Appi Psychotherapy 2006 60 3 233

LITERATURE REVIEW
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: Techniques,
Efficacy, and Indications
FALK LEICHSENRING, D.Sc*

WOLFGANG HILLER, D.Sc.#
MICHAEL WEISSBERG, M.D.t
ERIC LEIBING, D.Sc.*
In this article, we provide an overview of the techniques and efficacy of the
two most commonly used psychotherapeutic treatments of psychiatric disor-
ders in adults: cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic therapy. Psychother-
apeutic techniques, major indications, and empirical evidence will be pre-
sented. The focus will be on empirically supported models of treatment.
Context: Cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy
are the most frequently applied methods of psychotherapy in clinical practice.
Objective: To give an up-to-date description of cognitive-behavioral ther-
apy and psychodynamic psychotherapy and to review empirical evidence for
efficacy in specific mental disorders.
Data Sources: Systematic reviews of psychotherapy outcome research
based on evidence-based methods were used. In order to identify more recent
trials, Medline, Psyclnfo, Pubmed, and Current Contents were searched in
addition in July 2005 using database-specific keywords. In October 2005, the
search was updated. Text books and journal articles were used as well.
Study selection: The authors reviewed the available systematic surveys
"Clinic of Tiefenbrunn and Clinic of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Goettingen,

Germany; #Institute of Psychology, University of Mainz, Germany; tUniversity of Colorado, School of
Medicine, USA; tClinic of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Goettingen, Germany.
Mailing address: University of Goettingen, Clinic of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, von Siebold-
str. 5, D - 37075 Goettingen, Germany, e-mail: Fleichs@gwdg.de
A M E R I C A N J O U R N A L O F P S Y C H O T H E R A P Y , Vol. 6 0 , No. 3 , 2 0 0 6
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A M E R I C A N J O U R N A L O F PSYCHOTHERAPY
and meta-analyses as well as the additionally identified studies using estab-

lished inclusion criteria.
Data extraction: Following the evidence-based methods of the Canadian
Task Force on Preventive Health Care, an established hierarchy of study
designs was applied. Using rigorous criteria, only evidence from randomized
controlled trials (Type 1 studies) was included. The authors independently
assessed for which mental disorders randomized controlled trials provide
evidence for the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy or psychodynamic
psychotherapy in specific disorders.
Data synthesis: The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral in many mental
disorders has been demonstrated by a substantial number of randomized
controlled trials and several meta-analyses. However, for specific disorders
the rates of treatment responders are not yet sufficient. For psychodynamic
psychotherapy, clearly less efficacy studies are available. However, the avail-
able studies provided evidence that psychodynamic psychotherapy is an
effective treatment of specific mental disorders as well.
Conclusions: Although there is substantial evidence for the efficacy of
cognitive-behavioral therapy and some evidence for the efficacy of psychody-
namic psychotherapy, further studies are required to improve the positive
outcome rates of treatment responders in specific mental disorders. For
psychodynamic psychotherapy further studies of specific forms of treatment in
specific mental disorders are required to corroborate the available results.
DEFINITION OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) represents a unique category of
psychological interventions based on scientific models of human behavior,
cognition, and emotion (Dobson, 2000). It includes a wide range of
treatment strategies that take the current knowledge about the etiology
and maintenance of the different mental disorders into account (Beck,
1995; Beck, 2005; Cutler, Goldyne, Markowitz, Devlin, & Glick, 2004;
Hayes, Follette, & Linehan, 2004; Kanfer & Phillips, 1970; Masters,
Burish, Hollon, & Rimm, 1987). Patients and therapists work together to
identify and understand problems in terms of the relationship between
thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The focus lies in the here and now.
Individualized, usually time-limited therapy goals are formulated. CBT
intends to directly target symptoms, reduce distress, re-evaluate thinking
and promote helpful behavioral responses. The therapist supports the
patient to tackle problems by harnessing his or her own resources. Specific
psychological and practical skills are acquired (e.g., reflecting and re-
evaluating the meaning attributed to a situation with subsequent behavior
changes) and the therapist actively promotes change with an emphasis on
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CBT & Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
putting what has been learned into practice between sessions ("home-
work"). The patient learns to attribute improvement to his or her own
efforts (self-efficacy). A trusting and safe therapeutic alliance is viewed as
an essential ingredient, but not as the main vehicle of change.
Behavioral interventions are considered as clinical applications of
learning theory (Kana et al., 1970; Masters et al., 1987). The most
frequently used methods are classical and operant conditioning, often
combined with observational learning ("modeling"). For example, patients
learn to reward themselves systematically whenever they have been suc-
cessful in showing new and adequate reactions to crucial situations.
Behaviors such as avoidance or reduced activity are problematic because
they can act to keep the problems going or worsen. If patients avoid
situtations that trigger phobias (e.g., crowds, traveling in bus or train),
therapists help them feel safe enough to face the feared situation as a
means of reducing anxiety and learning new behavioral skills with which
they may tackle problems.
Cognitive interventions refer to how patients create meaning about
symptoms, situations, and events in their lives, as well as beliefs about
themselves, others, and the world (Beck, 1995; Beck, 2005; Dobson, 2000).
The therapist assists the patient to become more aware of maladaptive
automatic thoughts that spring to mind and evoke negative personal
interpretations (e.g., "I'm in danger"). A style of trained questioning
(called "Socratic dialogue" or "guided recovery") gently probes for patient
meanings and stimulates alternative viewpoints or ideas. Based on these
alternatives, patients carry out behavioral experiments to test the accuracy
of alternative behaviors, and thus they adopt new and more realistic ways
of perceiving and acting. It should be emphasized that CBT is not about
trying to prove the client wrong and the therapist right, but about moving
toward a a skillful collaboration in which patients come to discover for
themselves that there are realistic alternatives. Some important methods
and techniques of CBT are summarized in Table 1.
CBT-trained therapists work with individuals, families, and groups.
The approach can be used to help anyone irrespective of ability, culture,
race, gender, or sexual preference. It can be applied with or without
concurrent psychopharmacological medication, depending on the severity
or nature of each patient's problem.
The duration of cognitive-behavioral therapy varies, although it typi-
cally is thought of as one of the briefer psychotherapeutic treatments.
Especially in research settings, duration of CBT is usually short, between
10 and 20 sessions. In routine clinical practice, duration varies depending
235
Table I . S O M E M E T H O D S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S U S E D I N C B T ( D O B S O N , 2000;
M A S T E R S E T A L . , 1987; B E C K , 1995)
Systematic The patient learns to gradually weaken anxious reactions by exposing

