SYBTM (Sem IV) Chapter III Multimodal Transportation (MMT)

CHAPTER III:

CONTAINERIZATION
I. MEANING OF CONTAINER & CONTAINERIZATION:
1. CONTAINER:

a. A large standard size metal box into which cargo is packed for shipment
aboard specially configured transport modes. It is designed to be moved with
common handling equipment enabling high-speed intermodal transfers in
economically large units between ships, railcars, truck chassis, and barges
using a minimum of labour. The container, therefore, serves as the load unit
rather than the cargo contained therein.

b. The containers have standardized dimensions. They can be loaded and

unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred
from one mode of transport to another—container ships, rail transport
flatcars, and semi-trailer trucks—without being opened. The handling system
is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes and special
forklift trucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized
systems.

c. Container capacity of Ships, Yards, Terminals are measured in TEU = Twenty

foot Equivalent Units or FEU = Forty foot Equivalent Units.

2. CONTAINERIZATION:

a. Refers to the increasing and generalized use of the container as a load unit
for freight transportation. It involves processes where the intermodal
container either substitutes cargo from other conveyances, is adopted as a
mode supporting freight distribution or can diffuse spatially as a growing
number of transport systems are able to handle containers.

b. Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed
or widely applied until after World War II, when it dramatically reduced the
costs of transport, supported the post-war boom in international trade, and
was a major element in globalization. Containerization did away with the
manual sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced
many thousands of dock workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo.
Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened
shipping time and reduced losses from damage and theft.

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II. HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF CONTAINERIZATION:

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Icon Index:

Malcom McLean International Economy

Infrastructure Development Economic and Social

Restructuring
Container Regulation

1. The Shipping Container: Before 1956

For centuries the expense, risk, and frustration with ocean freight held back expansion
of the international economy, despite the invention of the steam invention. Break-bulk
loaded cargo was poorly secured required a Tetris-like approach to handle diverse sizes
of packages. Loading and unloading was particularly troublesome. Risks include delays,
pilfering, damage and loss.
Early examples of intermodal containers include railroads from 1830s (various sized
containers), and Pennsylvania Railroad regular container service (1929).
Year Category Event Significance
The founder of modern
intermodal container
Small trucker, Malcom McLean, fumes
1937 shipping conceives the
at slow loading of cargo aboard ship.
concept of the modern
shipping container.
US Army uses the
“Transporter” container, developed First use of a modern
1950
four years earlier for removals, container for ocean freight.
for Korean War supply movements.
First shipping container
Western Europe selects container
regulations, promoting
1951 standards for rail, also intended for
international container
ship and truck.
shipping.
McLean purchases a steamship and a
First infrastructure to
railroad terminal company. He forms
1955 support intermodal
Sea-Land Service, and experiments
container shipping.
with container design.

2. The Early Days: 1956-1960s

Following McLean’s patent, containerized shipping saw a series of firsts from 1956, as
container services expand to become international, transatlantic, and transpacific. From
1968, with intermodal container shipping proven, the container fleet rapidly expands.
It wasn’t just about freight. A patent was filed in 1962 for using shipping containers as
touring exhibition booths.

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Year Category Event Significance

Ideal X (aka Maxton) ships 60
containers on deck from Newark, First intermodal cargo
N.J. to Houston, where the transportation (containers
1956 shipping containers are loaded onto are stacked on deck). Then,
trucks. The next year, Pan Atlantic the first storage of containers
ship Gateway City begins the below-deck.
regular service.
McLean’s invention of the system
called fitting, helps lifting and Fitting facilitates cargo
fixing of containers onto vehicles, security and enables
1956
and fixing to each other. Loading automation of container
costs plummet. From $5.86, they handling processes.
are currently $0.16 per ton.
The first quayside container gantry Gantry cranes slash loading
1959 crane, “Portainer”, is developed by times, cost, damage, and
Paceco. pilfering.
Elizabeth-Port Authority Marine First dedicated container
1962
Terminal, N.J. opens. terminal.
Sea-Land initiates first
The beginning of the Asia-
transatlantic service, following in
Advanced Economies trade
1967 with first transpacific service.
boom. Large carriers can no
McLean convinces the US Army
longer ignore containerized
1966 that shipping containers provide a
shipping, signalling the
more reliable service. Grace Line
demise of the conventional
had instituted the first
cargo ship, lengthy stays in
international service, US to
port, etc.
Venezuela, in 1962.
International standards
1968- ISO 338, ISO 790 and ISO 1897 set promote development of
1970 standards for containers. intermodal container
shipping.

3. Rapid Expansion: The 1970s

Once the concept was validated, the container shipping industry grew exponentially in
the 70s and 80s. By 1973, US, European and Asian container ship operators
are carrying 4 million TEUs. Export manufacturing starts moving away from ports.
In the early 1970s, UK architect Nicholas Lacey writes his thesis about converting
shipping containers into habitable dwellings.
Year Category Event Significance
Registered longshoremen on the Example of the massive
1972 U.S. East Coast falls by over two- decrease in dock workers as a
thirds from 1952 to 1972. result of containerisation.

