51423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data model — Pytron 3.17.3 documentation @ fans | [a Go 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types Objects are Python's abstraction for data. All data in a Python program is represented by objects or by relations between objects. (In a sense, and in conformance to Von Neumann's model of a “stored program computer’, code is also represented by objects.) Every object has an identity, a type and a value. An object's identity never changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object's address in memory. The ‘is’ operator compares the identity of two objects; the id() function retums an integer representing its identity CPython implementation detail: For CPython, id(x) is the memory address where x is stored An object's type determines the operations that the object supports (¢.g., “does it have a length?”) and also defines the possible values for objects of that type. The type() function retums an object's type (which is an object itself). Like its identity, an object’s type is also unchangeable. [1] The value of some objects can change. Objects whose value can change are said to be mutable; objects whose value is unchangeable once they are created are called immutable, (The value of an immutable container object, that contains a reference to a mutable object can change when the lalter’s value is changed; however the container is still considered immutable, because the collection of objects it contains cannot be changed. So, immutability is not strictly the same as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.) An object's mutability is determined by its type; for instance, numbers, strings and tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and lists are mutable. Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become unreachable they may be garbage-collected. An implementation is allowed to postpone garbage collection or omit it altogether — it is a matter of implementation quality how garbage collection is implemented, as long as no objects are collected that are still reachable. Python implementation detail: CPython currently uses a reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed detection of cyclically linked garbage, which collects most objects as soon as they become unreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage containing circular references. See the documentation of the gc module for information on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage. Other implementations act differently and CPython may change. Do not depend on immediate finalization of objects when they become unreachable (so you should always close files explicitly) Note that the use of the implementation’s tracing or debugging facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable. Also note that catching an exception with a ‘try...except statement may keep objects alive. ‘Some objects contain references to “external” resources such as open files or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed when the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to release the external resource, usually a close() method Programs are strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects. The ‘try... finaly’ statement and the ‘with’ statement provide convenient ways to do this. hitps:does.python.org/Sireferenceldatamedel him! v751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q of a container, we imply the values, not the identities of the contained objects; however, when we talk about the mutability of a container, only the identities of the immediately contained objects are implied. So, if an immutable container (like a tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes if that mutable object is changed Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior. Even the importance of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types, operations that compute new values may actually retum a reference to any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed. E.g.,aftera = 1; b = 1a and b may or may not refer to the same object with the value one, depending on the implementation, but after ¢ (1; d = (1, c and d are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly created empty lists. (Note that ¢ = 4 = [] assigns the same object to both ¢ and d.) 3.2. The standard type hierarchy Below is a list of the types that are built into Python. Extension modules (written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the implementation) can define additional types. Future versions of Python may add types to the type hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers, efficiently stored arrays of integers, etc.), although such additions will often be provided via the standard library instead. ‘Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing ‘special attributes.’ These are attributes that provide access to the implementation and are not intended for general use. Their definition may change in the future. None This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value. This object is accessed through the bu in name None. It is used to signify the absence of a value in many situations, e.g., itis returned from functions that don't explicitly return anything. Its truth value is false, Notimplemented This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value. This object is accessed through the bul in name NotImplemented. Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should retum this value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided. (The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other fallback, depending on the operator.) It should not be evaluated in a boolean context, See Implementing the arithmetic operations for more details. Changed in version 3.9: Evaluating NotImpLemented in a boolean context is deprecated. While it currently evaluates as true, it will emit a Deprecationllarning. It will raise a TypeError ina future version of Python. Ellipsis This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value. This object is accessed through the literal . .. or the builtin name ELLipsis. Its truth value is true. nunbers .Nunber These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by arithmetic operators and arithmetic builtin functions. Numeric objects are immutable; once created their value never changes. Python numbers are of course strongly related to mathematical numbers, but subject to the limitations of numerical representation in computers, hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 297s1e29, 1.00 2. Data model —Pytnon 34.3 documentation 2 a + They are valid numeric literals which, when passed to their class constructor, produce an object having the value of the original numeric. + The representation is in base 10, when possible. + Leading zeros, possibly excepting a single zero before a decimal point, are not shown. + Trailing zeros, possibly excepting a single zero after a decimal point, are not shown, + Assign is shown only when the number is negative Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and complex numbers: numbers. Integral ‘These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers (positive and negative), There are two types of integers: Integers (int) ‘These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available (virtual) memory only. For the purpose of shift and mask operations, a binary representation is assumed, and