desensitization him- or herself in a relaxed state (either through imagination or in
(counter- the real world); with sufficient repetition, the situation loses its
conditioning) power to make the person severely anxious.
Exposure/ response The patient is repeatedly confronted with an anxiety- or stress-

prevention (ERP) provoking stimulus, e.g., snake or elevator, while refraining from
avoidance behavior or tension-reducing rituals; he or she
experiences anxiety climb, peak and subside, which enables a
process of emotional habituation.
Relaxation Techniques, such as progressive muscle relaxation, are taught and

practiced to reduce the physiological arousal level.
Positive and negative Systematic reinforcement (from the person him- or herself or from
reinforcement others) is used to establish new behaviour, e.g. increases in levels
of general, social and pleasurable activity; negative consequences
may be systematically used to weaken disruptive behaviors such as
aggression or impulsivity.
Cognitive modification Techniques such as identification of maladaptive automatic thoughts

and cognitive schemas (e.g., " I ' m so fat and so useless") by use of
standardized protocols; correcting thinking errors; establishing
guiding self-statements (e.g., "stop, think, act") or verbal self-
instructions (e.g., "what are all of my options to solve this
problem?")
Assertiveness training Patients learn and practice behavioral techniques to manage

(social skills interpersonal situations more effectively, e.g., refuse unreasonable
training) requests from others, assert ones rights in a non-aggressive
manner, negotiate to get what one wants in relationships with
others; assertiveness is an antidote to fear, shyness, passivity and
even anger.
Stress management A combination of strategies to reduce tension and distress, re-

examine the importance of current life stressors, prioritize life
goals, manage and diffuse anger, resolve interpersonal conflicts,
improve time management.
Problem solving The process of problem identification, description, goal definition,

generation of possible solutions, decision-making (weighing costs
and benefits), and evaluation of new experiences is taught and
practiced.
on patient comorbidity, defined treatment goals, and the specific condi-

tions of the health care system. For example, in Germany the mean
duration of CBT in clinical (outpatient) practice is between 40 and 60
sessions; up to 80 sessions of CBT will be paid by the statutory health
236
insurance, but the treatment must be applied for and an independent

expert must check the individual indication and prognosis. Thefindingsof
the national institute of mental health study on depression are consistent
with this duration of CBT, indicating that 16 to 20 sessions of cognitive-
behavioral (and interpersonal therapy or pharmacotherapy of a compara-
ble duration) are insufficient for most patients to achieve lasting remission
(Shea et al., 1992).
The historical roots of behavior therapy lie in the classical learning
theories derived from the work of Ivan Pavlov—respondent condition-
ing—and John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner—operant conditioning
(Masters et al., 1987). The first generation of behavior therapy changed
with the advent of cognitive methods, and cognitive therapy was developed
as a movement away from the limitations of psychoanalysis and the
restrictive nature of behaviourism (Dobson, 2000). Cognitive therapy,
developed by Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck in the 1950s and 1960s, is the
application of the cognitive model to a disorder with the use of different
techniques to modify the dysfunctional beliefs (Beck, 1995; Beck, 2005). In
combination with behavioral techniques, CBT rapidly became a favorite
intervention to study in psychotherapy research in academic settings
during the last 25 to 30 years (Dobson, 2000).
In the last years, new (cognitive) behavior therapies have been devel-
oped (Hayes et al., 2004). "The new behavior therapies carry forward the
behavior therapy tradition, but they (1) abandon a sole commitment to
first-order change, (2) adopt more contextualistic assumptions, (3) adopt
more experiential and indirect change strategies in addition to direct
strategies, and (4) considerably broaden the focus of change" (Hayes,
2004, p. 6). For example, faced with the challenges of patients with
personality disorders, Young (1994) developed schema-focused therapy.
In the schema-focused model, developmental dimensions of patients'
psychopathology are emphasised, and in the schema-focused therapy,
experiential and interpersonal techniques are integrated.
DEFINITION OF PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychodynamic psychotherapy serves as an umbrella concept for psy-
chotherapeutic treatments that operate on an interpretive-supportive (or
expressive-supportive) continuum ([see table 2] Gabbard, 2000; Gill,
1951; Henry, Strupp, Schacht, & Gaston, 1994; Luborsky, 1984;
Schlesinger, 1969; Wallerstein, 1989).
Definitions of basic concepts of psychodynamic psychotherapy are
given in Table 3. The concept of a supportive-interpretive continuum of
237
Table I L T H E SUPPORTIVE-EXPRESSIVE C O N T I N U U M O F
P S Y C H O T H E R A P E U T I C I N T E R V E N T I O N S ( G A B B A R D , 2000, P. 96;
G I L L , 1951; L U B O R S K Y , 1984; S C H L E S I N G E R , 1969; W A L L E R S T E I N ,
1989)
Encouragement Empathie Advice

