measurement. Growth in plants can be measured quantitatively, while development is

often assessed qualitatively. For example, the height of a tree can be measured as an
indicator of growth, while the shape and structure of the tree reflect its developmental stage.

Types of growth. There are different types of growth in plants, such as primary
growth and secondary growth. For example, primary growth occurs at the tips of roots and
shoots, while secondary growth occurs in the lateral meristems of woody plants.

Types of development. There are different types of development in plants, such as

vegetative development and reproductive development. For example, vegetative development
involves the formation of leaves and stems, while reproductive development involves the
formation of flowers and fruits.

Timing. Growth occurs throughout the life of a plant, while development is more
prominent during certain stages. For example, the growth of a plant seedling occurs rapidly in
the first few weeks, while its development into a mature plant occurs over a longer period.
 Regulation. Growth in plants is regulated by hormones and environmental factors,
while development is regulated by genetic and environmental factors. For example, the
growth of a plant shoot is regulated by auxin hormone and light intensity, while its
development into a flowering plant is regulated by genetic factors and photoperiod.

Impacts. Growth and development in plants have different impacts on plant

productivity and performance. For example, optimal growth can lead to increased plant yield,
while proper developmental timing can result in successful seed production and plant
reproduction.

In summary, growth and development are two distinct processes in plants that are
both essential for plant survival and productivity. Understanding the differences and
interactions between these processes is critical for developing effective plant management
strategies.

Thank you!