negative numbers are represented in a variant of 2's complement which gives the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits extending to the left, Booleans (bool) These represent the truth values False and True. The two objects representing the values False and True are the only Boolean objects. The Boolean type is a subtype of the integer type, and Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1, respectively, in almost all contexts, the exception being that when converted to a string, the strings "False" or "True" are returned, respectively. The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most meaningful interpretation of shift and mask operations involving negative integers. numbers Real (float) ‘These represent machine-level double precision floating point numbers. You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow. Python does not support single-precision floating point numbers; the savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of floating point numbers. numbers .Complex (complex) These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double precision floating point numbers. The same caveats apply as for floating point numbers. The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z can be retrieved through the read-only attributes z.real and z.imag Sequences These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers. The built-in function Len() returns the number of items of a sequence. When the length of a sequence is n, the index set contains the numbers 0, 1, -.. 1-1, Item i of sequence a is selected by ali]. ‘Sequences also support slicing: a[i:3] selects all items with index k such that j <= k < j. When used as an expression, a slice is a sequence of the same type. This implies that the index set is renumbered so that it starts at 0. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html ai97s1e29, 1.00 2. Data model —Pytnon 34.3 documentation 2 a ‘Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability Immutable sequences ‘An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is created. (If the object contains references to other objects, these other objects may be mutable and may be changed; however, the collection of objects directly referenced by an immutable object cannot change.) The following types are immutable sequences: Strings Astring is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code points. All the code points in the range +9900 - U+1OFFFF can be represented in a string, Python doesn’t have a char type; instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string object with length 1, The builtin function ord() converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the range © - 16FFFF; chr) converts an integer in the range © - 16FFFF to the corresponding length 1 string object. str.encode() can be used to convert a str to bytes using the given text encoding, and bytes.decode() can be used to achieve the opposite. Tuples The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects. Tuples of two or more items are formed by ‘comma-separated lists of expressions. A tuple of one item (a ‘singleton’) can be formed by affixing a ‘comma to an expression (an expression by itself does not create a tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of expressions), An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of parentheses. Bytes Abytes object is an immutable array. The items are 8-bit bytes, represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256, Bytes literals (ike b*abc') and the built-in bytes () constructor can be used to create bytes objects. Also, bytes objects can be decoded to strings via the decode) method. Mutable sequences Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created. The subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of assignment and del (delete) statements. There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types: Lists The items of alist are arbitrary Python objects. Lists are formed by placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square brackets. (Note that there are no special cases needed to form lists of length 0 or 1.) Byte Arrays Abytearray object is a mutable array. They are created by the built-in bytearray() constructor. Aside from being mutable (and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide the same interface and functionality as immutable bytes objects. The extension module array provides an additional example of a mutable sequence type, as does the collections module. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 413751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q subscript. However, they can be iterated over, and the builtin function Len() retums the number of items in a set. Common uses for sets are fast membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and fersection, union, difference, and symmetric difference. ‘computing mathematical operations such as For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary keys. Note that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., 1 and 1.9), only one of them can be contained in a set. There are currently two intrinsic set types: Sets ‘These represent a mutable set, They are created by the built-in set() constructor and can be modified afterwards by several methods, such as add() Frozen sets These represent an immutable set. They are created by the built-in frozenset() constructor. As a frozenset is immutable and hashable, it can be used again as an element of another set, or as a dictionary key. Mappings These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets. The subscript notation afk] selects the item indexed by k from the mapping a; this can be used in expressions and as the target of assignments or del statements. The builtin function Len() returns the number of items in a mapping There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type: Dictionaries These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary values. The only types of values not acceptable as keys are values containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable types that are compared by value rather than by object identity, the reason being that the efficient implementation of dictionaries requires a key's hash value to remain constant. Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: iftwo numbers compare equal (e.g., 1 and 1.0) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry. Dictionaries preserve insertion order, meaning that keys will be produced in the same order they were added sequentially over the dictionary. Replacing an existing key does not change the order, however removing a key and re-inserting it will add it to the end instead of keeping its old place Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the {.. .