Interpretation Confrontation Clarification to elaborate validation and praise Affirmation
Interpretive ^ Supportive
X X X x x X
Pole Pole
psychodynamic interventions is empirically based on the data of the

psychotherapy research project of the Menninger Foundation (Gill, 1951;
Luborsky, 1984; Schlesinger, 1969; Wallerstein, 1989). Interpretive inter-
ventions enhance the patient's insight about repetitive conflicts sustaining
his or her problems (Luborsky, 1984; Gabbard, 2000). Supportive inter-
ventions aim to strengthen abilities that are temporarily inaccessible
because of acute stress (e.g. traumatic events) or that have not been
sufficiently developed (e.g. impulse control in borderline personality dis-
order). These abilities are conceptualized in psychodynamic psychother-
apy as "ego functions" (Bellak, Hurvich, & Gediman, 1973). Thus,
supportive interventions can be described as maintaining or building ego
functions (Wallerstein, 1989). Supportive interventions include, for exam-
ple, fostering a therapeutic alliance, setting of goals, or strengthening of
ego functions such as reality testing or impulse control (Gill, 1951;
Luborsky, 1984; Schlesinger, 1969; Blanck & Blanck, 1974). In the inter-
pretive-supportive continuum, interpretation marks the one pole, being
the most insight-enhancing intervention (Gabbard, 2000) (e.g., "Maybe
you do not only want to pass your examination, but you are also afraid of
what happens when you are successful"). Advice, praise, and affirmation
mark the least interpretive and most supportive pole (Tables 2 and 3).
"You should talk to your peers about how they prepare for the exam" may
serve as an example for giving advice. Other interventions on the support-
ive-expressive continuum (e.g., confrontation, clarification, empathic val-
idation) lie between interpretation and advice, praise and affirmation
(Gabbard, 2000 [see tables 2 and 3]). The use of more supportive or more
interpretive (insight-enhancing) interventions depends on the patient's
needs. The more severely disturbed a patient is, or the more acute his or
her problem is, the more supportive (and the less expressive) interventions
are required and vice versa (Gill, 1951; Luborsky, 1984; Schlesinger, 1969;
Wallerstein, 1989). For example, patients suffering from a borderline
personality disorder (Gunderson & Links, 2001) may need more support-
ive interventions to maintain self-esteem, a sense of reality, or other ego
238
Table I I I . CONCEPTS OF P S Y C H O D Y N A M I C PSYCHOTHERAPY (GABBARD,

2000, P. 8 9 - 1 1 4 ; L U B O R S K Y , 1984)
Interpretation The most interpretive form of intervention: Making something conscious

(most insight- that was previously unconscious, e.g. "Maybe you do not only want to
enhancing) pass your examination, but you are also afraid of what happens when
you are successful."
Confrontation Drawing the patients' attention to a psychic phenomenon, e.g. "You

seem to avoid to face your feelings towards X . "
Clarification Asking the patient to describe a phenomenon more in detail.
Encouragement to Request for information about a topic, e.g. "Can you tell me more about
elaborate that?"
Empathie Empathic conveying of the patient's internal state, e.g. " I t hurts when
validation you are treated that way."
Advice and praise Advice: Suggesting what to do, e.g. "You should talk to your peers
about how they prepare for the exam." Praise: Expressing overt
approval, e.g. " I think it was very good that you talked to your peers
about how they prepare for the exam."
Affirmation (least Comment supporting the patient's behavior, e.g. "Yes, I see what you
interpretive) mean."
Working through Both the process and result of repeated circles of confrontation,
clarification and interpretation including linking a pattern to new
contexts, e.g. a pattern of transference to current relationships outside
the transference or to past relationships.
Abstinence Withholding gratification of (certain) transference wishes, referring

particularly to physical gratification.
Neutrality Non-judgmental stance regarding the patient's behaviors, wishes or

feelings. Not to be misunderstood as coldness or aloofness.
Therapeutic/ Patient's capacity to collaborate with the therapist and to perceive him
working alliance or her as a helpful person.
Free association Saying everything that comes to one's mind. Useful in highly interpretive
(basic rule) therapies, the less useful the more supportive therapies are. I n more
supportive therapies, patients are told that they decide what they will
talk about in a session.
Transference Repetition of past experiences in present object relations, but also

including a quest for a new reparative object experience.
Counter- The therapist's emotional responses to the patient, which may be

Transference specific responses to the patient's conflicts (diagnostically relevant),
but may also include the therapist's resistance or his transference to
the patient (to be controlled for).
Regression Shift to less mature (autobiographically earlier) modes of psychological

functioning during psychotherapy. Promoted in long-term interpretive
therapy, restrictea in short-term and supportive therapy.
Resistance Although willing to cooperate with the therapist, patients also want to
avoid experiencing painful feelings and fantasies, thus trying to
preserve the status quo. Resistance is treated by understanding it
using clarification, confrontation, and interpretation.
239
functions (Blanck & Blanck, 1974; Gill, 1951; Luborsky, 1984;

Schlesinger, 1969). Reality testing, for example, may be maintained by the
following intervention: "When you heard these voices talking about you,
did you really see someone?" Healthy subjects in an acute crisis or
following a traumatic event may need more supportive interventions (e.g.,
stabilization, providing a safe and supportive environment). Thus, a broad
spectrum of psychiatric problems and disorders, ranging from milder
adjustment disorders or stress reactions to severe personality disorders,
such as borderline personality disorder or psychotic conditions, can be
treated with psychodynamic psychotherapy (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999,
2001; Blanck & Blanck, 1974; Clarkin, Levy, Lenzenweger, & Kernberg,
2004a,b; Gabbard, 2000; Gill, 1951; Luborsky, 1984; Schlesinger, 1969).
The emphasis psychodynamic psychotherapy places on the relational
aspects of transference is a key technical difference between it and
cognitive-behavioral therapies (Cutler et al., 2004). Transference, defined
as the repetition of past experiences in present interpersonal relations,
consists of patterns of feelings and behavior that arise from early ontoge-
netical experiences and impinge on everyday reality and relationships
(Gabbard, 2000; Gabbard, 2003; Luborsky, 1984). In psychodynamic
psychotherapy, transference is regarded as a primary source of understand-
ing and therapeutic change (Gabbard, 2000; Gabbard, 2003; Luborsky,
1984).
The role of insight as a factor of therapeutic success is qualified in
current concepts of psychodynamic therapy. Not only the insight-enhanc-
ing, but also the relational dimension of an intervention (e.g. not only what
the therapist says, but the way he or she says it), is regarded as an
important corrective factor (Gabbard, 2003). For example, a therapist who
empathically interprets a patient's aggressive, sexual, or perverse wish also
conveys to the patient that he accepts him in spite of these wishes, thus
increasing the patient's capability to tolerate and accept these wishes
himself. In this process, identification with the therapist may play an
important therapeutic role. "If the therapy accepts me in spite of these
wishes, maybe I can accept them as well."
Psychodynamic psychotherapy can be carried either as a short-term or
as a long-term treatment. Short-term treatment is time limited, usually 16
to 30 sessions with a range of 7 to 40 sessions (Messer, 2001). Duration of
long-term treatment ranges from a few months to several years (Gabbard,
2004; Luborsky, 1984). Several manual-guided models of psychodynamic
psychotherapy have been developed (Busch, Milrod, & Singer, 1999;
Clarkin, Yeomans, & Kernberg, 1999; Horowitz & Kaltreider, 1979;
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C B T & Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Luborsky, 1984; Piper, McCallum, Joyce, & Ogrodniczuk, 2001; Shapiro,