} notation (see section Dictionary displays). The extension modules dbm.ndbm and dbm.gnu provide additional examples of mapping types, as does the collections module. Changed in version 3.7: Dictionaries did not preserve insertion order in versions of Python before 3.6. In Python 3.6, insertion order was preserved, but it was considered an implementation detail at that time rather than a language guarantee. Callable types ‘These are the types to which the function call operation (see section Calls) can be applied: User-defined functions hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 89751423, 1:00 PM. 2 parameter list Q ‘Special attributes: Attribute doc. name. —-qualname__ —-moduLe__ —-defaults__ —-code__ —-globals__ —-dict__ —-closure__ ~-annotations__ —-kudefaults__ Most of the attributes labelled “Writabl 3. Data model — Pytron 3.17.3 documentation Meaning The function's documentation string, or None if unavailable; not inherited by subclasses. The function's name. The function's qualified name. New in version 3.3. The name of the module the function was defined in, or None if unavailable, tuple containing default argument values for those arguments that have defaults, or None if no arguments have a default value. The code object representing the compiled function body. Areference to the dictionary that holds the function's global variables — the global namespace of the module in which the function was defined. The namespace supporting arbitrary function attributes. None or a tuple of cells that contain bindings for the function's free variables. See below for information on the celt_contents attribute. dict containing annotations of parameters. The keys of the dict are the parameter names, and ‘return’ for the retum annotation, if provided, For more information Con working with this attribute, see Annotations Best Practices. ‘dict containing defaults for keyword-only parameters. check the type of the assigned value. Writable Writable Writable Writable Writable Writable Read-only Writable Read-only Writable Writable Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes, which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions. Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes. Note hitps:does.python.org/Sirferenceldatamedel hin! ea7s1e29, 1.00 2. ata model — Python 341.3 documentation 2 a Acell object has the attribute cell_contents. This can be used to get the value of the cell, as well as set the value. ‘Additional information about a function's definition can be retrieved from its code object; see the description of internal types below. The cell type can be accessed in the types module. Instance methods ‘An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any callable object (normally a user- defined function). Special read-only attributes: __se1__ is the class instance object, is the function object; doc__ is the method's documentation (same as __func__.__doc__); __name__ is the method name (same as __func__.__name__); __module__ is the name of the module the method was defined in, or None if unavailable. Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function attributes on the underlying function object. User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a user-defined function object or a class method object. When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-defined function object from a class via one of its instances, its __seLf__ attribute is the instance, and the method object is said to be bound. ‘The new method's __func__ attribute is the original function object. When an instance method object is created by retrieving a class method object from a class or instance, its __se1#__ attribute is the class itself, and its __func__ attribute is the function object underlying the class method. When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (__func__.) is called, inserting the class instance (__seL#__.) in front of the argument list. For instance, when C is a class which contains a definition for a function #(), and x is an instance of C, calling x.#(1) is equivalent to calling C.FCx, vd When an instance method object is derived from a class method object, the “class instance” stored in seLf__ will actually be the class itself, so that calling either x.#(1) or C. (1) is equivalent to calling (C, 1) where F is the underlying function Note that the transformation from function object to instance method object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from the instance. In some cases, a fruitful optimization is to assign the attribute to a local variable and call that local variable. Also notice that this transformation only happens for user- defined functions; other callable objects (and all non-callable objects) are retrieved without transformation. It is also important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this only happens when the function is an attribute of the class. Generator functions function or method which uses the yield statement (see section The yield statement) is called a generator function. Such a function, when called, always retums an iterator object which can be used to execute the body of the function: calling the iterator’s iterator. __next__() method will cause the hitps:does.python.org/Sirferenceldatamedel hin! 3751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q reached the end of the set of values to be returned, Coroutine functions function or method which is defined using async def is called a coroutine function, Such a function, when called, returns a coroutine object. It may contain await expressions, as well as async with and async for statements. See also the Coroutine Objects section Asynchronous generator functions ‘A function or method which is defined using async def and which uses the yield statement is called a asynchronous generator function. Such a function, when called, returns an asynchronous iterator object Which can be used in an async for statement to execute the body of the function. Calling the asynchronous iterator’s aiterator.__anext__ method will return an awaltable which when awaited will execute unti it provides a value using the yield expression. When the function executes an empty return statement or falls off the end, a StopAsyncIteration exception is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be yielded. Built-in functions builtin function object is a wrapper around a C function, Examples of built-in functions are Len() and math. sin() (math is a standard built-in module). The number and type of the arguments are determined by the C function. Special read-only attributes: __doc__ is the function's documentation string, or None if unavailable; __name__ is the function's name; __seL#__ is set to None (but see the the name of the module the function was defined in or None if unavailable. Built-in methods This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time containing an abject passed to the C function as an implicit extra argument. An example of a built-in method is alist .append(, assuming alistis a list object. In this case, the special read-only attribute __seL__ is set to the object denoted by alist Classes Classes are callable. These objects normally act as factories for new instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types that override __new__(). The arguments of the call are passed to new__© and, in the typical case, to __init__() to initialize the new instance. Class Instances Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a __calL__() method in their class. Modules Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by the import system as invoked either by the import statement, o by calling functions such as import1ib.import_module() and builtin __import__(. A module object has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the __globals__ attribute of functions defined in the module). Attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., m.x is equivalent to m.__dict__["x"]. A module object does not contain the code object used to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization is done), Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, ¢.g., m.x = 1 is equivalent to m.