Barkham, Rees, Hardy, Reynolds, & Startup, 1994; Strupp & Binder,
1984).
Treatment manuals describe the interventions specific to the respective
approach and its indications. They facilitate both the implementation of
the treatment into clinical practice and its empirical test. The various
models of psychodynamic psychotherapy and comparisons between them
have been described in several overviews (Barber & Crits-Christoph, 1995;
Messer & Warren, 1995).
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE F O R EFFICACY
METHODS
Data Sources:
Systematic reviews of psychotherapy outcome research based on evi-
dence-based methods were used (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; DeRubeis
& Crits-Christoph, 1998; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005).
In order to identify more recent trials, Medline, Psyclnfo, Pubmed, and
Current Contents were searched in July 2005 in addition using database-
specific keywords such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, psychodynamic
psychotherapy, mental disorders, efficacy, randomized controlled trials,
meta-analysis. In October 2005, the search was updated. In addition, text
books and journal articles were used.
Study selection:
The authors reviewed the available systematic surveys and meta-analyses
as well as the additionally identified studies using established inclusion/
exclusion criteria. Only studies of adult patients were included.
Data extraction:
Following the evidence-based methods of the Canadian Task Force on
Preventive Health Care (Woolf, Battista, Anderson, Logan, & Wang,
1990), an established hierarchy of study designs was applied. Using
rigorous criteria, only evidence from randomized controlled trials (Type 1
studies) was included. The authors independently assessed for which
mental disorders randomized controlled trials provide evidence for the
efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy or psychodynamic psychotherapy
in the respective disorder. Disagreements were resolved by consensus.
241
DATA SYNTHESIS
EVIDENCE FOR COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
The results of our research show that there is evidence from a substan-
tial number of randomized controlled trials and several meta-analyses that
cognitive-behavioral therapy is effective in the treatment of the following
mental disorders:
• major depressive disorder (Craighead, Hart, Wilcoxon Craighead, &
Ilardi, 2002; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; DeRubeis & Crits-
Christoph, 1998; DeRubeis, Gelfand, Tang, & Simons, 1999; Gloa-
guen, Cottraux, Cucherat, & Blackburn, 1998; Nathan & Gorman,
2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; Pampallona, Bollini, Tibaldi, Kupelnick,
& Munizza, 2004; Parker, Roy, & Eyers, 2003; Thase, Greenhouse,
Frank, Reynolds, Pilkonis, Hurley, Grochocinski, & Kupfer, 1997),
• panic disorder with and without agoraphobia (Bakker, van Balkom,
Spinhoven, Blaauw, & van Dyk, 1998; Barlow, Raffa, & Cohen, 2002;
Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; Clum, Clum, & Surls, 1993; Deacon
& Abramowitz, 2004; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998; Heuzen-
roeder, Donnelly, Haby, Mihalopoulos, Rossell, Carter, Andrews, &
Vos, 2004; Mattick, Andrews, Hadzi-Pavlovic, & Christensen, 1990;
Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; van Balkom,
Bakker, Spinhoven, Blaauw, Smeenk, & Ruesink, 1997),
• social phobia (Barlow et al., 2002; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001;
Deacon & Abramowitz, 2004; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998;
Fedoroff & Taylor, 2001; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Rodebaugh,
Holaway, & Heimberg, 2004; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; Taylor, 1996;
Zaider & Heimberg, 2003),
• specific phobias (Barlow et al., 2002; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001;
DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth
& Fonagy, 2005),
• obsessive-compulsive disorder (Abramowitz, 1997; Chambless &
Ollendick, 2001; Cox, Swinson, Morrison, & Lee, 1993; Deacon &
Abramowitz, 2004; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998; Eddy, Dutra,
Bradley, & Westen, 2004; Franklin & Foa, 2002; Kobak, Greist,
Jefferson, Katzelnick, & Henk, 1998; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth
& Fonagy, 2005),
• bulimia nervosa (Bacaltchuk, Trefiglio, Oliveira, Hay, Lima, & Mari,
2000; Bacaltchuk, Trefiglio, Oliveira, Lima, & Mari, 1999; Cham-
bless & Ollendick, 2001; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998; Fair-
burn & Harrison, 2003; Hay, Balcaltchuk, & Stefano, 2004; Lewan-
242
dowski, Gebing, Anthony, & O'Brien, 1997; Nathan & Gorman,