__dict__["x"] = 1 Predefined (writable) attributes: hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html a7s1e29, 1.00 2. Data model —Pytnon 34.3 documentation 2 a The module's name. doc__ ‘The module's documentation string, or None if unavailable. file The pathname of the file from which the module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The _fille__ attribute may be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter. For extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library, 's the pathname of the shared library fle. annotations__ Adietionary containing variable annotations collected during module body execution. For best practices on working with __annotations__, please see Annotations Best Practices, Special read-only attribute: __dict__ is the module’s namespace as a dictionary object. Python implementation detail: Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the dictionary stil has live references. To avoid this, copy the dictionary or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly. Custom classes Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section Class definitions). A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object. Class attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., C.x is translated to C.__dict__["x"] (although there are a number of hooks which allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes. This search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which behaves correctly even in the presence of ‘diamond’ inheritance structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor. Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found in the documentation accompanying the 2.3 release at https://www python orgidownload/releases/2.3/mrol. When a class attribute reference (for class C, say) would yield a class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose __self__ attribute is C. When it would yield a static method object, it is transformed into the object wrapped by the static method object. See section Implementing Descriptors for another way in which attributes retrieved from a class may differ from those actually contained in its dict Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the dictionary of a base class. Aciass object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see below). Special attributes: name. The class name, module__ ‘The name of the module in which the class was defined. dict. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 93751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q pases__ tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the base class list. doc__ The class's documentation string, or None if undefined, annotations . A dictionary containing variable annotations collected during class body execution. For best practices ‘on working with __annotations__, please see Annotations Best Practices. Class instances Acclass instance is created by calling a class object (see above). A class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the first place in which attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found there, and the instance’s class has an attribute by that name, the search continues with the class attributes. If a class attribute is found that is @ user-defined function object, itis transformed into an instance method object whose __se1f__ attribute is the instance. Static method and class method objects are also transformed; see above under “Classes”, See section Implementing Descriptors for another way in which attributes of a class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored in the class's, __dict__. Ifno class attribute is found, and the object's class has a __getattr__() method, that is called to satisfy the lookup. Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance’s dictionary, never a class's dictionary. If the class has a __setattr__() or __deLattr__() method, this is called instead of updating the instance dictionary directly. Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if they have methods with certain special names. See section Special method names. Special attributes: __dict__ is the attribute dictionary; __class__ is the instance's class. VO objects (also known as file objects) Ale object represents an open file. Various shortcuts are available to create fle objects: the open) bulltin funetion, and also os. popenC), os.fdopen(), and the makefile() method of socket objects (and perhaps by other functions or methods provided by extension modules). The objects sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr are initialized to file objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard input, output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and therefore follow the interface defined by the io. Text 10Base abstract olass. Internal types A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user. Their definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter, but they are mentioned here for completeness. Code objects Code objects represent byte-compiled executable Python code, or bytecode. The difference between a code object and a function object is that the function object contains an explicit reference to the function's globals (the module in which it was defined), while a code object contains no context; also the default argument values are stored in the function object, not in the code object (because they represent values calculated at run-time). Unlike function objects, code objects are immutable and contain no references (directly or indirectly) to mutable objects. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 1019751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data model — Pytron 3.17.3 documentation @ Q arguments and arguments with default values); co_posonlyargcount is the number of positional-only arguments (including arguments with default values); co_kwonlyargcount is the number of keyword- only arguments (including arguments with default values); co_nLocals is the number of local variables used by the function (including arguments); co_varnames is a tuple containing the names of the local variables (starting with the argument names); co_ceLlvars is a tuple containing the names of local variables that are referenced by nested functions; co_freevar's is a tuple containing the names of free variables; co_code is a string representing the sequence of bytecode instructions; co_consts is a tuple containing the literals used by the bytecode; co_names is a tuple containing the names used by the bytecode; co_filename is the filename from which the code was compiled; co_firstlineno is the first line number of the function; co_Lnotab is a string encoding the mapping from bytecode offsets to line numbers (for details see the source code of the interpreter); co_stacksiize is the required stack size; co_flags is an integer encoding a number of flags for the interpreter. The following flag bits are defined for co_flags: bit ©x0U is set if the function uses the «arguments, syntax to accept an arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit 6x88 is set if the function uses the ‘stkeywords syntax to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit 6x20 is set if the function is a generator. Future feature declarations (from __future__ import division) also use bits in co_flags to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled: bit 62600 is set if the function was compiled with future division enabled; bits x10 and 6x1080 were used in earlier versions of Python, Other in co_flags are reserved for internal use. If a code object represents a fun function, or None if undefined n, the first item in co_consts is the documentation string of the codeobject.co_positions() Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each bytecode instruction in the code object. The iterator returns tuples containing the (start_line, end_line, start_column, end_colunn). The i+th tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled to the /-th instruction. Column information is O-indexed ut-8 byte offsets on the given source line. This positional information can be missing. A non-exhaustive lists of cases where this may happen: + Running the interpreter with -X no_debug_ranges. + Loading a pyc file compiled while using -x no_debug_ranges. + Position tuples corresponding to artificial instructions. + Line and column numbers that can't be represented due to implementation specific limitations. When this occurs, some or all of the tuple elements can be None. ‘New in version 3.11. Note: This feature requires storing column positions in code objects which may result in a small increase of disk usage of compiled Python files or interpreter memory usage. To avoid storing the extra information and/or deactivate printing the extra traceback information, the -X no_debug_ranges command line flag or the PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES environment variable can be used. hitps:does.python.org/Sireferenceldatamedel him! wars1e29, 1.00 2. Data model —Pytnon 34.3 documentation 2 a Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback objects (see below), and are also passed to registered trace functions, ‘Special read-only attributes: f_back is to the previous stack frame (towards the caller), or None if this is the bottom stack frame; #_code is the code object being executed in this frame; #_Locals is the dictionary used to look up local variables; #_gLobals is used for global variables; f_builtins is used for builtin (intrinsic) names; £_Lasti gives the precise instruction (this is an index into the bytecode string of the code object). Accessing #_code raises an auditing event object. __getattr__ with arguments obj and "#_code" Special writable attributes: £_trace, if not None, is a function called for various events during code execution (this is used by the debugger). Normally an event is triggered for each new source line - this, can be disabled by setting #_trace_Lines to False Implementations may allow per-opcode events to be requested by setting #_trace_opcodes to True. Note that this may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if exceptions raised by the trace function escape to the function being traced, #_lLineno is the current line number of the frame — writing to this from within a trace function jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most frame). A debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement) by writing to {_lineno, Frame objects support one method: frame.clear() This method clears all references to local variables held by the frame. Also, if the frame belonged to a generator, the generator is finalized. This helps break reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching an exception and storing its traceback for later use). RuntimeError is raised if the frame is currently executing, New in version 3.4. Traceback objects Traceback objects represent a stack trace of an exception. A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception accurs, and may also be explicitly created by calling types. TracebackType. For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current traceback. When an ‘exception handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program, (See section The try statement.) Itis accessible as the third item of the tuple returned by sys.exc_info(), and as the traceback__ attribute of the caught exception When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; ifthe interpreter is interactive, itis also made available to the user as sys. last_traceback For explicitly created tracebacks, itis up to the creator of the traceback to determine how the tb_next attributes should be linked to form a full stack trace. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html va9751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the ‘exception occurred in a try statement with no matching except clause or with a finally clause, Accessing tb_frame raises an auditing event object.__getattr__ with arguments obj and "tb_frame" Special writable attribute: tb_next is the next level in the stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or None if there is no next level. Changed in version 3.7; Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated from Python code, and the ‘tb_next attribute of existing instances can be updated. Slice objects Slice objects are used to represent slices for __getitem. builtin sLiceC) function. © methods. They are also created by the Special read-only attributes: start is the lower bound; stop is the upper bound; step is the step value; each is None if omitted. These attributes can have any type. Slice objects support one method: slice.indices(self, length) This method takes a single integer argument /ength and computes information about the slice that the slice object would deseribe if applied to a sequence of length items. It returns a tuple of three integers; respectively these are the start and stop indices and the step or stride length of the slice. Missing or out-of-bounds indices are handled in a manner consistent with regular slices. Static method objects Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of function objects to method objects described above. A static method object is a wrapper around any other object, usually a user- defined method object. When a static method object is retrieved from a class or a class instance, the object actually retumed is the wrapped object, which is not subject to any further transformation. Static method objects are also callable. Static method objects are created by the built-in statiicmethod() constructor. Class method objects. Aclass method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved from classes and class instances. The behaviour of class method objects upon such retrieval is described above, under “User-defined methods". Class method objects are created by the built-in cLassmethod() constructor. 3.3. Special method names ‘Aclass can implement certain operations that are invoked by special syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by defining methods with special names. This is Python's approach to operator overtoading, allowing classes to define their own behavior with respect to language operators. For instance, if a class defines a method named __getitem__(), and x is an instance of this class, then x[i] is roughly equivalent to type(x).__getitem__(x, i). Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically AttributeError or TypeError). hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 1309751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q TypeError (without falling back to __getitem__()). (2) When implementing a class that emulates any builtin type, it is important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the object being modelled, For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense. (One example of this is the NodeList interface in the W3C's Document Object Model.) 