2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; Wilson & Fairburn, 2002),
• posttraumatic stress disorder (Bisson & Andrew, 2005; Bradley,
Greene, Russ, Dutra, & Westen, 2005; Chambless & Ollendick,
2001; Deacon & Abramowitz, 2004; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph,
1998; Foa, 2000; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005;
Sherman, 1998),
• schizophrenia (improvements in prosocial behaviors, social skills)
(Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; DeRubeis & Crits-Christoph, 1998;
Furukawa, 2001; Gould, Mueser, Bolton, Mays, & Goff, 2001; Jones,
Cormac, Silveira da Mota Neto, & Campell, 2004; Kopelowicz,
Liberman, & Zarate, 2002; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Pilling, Beb-
bington, Kuipers, Garety, Geddes, Martindale, Orbach, & Morgan,
2002; Pilling, Bebbington, Kuipers, Garety, Geddes, Orbach, &
Morgan, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005; Sensky, 2005; Tarrier &
Wykes, 2004).
• There is also evidence that cognitive-behavioral therapy added to
anti-psychotic pharmacotherapy significantly reduces positive symp-
toms of schizophrenia (Zimmermann, Favrod, Trieu, & Pomini,
2005). However, data concerning reduction of relapse by cognitive-
behavioral therapy are less conclusive (Jones et al., 2004).
Recent neuroimaging studies have demonstrated neural changes in
depressive and anxiety disorders after cognitive-behavioral and interper-
sonal therapy (Roffman, Marci, Glick, Dougherty, & Rauch, 2005).
Furthermore, there is evidence from a limited number of randomized,
controlled trials that cognitive-behavioral therapy is effective in the treat-
ment of the following mental disorders:
• generalized anxiety disorder (Barlow et al., 2002; Chambless &
Ollendick, 2001; Deacon & Abramowitz, 2004; DeRubeis & Crits-
Christoph, 1998; Gould, Otto, Pollak, & Yap, 1997; Heuzenroeder
et al., 2004; Nathan & Gorman, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2005),
• somatoform and chronic pain disorder (Malone, Strube, & Scogin,
1988; Morley, Eccleston, & Williams, 1999; Simon, 2002),
• borderline personality disorder (Bohus et al., 2004; Crits-Christoph
& Barber, 2002; Leichsenring & Leibing, 2003; Lieb, Zanarini,
Schmahl, Linehan, & Bohus, 2004; Linehan, Dimeff, Reynolds,
Comtois, Welch, Heagerty, & Kivlahan, 2002),
• alcohol abuse disordes (Finney & Moos, 2002),
• hypochondriasis (Barsky & Ahern, 2004; Simon, 2002),
243
• specific sleep disorders (Edinger, Wohlgemuth, Radtke, Marsh, &

Quillian, 2001; Nowell, Buysse, Morin, Reynolds, & Kupfer, 2002),
• bipolar disorders. In bipolar disorders CBT (and psychoeducation)
used as adjuncts to medication improve medication adherence,
mechanisms for coping, quality of life, and reduce relapses and
hospitalizations (Craighead, Miklowitz, Frabk & Vajk, 2002; Vieta &
Colom, 2004).
For the treatment of anorexia nervosa, however, evidence-based treat-
ments are scarce (Fairburn, 2005; Wilson & Fairburn, 2002).
There is also evidence from a limited number of randomized controlled
trials that behavioral or cognitive-behavioral methods are beneficial treat-
ments of specific conditions, such as:
• incontinence in women (Burgio, Locher, Goode, Hardin, McDowell,
Dombrowski, & Candid, 1998; Goode, Burgio, Locher, Roth, Um¬
lauf, Richter, Varner, & Lloyd, 2003),
• chronic fatigue syndrome (Whiting, Bagnall, Sowden, Cornell, Mul-
row, & Ramirez, 2001),
• fibromyalgia (Goldenberg, Burckhardt, & Crofford, 2004),
• arthritis. Cognitive-behavioral methods are reported to be beneficial
with regard to pain and functional outcomes in arthritis (Lin, Katon,
Von Korff, Tang, Williams, Kroenke, Hunkeler, Harpole, Hegel,
Arean, Hoffing, Delia Penna, Langston, & Unutzer, 2003; Mullen,
Laville, Biddle, & Lorig, 1987).
With regard to primary care, randomized controlled trials have shown
that the inclusion of behavior therapy improves the management of
late-life depression (Unützer et al., IMPACT Investigators, 2002; Lin et al.,
IMPACT Investigators, 2003). However, only limited improvements in-
duced by psychotherapy compared to antidepressant medication were
reported (Williams et al., 2000).
Another fertile area of research is the role of psychotherapy in the
adjunctive treatment of medical conditions, e.g. coronary infarction. How-
ever, the results reported for the ENRICHD trial (Enhancing Recovery in
Coronary Heart Disease) were less convincing than expected with regard
to cognitive-behavioral therapy (Berkman, Blumenthal, Burg, Carney,
Catellier, Cowan, Czajkowski, DeBusk, Hosking, Jaffe, Kaufmann, Mitch-
ell, Norman, Powell, Raczynski, & Schneiderman, 2003). The effect of
CBT on depression was modest, but there were no effect on reinfarction-
free survival after acute myocardial infarction. The methodologicalflawsof
this study were discussed elsewhere (Frasure-Smith & Lesperance, 2003,
Sheps, Freedland, Golden, & McMahon, 2003).
244
Apart from the available evidence for cognitive-behavioral therapy,