3.3.1. Basic customization object.__new_(cls[, ...]) Called to create a new instance of class cls. __new__() is a static method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such) that takes the class of which an instance was requested as its first argument. The remaining arguments are those passed to the object constructor expression (the call to the class). The return value of __new__© should be the new object instance (usually an instance of cls). Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking the superclass's __new__C) method using super().__new__(clsL, ...]) with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning it. If __new__©) is invoked during object construction and it retums an instance of cls, then the new instance’s, _—init__© method will be invoked like __init__(seLfL, ...1), where seifis the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were passed to the object constructor. If __new__( does not return an instance of cls, then the new instance’s __init__() method will not be invoked. -_newt__0) is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation. It is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in order to customize class creation, object._init_(setf[, ...]) Called after the instance has been created (by __new__()), but before itis returned to the caller, The arguments are those passed to the class constructor expression. Ifa base class has an __init__() method, the derived class's __init__() method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper initialization of the base class part of the instance; for example: super().__init__(Largs...1) Because __new__() and __init__() work together in constructing objects (__new__() to create it, and _—init__ to customize it), no non-None value may be returned by __init__(); doing so will cause a TypeError to be raised at runtime. object.__del__(setf) Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also called a finalizer or (improperty) a destructor. Ifa base class has a __del__() method, the derived class's __del__() method, it any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class part of the instance. Itis possible (though not recommended!) for the __del__C) method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new reference to it. This is called object resurrection. It is implementation-dependent whether __de1__O is called a second time when a resurrected object is about to be destroyed; the current CPython implementation only calls it once. Itis not guaranteed that __del__() methods are called for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits. hnps:idocs python oraSireferenceldatamedel html ais751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation CPython implementation detail: It is possible for a reference cycle to prevent the reference count of an object from going to zero. In this case, the cycle will be later detected and deleted by the cyclic garbage collector. A common cause of reference cycles is when an exception has been caught in a local variable. The frame's locals then reference the exception, which references its own traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught in the traceback. See also: Documentation for the gc module, Wan Due to the precarious circumstances under which __de1__() methods are invoked, ‘exceptions that occur during their execution are ignored, and a warning is printed to sys.stderr instead. In particular: (© can be invoked when arbitrary code is being executed, including from any arbitrary thread. © needs to take a lock or invoke any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as the resource may already be taken by the code that gets interrupted to execute __del__ + __del__O can be executed during interpreter shutdown. As a consequence, the global variables it needs to access (including other modules) may already have been deleted or set to None. Python ‘guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single underscore are deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; if no other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring that imported modules are stil available at the time when the __del__() method is called. object.__repr_(self) Called by the reprC) built-in function to compute the “official string representation of an object. If at all possible, this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate environment). if this is not possible, a string of the form <.. .some useful description. . .> should be retumed. The retum value must be a string object. Ifa class defines __epr__© but not __str__, then __vepr__() is also used when an “informal” string representation of instances of that class is required This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation is informationerich and unambiguous. object.__str__(setf) Called by str object) and the builtin functions format () and print() to compute the “informal” or nicely printable string representation of an object. The return value must be a string object. str__( return a valid This method differs from object .._repr__() in that there is no expectation that Python expression: a more convenient or concise representation can be used The default implementation defined by the built-in type object calls object. __repr__() object._bytes__ (self) Called by bytes to compute a byte-string representation of an object. This should retum a bytes object. object.__format__(self, format_spec) Called by the format() builtin function, and by extension, evaluation of formatted string literals and the str. format() method, to produce a “formatted” string representation of an object. The format_spec hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 189751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or use a similar formatting option syntax. See Format Specification Mini-Language for a description of the standard formatting syntax. The return value must be a string object, Changed in version 3.4: The __format__method of object itself raises a TypeError if passed any non- cemply string, Changed in version 3.7: object.__format__(x, '') is now equivalent to str(x) rather than format(str(x), 1") object.__It_(self, other) object._le (self, other) object._eq_(self, other) object._ne__(setf, other) object._gt_(setf, other) object.__ge_(self, other) These are the so-called “rich comparison” methods. The correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as follows: xy calls x.__gt__Cy), and x>=y calls x.__ge__(y) Arich comparison method may return the singleton Not ImpLemented if it does not implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. By convention, False and True are retumed for a successful comparison. However, these methods can return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a Boolean context (e.g. in the condition of an if statement), Python will call bool) on the value to determine if the result is true or false. By default, object implements __eq__() by using is, retuming Not Implemented in the case of a false comparison: True if x is y else NotImplemented, For __ne__(), by default it delegates to £9... and inverts the result unless it is NotImpLemented. There are no other implied relationships among the comparison operators or default implementations; for example, the truth of (x.