further studies of cognitive-behavioral therapy in specific psychiatric dis-
orders are required. For example, with regard to personality disorders,
only the treatment of borderline and avoidant personality disorders has
been studied (Alden, 1989; Bohus et al., 2004; Crits-Christoph & Barber,
2002; Leichsenring & Leibing, 2003; Lieb et al., 2004; Linehan et al.,
2002). For borderline personality disorder it has not yet been demon-
strated that changes in the core features of the personality disorder
(beyond parasuicidal behaviour and drug abuse as well as in general
symptom severity and social functioning) can be achieved by cognitive-
behavioral therapy (Bohus et al., 2004; Crits-Christoph & Barber, 2002;
Leichsenring & Leibing, 2003; Lieb et al, 2004; Linehan et al, 2002) only
one randomized controlled study of cognitive-behavioral therapy for
avoidant personality disorder presently exists (Alden, 1989). Thus, further
studies are required to form an evidence-based approach for the psycho-
therapeutic treatment of personality disorders (Livesley, 2005). Further-
more, even in depressive and anxiety disorders, the response rates of
cognitive-behavioral therapy are often not sufficiently high from a clinical
point of view, an aspect that will be taken up again in the discussion
section.
EVIDENCE FOR PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY
Clearly fewer efficacy studies exist for psychodynamic psychotherapy
compared to cognitive-behavioral therapy (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001;
Fonagy, Roth, & Higgitt, 2005; Leichsenring, 2005; Roth & Fonagy, 2005;
Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures,
1995). Nevertheless, randomized controlled trials of manual-guided psy-
chodynamic psychotherapy in specific mental disorders are available (Fon-
agy et al., 2005; Leichsenring, 2005). These studies provided some evi-
dence that psychodynamic psychotherapy is efficacious in the treatment of
the following:
• depressive disorders (Barkham, Rees, Shapiro, Stiles, Agnew, Hal-
stead, Culverwell, & Harrington, 1996; Gallagher-Thompson, Han-
ley-Peterson, & Thompson, 1990; Gallagher-Thompson & Steffen,
1994; Hersen, Himmelhoch, & Thas, 1984; Leichsenring, 2001;
Maina, Forner, & Bogetto, 2005; Shapiro, Barkham, Rees, Hardy,
Reynolds, & Startup, 1994; Shapiro, Rees, Barkham, & Hardy, 1995;
Thompson, Gallagher, & Steinmetz-Breckenridge, 1987),
• social phobia (Bögeis, Wijts, & Sallaerts, 2003),
245
• generalized anxiety disorder (Crits-Christoph, Connolly Gibbons,

Narducci, Schamberger, & Gallop, 2005),
• panic disorder (Milrod et al., in press),
• post traumatic stress disorder (Brom, Kleber, & Defares, 1989),
• borderline personality disorder (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999, 2001;
Clarkin, Levy, Lenzenweger, & Kernberg, 2004a,b; Munroe-Blum &
Marziali, 1995),
• DSM-IV Cluster C personality disorders (e.g. avoidant or obsessive-
compulsive personality disorder) (Svartberg, Stiles, & Seltzer, 2004),
• bulimia nervosa (Bachar, Latzer, Kreitler, & Berry, 1999; Fairburn,
Kirk, O'Connor, & Cooper, 1986; Fairburn, Norman, Welch,
O'Connor, Doll, & Peveler, 1995; Garner, Rockert, Davis, Garner,
Olmsted, & Eagle, 1993),
• anorexia nervosa (Dare, Eisler, Russel, Treasure, & Dodge, 2001;
Gowers, Norton, Halek, & Vrisp, 1994),
• somatoform disorders (Guthrie, Creed, Dawson, & Tomenson, 1991;
Hamilton, Guthrie, Creed, Thompson, Tomenson, Bennett, Mori-
arty, Stephens, & Liston, 2000; Monsen & Monsen, 2000; Svedlund,
Sjodin, Ottosson, & Dotevall, 1983),
• moderate alcohol dependence (Sandahl, Herlitz, Ahlin, & Ronnberg,
1998),
• opiate dependence (Woody, Luborsky, McLellan, & O'Brien, 1990,
1995).
In the two randomized controlled trials studying the treatment of
opiate dependence, psychodynamic psychotherapy added to drug coun-
seling was superior to drug counseling alone (Woody et al., 1990, 1995).
However, this does not apply to cocaine dependence: in a treatment study
of cocaine dependence, psychodynamic psychotherapy combined with
group drug counseling was as effective as cognitive-behavioral therapy
which was also combined with group drug counseling (Crits-Christoph et
al., 1999). However, both psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive-
behavioral therapy each combined with group drug counseling were not
more effective than group drug counseling alone, and they were both
inferior to individual drug counseling with regard to outcome measures
related to the extent of drug-use (Crits-Christoph et al., 1999).
In the studies listed above, duration of psychodynamic psychotherapy
ranged from 7 to 46 sessions except for two studies of borderline person-
ality disorder (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999, 2001; Clarkin et al., 2004a,b). In
these two studies, treatment duration was one year or 18 months, respec-
tively (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999, 2001; Clarkin et al., 2004a,b). Psychody-
246
namic psychotherapy of 24 sessions or less is usually regarded as short-

term psychotherapy (Gabbard, 2000, 2004). Eight of the studies listed
above refer to treatments continuing longer than 24 sessions, with treat-
ment duration ranging from 26 to 46 sessions (Bachar et al., 1999; Bògels
et al., 2003; Crits-Christoph et al., 1999; Monsen & Monsen, 2000;
Svartberg et al., 2004; Woody et al., 1990), respectively, with a treatment
duration of one year or 18 months (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999, 2001;
Clarkin et al., 2004a,b).
Some of the studies listed above included comparisons between psy-
chodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy. In most of
these studies, the two methods of treatment were reported as equally
effective (Barkham et al., 1996; Bògels et al., 2003; Brom et al., 1989;
Crits-Christoph et al., 1999; Gallagher-Thompson et al., 1990; Munroe-
Blum & Marziali, 1995; Sandahl et al., 1998; Thompson et al., 1987;
Svartberg et al., 2004; Woody et al., 1990). However, there were some
exceptions: in one study of depression treatment, both 8 and 16 sessions of
psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy were used
(Shapiro et al., 1994; Shapiro et al., 1995). While there were no differences
in outcome between the methods of treatment in the 16-session programs,
cognitive-behavioral therapy was shown to be superior to psychodynamic
psychotherapy in the 8-session programs, especially at one-year follow up
(Shapiro et al., 1994; Shapiro et al., 1995). In two studies of bulimia
nervosa, short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy was as effective as
cognitive-behavioral therapy in the central, disorder-specific outcome
measures (bulimic episodes, self-induced vomiting) (Fairburn et al., 1986;
Fairburn et al., 1995; Garner et al., 1993). Apart from that, cognitive-
behavioral therapy was superior to short-term psychodynamic psychother-
apy in some specific measures of psychopathology (Fairburn et al., 1986;
Garner et al., 1993). However, in a follow-up of the Fairburn et al. study
(1986) using a longer follow-up period, both forms of therapy proved to be
equally effective and were superior to a behavioral form of therapy in some
measures (Fairburn et al., 1995). Accordingly, for a valid evaluation of the
efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy in bulimia nervosa, longer-term
follow-up studies seem to be necessary. Furthermore, one of the studies
listed above reported psychodynamic psychotherapy to be superior to pure
cognitive therapy (Bachar et al., 1999). In a recent study by Milrod et al.
(in press), psychodynamic therapy was found to be superior to applied
relaxation training.
According to a recent meta-analysis, which applied rigorous inclusion
criteria (e.g. randomized controlled studies, manual-guided treatments,
247
reliable outcome measures), psychodynamic psychotherapy yielded large