__hash__ Ifa class that does not override __eq__C) wishes to suppress hash support, it should include __hash__ = None in the class definition. A class which defines its own __hash__() that explicitly raises a TypeError would be incorrectly identified as hashable by an isinstance(obj, collections abc.Hashable) call Note: By default, the __hash__( values of str and bytes objects are “salted” with an unpredictable random value. Although they remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that ‘exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion, O(n) complexity. See http:/ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details. Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets. Python has never made guarantees about this ordering (and it typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds) See also PYTHONHASHSEED Changed in version 3.3: Hash randomization is enabled by default. object.__bool__(setf) Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation bool); should return False or True. When this method is not defined, __Len__C) is called, iit is defined, and the object is considered true ifits hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html wis51423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of attribute access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of x.name) for class instances. object.__getattr__(self, name) Called when the default attribute access fails with an AttributeError (either __getattribute__() raises an AttributeError because name is not an instance attribute or an attribute in the class tree for seL#; or get. of a name property raises AttributeError), This method should either return the (computed) attribute value or raise an AttributeError exception. Note that ifthe attribute is found through the normal mechanism, __getattr__() is not called. (This is an intentional asymmetry between __getattr__() and __setattr__().) This is done both for efficiency reasons and because otherwise __getattr__() would have no way to access other attributes of the instance, Note that at least for instance variables, you can fake total control by not inserting any values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting them in another object). See the __getattribute__() method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute access. object._getattribute_(self, name) Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for instances of the class. Ifthe class also defines __getattr__(), the latter will not be called unless __getattribute__() either calls it explicitly or raises an AttributeError. This method should retum the (computed) attribute value or raise an AttributeError exception. In order to avoid infinite recursion in this method, its implementation should always call the base class method with the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example, object.__getattribute__(self, name) Note: This method may stil be bypassed when looking up special methods as the result of implicit invocation via language syntax or built-in functions. See Special method lookup. For certain sensitive attribute accesses, raises an auditing event object._-getattr__ with arguments obj and name. object.__setattr_(self, name, value) Called when an attribute assignment is attempted. This is called instead of the normal mechanism (i.e. store the value in the instance dictionary), name is the attribute name, value is the value to be assigned to it if _setattr__() wants to assign to an instance attribute, it should call the base class method with the same name, for example, object.._setattr__(self, name, value) For certain sensitive attribute assignments, raises an auditing event object.__setattr__ with arguments obj, name, value object._delattr__(self, name) Like __setattr__() but for attribute deletion instead of assignment. This should only be implemented if de. obj .name is meaningful for the object. For certain sensitive attribute deletions, raises an auditing event object .__delattr__ with arguments obj and name. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 189751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q sequence to a list and sorts it. 3.3.2.1, Customizing module attribute access Special names __getattr__ and __dir__ can be also used to customize access to module attributes. The getattr__ function at the module level should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and retum the computed value or raise an AttributeError. If an attribute is not found on a module object through the normal lookup, i.e, object.._getattribute__(), then __getattr__ is searched in the module __dict__ before raising an AttributeError. If found, itis called with the attribute name and the result is returned The __dir__ function should accept no arguments, and return a sequence of strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this function overrides the standard d:ir() search on a module. For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the class__ attribute of a module object to a subclass of types .ModuLeType. For example: import sys from types import ModuleType class VerboseModule(ModuleType): def __repr__(self): return f'Verbose {self.__name__}! def __setattr_(self, attr, value): print(f'Setting {attr}...') super().__setattr__(attr, value) sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule Note: Defining module __getattr__ and setting module __cLass__ only affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax — directly accessing the module globals (whether by code within the module, or via a reference to the module's globals dictionary) is unaffected. Changed in version 3.5: __class__ module attribute is now writable, New in version 3.7: __getattr__ and __dir__ module attributes. See also: PEP 562-Module __getattr__and_ Describes the __getattr. dir__ functions on modules. 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors The following methods only apply when an instance of the class containing the method (a so-called descriptor class) appears in an owner class (the descriptor must be in either the owner's class dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents). In the examples below, “the attribute" refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner class’ __dict__ object._get__(self, instance, owner=None) hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 1919751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q attribute was accessed through, or None when the altribute is accessed through the owner. This method should retum the computed attribute value or raise an AttributeError exception PEP 252 specifies that __get__() is callable with one or two arguments. Python's own buittin descriptors support this specification; however, itis likely that some third-party tools have descriptors that require both arguments, Python's own __getattribute__() implementation always passes in both arguments whether they are required or not. object.__set_(self, instance, value) Called to set the attribute on an instance instance of the owner class to a new value, value. Note, adding __set__() or __delete. Invoking Descriptors for more details. © changes the kind of descriptor to a “data descriptor’. See object._delete_(self, instance) Called to delete the attribute on an instance instance of the owner class. The attribute __objclass__ is interpreted by the inspect module as specifying the class where this object was defined (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of dynamic class attributes). For callables, it may indicate that an instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C). 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with "binding behavior", one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor protocol: __get__(), __set__(), and __deLete__(). If any of those methods are defined for an object, its said to be a descriptor. The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the attribute from an object's dictionary. For instance, a.x has a lookup chain starting with a.__dict__[*x'], then type(a).__dict__['x"J, and continuing through the base classes of type(a) excluding metaclasses. However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead. Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined and how they were called. The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, a.x. How the arguments are assembled depends on a. Direct Call The simplest and least common call is when user code directly invokes a descriptor method: x.__get__Ca) Instance Binding If binding to an object instance, a.x is transformed into the call: typeCa) type(a)) Class Binding If binding to a class, A.x is transformed into the call: A ['x"]._get_None, A) Super Binding A dotted lookup such as super(A, a).x searches a.__class__.__mro__ fora base class B following A and then returns B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A). Ifnot a descriptor, x is returned unchanged. hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 2089751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q get__O, then accessing the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a value in the object's instance dictionary. If the descriptor defines __set__( and/or __deLete__(), itis a data descriptor; ifit defines neither, itis a non-data descriptor. Normally, data descriptors define both __get__() and __set__(), while non-data descriptors have just the __get__() method. Data descriptors with __get__() and __set__() (andior __deLete__()) defined always override a redefinition in an instance dictionary. In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances. Python methods (including those decorated with @staticmethod and @classmethod) are implemented as non- data descriptors. Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods. This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other instances of the same class. The property() function is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly, instances cannot override the behavior of a property. 3.3.2.4, _slots_ __slots__ allow us to explicitly declare data members (like properties) and deny the creation of __dict__ and __weakref__ (unless explicitly declared in_slofs_ or available in a parent.) The space saved over using __dict__ can be significant. Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well object.__slots__ This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence of strings with variable names used by instances. __slots__ reserves space for the declared variables and provents the automatic creation of _adict__ and__weakref_for each instance. 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using _ slots _ + When inheriting from a class without __slots__, the __dict__ and__weakref_ attribute of the instances will always be accessible + Without a __dict__ variable, instances cannot be assigned new variables not Iisted in the __slots__ definition, Attempts to assign to an unlisted variable name raises AttributeError. If dynamic assignment of new variables is desired, then add *__dict__' to the sequence of strings in the __slots_deciaration. + Without a__weakref_ variable for each instance, classes defining __slots__ do not support weak references to its instances. If weak reference support is needed, then add '__weakref__' to the sequence of strings in the __slots_ dectaration. + __slots__ are implemented at the class level by creating descriptors for each variable name. As a result, class attributes cannot be used to set default values for instance variables defined by __slots_; otherwise, the class attribute would overwrite the descriptor assignment. + The action of a__slots__ declaration is not limited to the class where itis defined. _slots_ declared in parents are available in child classes. However, child subclasses will get a _dict__ and__weakref_unless they also define_slots__ (which should only contain names of any additional slots). + Ifa class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance variable defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by retrieving its descriptor directly from the base class). This renders the meaning of the program undefined, In the future, a check may be added to prevent this. + TypeError will be raised if nonempty _slots__are defined for a class derived from a “variable-Length" built-in type such as int, bytes, and tuple. + Any non-string iterable may be assigned to__slots__ hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html 20751423, 1:00 PM. 3. Data madel — Pytron 3.11.3 documentation @ Q and displayed in the output of help() + __class__ assignment works only if both classes have the same __slots__ + Mutiple inheritance with multiple slotted parent classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have altributes created by slots (the other bases must have emply slot layouts) - violations raise TypeExror + Ifan iterator is used for __slots_ then a descriptor is created for each of the iterator’s values. However, the _slots__ attribute will be an empty iterator. 3.3.3. Customizing class creation ‘Whenever a class inherits from another class, __init_subclass__() is called on the parent class. This way, itis possible to write classes which change the behavior of subclasses. This is closely related to class decorators, but where class decorators only affect the specific class they're applied to, __init_subclass__ solely applies to future subclasses of the class defining the method. classmethod object.__init_subclass__(cts) This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed. cls is then the new subclass. If defined as a normal instance method, this method is implicitly converted to a class method. Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the parent's class __init_subclass__. For compatibility with other classes using __init_subclass__, one should take out the needed keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as in: class Philosopher def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs) Super().__init_subclass__Cx+kwargs) cls.default_name = default_nane class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce") pass The default implementation object any arguments. init_subeLass__ does nothing, but raises an error if it is called with Note: The metaclass hint metaclass is consumed by the rest of the type machinery, and is never passed to __init_subcLass__ implementations. The actual metaciass (rather than the explicit hint) can be accessed as type(cls) New in version 3.6. © scans the class variables and makes callbacks to those with a When a class is created, type. __new. set_name__() hook. object.__set_name__(self, owner, name) Automatically called at the time the owning class owner is created, The object has been assigned to name in that class: class A: x= CQ # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x') hnps:idocs python orgSieferenceldatamedel html a7