and stable therapeutic effects that significantly exceeded those in the
no-treatment groups or treatment-as-usual groups (Leichsenring, Rabung
& Leibing, 2004). Furthermore, no differences in efficacy were found
between psychodynamic psychotherapy and other forms of psychotherapy
(Leichsenring et al., 2004). It can be shown that this is also true if
psychodynamic therapy is compared specifically to CBT: no differences in
effect sizes were found. Thus, in that meta-analysis, psychodynamic psy-
chotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy were found to be equally
effective in the treatment of specific mental disorders. However, this result
cannot be generalized to all mental disorders. For some mental disorders
no randomized controlled trials of psychodynamic psychotherapy are
presently available (e.g. for specific personality disorders such as narcis-
sistic personality disorder). As was noted above, for both cognitive-
behavioral therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy, it is necessary to
further refine treatments to improve the rates of treatment responders, e.g.
for eating disorders (Dare et al., 2001). Furthermore, in the studies
reported above, different models of psychodynamic psychotherapy were
used. There was not even one psychiatric disorder for which the same
model of psychodynamic psychotherapy was tested in two studies by
independent research groups (Leichsenring, 2005). The same result was
reported by the Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psycho-
logical Procedures of the Division 12 (Clinical Psychology) of the Amer-
ican Psychological Association 10 years ago (1995). It still holds true.
DISCUSSION
Cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic therapy are the most com-
monly used psychotherapeutic treatments of mental disorders in adults
(Goisman et al., 1999). There is evidence from randomized controlled
studies that cognitive-behavioral therapy is an efficacious treatment of
many mental disorders. Although cognitive-behavioral therapy yields ben-
eficial results in many mental disorders, the rates of positive outcomes for
treatment responders in specific disorders are not satisfactory, especially if
long-term outcome is considered. This is true for depressive disorders
(Davidson et al., 2004), and for some of the anxiety disorders, such as
social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder (Davidson et al., 2004;
Rodebaugh et al., 2004; Zaider & Heimberg, 2003). Thus, it remains
necessary to further improve psychotherapeutic techniques in order to
treat some patients more successfully. Furthermore, for many mental
disorders, data on long-term effects and maintenance of gain are not
248
available for psychotherapy and psychopharmacology (Eddy et al., 2004;

Gould, Buckminster, Pollak, Otto, & Yap, 1997).
For psychodynamic therapy, clearly, less efficacy studies are available
compared to cognitive-behavioral therapy. The available randomized con-
trolled trials have provided some evidence that psychodynamic psycho-
therapy is superior to control conditions (treatment-as-usual or waitlist),
and on the whole were as effective as already established treatments (e.g.
cognitive-behavioral therapy) for specific mental disorders. However, ev-
idence is limited for several reasons. For some psychiatric disorders, no
randomized controlled trials of psychodynamic psychotherapy exist at all
(e.g. for obsessive-compulsive disorder). Thus, the results provided by the
available studies cannot be generalized to psychiatric disorders in general.
Furthermore, in the available randomized controlled trials, different mod-
els of psychodynamic psychotherapy were applied (Leichsenring, 2005;
Leichsenring et al., 2004). Thus, it is not clear if the results yielded for one
model can be generalized to others. However, an interesting question for
future research will be if and how the "different" models of psychody-
namic psychotherapy "really" differ empirically: "Brand names of therapy
can be misleading" (Ablon & Jones, 2002, p. 775). Studies addressing this
problem are relevant for considering if (some of) the "different" models of
psychodynamic psychotherapy are close enough to be grouped together.
Ablon and Jones (2002) recently compared the cognitive-behavioral and
interpersonal therapies as they were performed in the NIMH treatment of
depression study (Elkin et al., 1989). According to the results, both forms
of therapy adhered most strongly to the ideal prototype of cognitive-
behavioral therapy. In addition, adherence to the cognitive-behavioral
therapy prototype yielded more positive correlations with outcome mea-
sures across both types of treatment. However, psychodynamic psycho-
therapy was not included in this comparison. Thus, it is not clear how
psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and interper-
sonal therapy empirically differ with regard to therapist behavior. Empir-
ically comparing prototypic sessions of different variants of psychody-
namic psychotherapy would be a very interesting and promising research
project. Other forms of therapy (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy) should
be included.
Most of the randomized controlled trials reported in this review refer
to short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy of 24 sessions or less. This is
also true for CBT. Only eight randomized controlled trials of longer-term
psychodynamic psychotherapy were included. Further research on long-
term psychodynamic psychotherapy is urgently needed.
249
The available randomized controlled trials that fulfilled rigorous inclu-

sion criteria provided some evidence that psychodynamic psychotherapy
and cognitive-behavioral therapy may be equally effective in the treatment
of specific mental disorders (Leichsenring et al, 2004). If further studies
and meta-analyses corroborate these results, the question arises if equiva-
lent outcome is achieved by common factors or by treatment-specific
mechanisms of change.
In this review, we have restricted ourselves to cognitive-behavioral
therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Interpersonal therapy (Kler-
man, Weissman, Rounsaville, & Chevron, 1984) is another form of psy-
chotherapy that is increasingly frequently used. Interpersonal therapy
focuses on the interpersonal problems associated with the patient's mental
symptoms (Klerman et al., 1984). Originally developed for the treatment of
depression (Elkin et al., 1989; Klerman et al., 1984; Weissman, Markowitz,
& Klerman, 2000), interpersonal therapy has been successfully applied, for
example, to the treatment of eating disorders (Fairburn et al., 1995; Agras,
Walsh, Fairbrun, Wilson, & Kraemer, 2000), or bipolar I disorders (Frank
et al., 2005). However, in the treatment of bulimia nervosa, interpersonal
therapy seems to be slower in achieving effects than cognitive-behavioral
therapy (Agras et al., 2000), and in the treatment of complicated grief, it
was less efficacious than a novel complicated grief treatment (Shear, Frank,
Houck, & Reynolds, 2005).
The evidence for psychotherapy reported above comes from random-
ized controlled trials, that is, from experimental settings. At present, it is
unknown if the treatments that proved to be effective in experimental
settings are equally effective in routine clinical practice. Research on that
has only just begun (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001). First results have
shown that in routine clinical practice patients did not profit from specific
methods of therapy to the same extent as was reported in the randomized
controlled trials. Furthermore, therapies were carried out for a longer time,
or that additional elements of therapy were added, e.g., psychopharmaco-
logical therapy (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001, p. 711). Usually, the
internal validity of well-controlled, randomized trials is high. However,
due to measures applied to ensure internal validity, their external validity
may be restricted (Rothwell, 2005). For this reason it is necessary to judge
if the treatments, patients, and settings of a specific, randomized controlled
trial are representative for the conditions of clinical practice (Rothwell,
2005). The less representative the patients, treatments, and settings of a
randomized controlled trial are, the less the results can be generalized from
experimental settings to clinical practice. For this reason, it may be
250
necessary to test if a method of psychotherapy that has been shown to

work under controlled experimental conditions equally works well in
routine clinical practice. The National Institute of Mental Health in the
United States has specifically called for more effectiveness research
(Krupnick et al., 1996). Patients in clinical practice are usually multimor¬
bid, i.e. they rarely suffer from an isolated mental disorder. For this reason,
the manual-guided treatments tested under the experimental conditions of
randomized controlled trials have to be adapted to the treatment of
multimorbid patients, i.e. to the treatment of patients with complex
psychiatric disorders. Future studies should also address the combination
of psychotherapy and medication including parallel and sequential com-
binations particularly in treatment resistant patients.
Furthermore, there is evidence from empirical studies that psychother-
apy is a cost-effective treatment of mental disorders (Creed et al., 2003;
Gabbard, Lazar, Hornberger, & Spiegel, 1997; Guthrie et al., 1999;
Heuzenroeder et al., 2004). However, further cost-effectiveness studies
comparing, for example, psychotherapy to pharmacotherapy are required
(Barrett, Byford, & Knapp, 2005).
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Drs. Stefan Vormfelde and Brian G . Dwinnell for their
helpful comments to an earlier draft of this paper.
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LITERATURE REVIEW

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and

FALK LEICHSENRING, D.Sc*

"Clinic of Tiefenbrunn and Clinic of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Goettingen,

and meta-analyses as well as the additionally identified studies using estab-

DEFINITION OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

Systematic The patient learns to gradually weaken anxious reactions by exposing

Exposure/ response The patient is repeatedly confronted with an anxiety- or stress-

Relaxation Techniques, such as progressive muscle relaxation, are taught and

Cognitive modification Techniques such as identification of maladaptive automatic thoughts

Assertiveness training Patients learn and practice behavioral techniques to manage

Stress management A combination of strategies to reduce tension and distress, re-

Problem solving The process of problem identification, description, goal definition,

on patient comorbidity, defined treatment goals, and the specific condi-

insurance, but the treatment must be applied for and an independent

Encouragement Empathie Advice

psychodynamic interventions is empirically based on the data of the

Table I I I . CONCEPTS OF P S Y C H O D Y N A M I C PSYCHOTHERAPY (GABBARD,

Interpretation The most interpretive form of intervention: Making something conscious

Confrontation Drawing the patients' attention to a psychic phenomenon, e.g. "You

Clarification Asking the patient to describe a phenomenon more in detail.

Abstinence Withholding gratification of (certain) transference wishes, referring

Neutrality Non-judgmental stance regarding the patient's behaviors, wishes or

Transference Repetition of past experiences in present object relations, but also

Counter- The therapist's emotional responses to the patient, which may be

Regression Shift to less mature (autobiographically earlier) modes of psychological

functions (Blanck & Blanck, 1974; Gill, 1951; Luborsky, 1984;

Luborsky, 1984; Piper, McCallum, Joyce, & Ogrodniczuk, 2001; Shapiro,

dowski, Gebing, Anthony, & O'Brien, 1997; Nathan & Gorman,

• specific sleep disorders (Edinger, Wohlgemuth, Radtke, Marsh, &

Apart from the available evidence for cognitive-behavioral therapy,

• generalized anxiety disorder (Crits-Christoph, Connolly Gibbons,

namic psychotherapy of 24 sessions or less is usually regarded as short-

reliable outcome measures), psychodynamic psychotherapy yielded large

available for psychotherapy and psychopharmacology (Eddy et al., 2004;

The available randomized controlled trials that fulfilled rigorous inclu-

necessary to test if a method of psychotherapy that has been shown to

borderline personality disorder: rationale, methods, and patient characteristics, journal of

263-276). New York: Oxford University Press.

York: Oxford University Press.

Oxford University Press.

New York: Oxford University Press.

467-508). New York: Wiley.

New York: Oxford University Press.

the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research

ed. New York: Guilford.

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