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With the growth of transpacific

Development of intermodal
trade, McLean teams with
1977 container shipping is impacting
Southern Pacific Railroad to build
other transport modes.
the first double-stack train car.
Airline Deregulation Act becomes
Companies can now own
law, the first of a wave of American
stakes in several transport
1977 transport deregulation that
modes, enabling the growth of
continues through until the mid-
intermodal carriers.
1980s.
Shipping between Europe, S.E.
and E. Asia, South Africa,
Most international ocean cargo
1979 Australia/NZ, North America and
is now containerized.
South America are all largely
containerized.

4. 90% of All Ports: The 1980s

90% of countries have container ports, up from 1% in 1966. By 1983, container ships
are carrying 12 million TEUs, with trade routes extending to the Middle East, South Asia
and Africa.
In 1989, the world’s largest shopping mall built from shipping containers, with 16,000
vendors, opens in Odessa, USSR.
Year Category Event Significance
1980 Competition for container traffic is Example of the increasing
increasingly giving way to coordination between
coordination between the ports of Los seaports as a result of
Angeles and Long Beach. containerization.
1984 McLean, now owning US Lines, Along with the new sea-
develops a new carrier business carrier alliances (effectively
model of jumbo container ships merging fleets), this
providing a round-the-world service, supports Just In Time (JIT)
intersecting with smaller, regional production supply chains.
‘feeder’ services. Costs fall and
service improves.
1984 The first all double-stack train is Containerization is driving
developed by APL and UP Railroad. technology in other
Its first trip includes transfers to two transport modes.
other railroads.
1985 Sea-Docs is the first electronic Bill of Carriers look to process
Lading Registry pilot (albeit for oil improvements to increase
cargo). container cargo shipping.
1989 Over 100 double stack container Intermodal companies make
trains, each a mile long, are now car operations more flexible,
operating across U.S. especially for linking to
other lines.

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5. Global Trade Takes Off: The 1990s

More types of goods are traded economically, and much manufacturing is transferring to
developing economies. The rapidly developing Chinese economy rescues hundreds of
millions of Chinese citizens from poverty.
In 1994, a BBC series is made on the conversion of shipping containers for office space,
the first mass media exposure of the concept of using containers for other purposes.
Year Category Event Significance
1990 Ceiling year of a study of 22 Containerization (790%
industrialised countries which increase) impacted trade
isolates the impact of growth much more than
containerisation on bilateral trade. bilateral free-trade
The study also isolates the impact of agreements (45%) or GATT
bilateral free-trade agreements and membership (285%).
GATT membership.
1991 Canary Wharf buildings in London’s Example of urban
Docklands opens; What was once rejuvenation re-using vacant
the world’s largest seaport closed to dock land (as ports get fewer
shipping in 1969. and larger).
1991 Six of the ten world’s largest ports Intermodal container
are in East or S.E Asia. shipping dramatically
changes the international
economy.
1999 China’s annual GDP per capita Developing economies can
growth reaches up to 13% per capita now easily exploit existing
during the 1990s. containerized supply chains.

6. Innovating: The 2000s

International supply chains grow more intricate and inclusive, supporting the growth of
e-commerce.
The first of 14 residential shipping container complexes now built in the UK is
completed in 2001.
Year Category Event Significance
His achievements have
Malcom McLean, the “Father of
been recognized by the
Containerization”, dies aged eighty-seven.
Intl. Maritime Hall of
Two books on McLean are published in
2001 Fame, Fortune and
2006, marking the 50th anniversary of the
American Heritage
first commercial intermodal container
magazines, amongst
service.
others.
HCI markets the 4FOLD foldable Potential new
container. Others follow, generation of
including Staxxon fold and nest containers, reducing
2008
containers, Ferrini lightweight collapsible the cost of
containers, and Cakeboxx doorless unproductive
containers. repositioning and
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storage of empty
containers, or
maximising load space.
Raleigh-Durham-Cary N.C. tops decade’s Modern container
metro % growth. Employment in advanced shipping changes the
2009
economies is free to move to “more geography of
liveable” locations. employment.

7. Present Scenario: The 2010s

By 2013, 90% of global trade is seaborne, shipped in 700 million containers every year.
In 2014, the shipping ports of America received $1.73 trillion worth of goods.
In 2010, Freight Farms establishes the first use of containers for agriculture. Containers
are now also re-purposed for disaster relief, and even backdrops for K-pop videos. The
tech industry follows suit – Google creates a $35 million boat made of shipping
containers that uses shipping containers for servers that power the tech giant’s
search capabilities.
Year Category Event Significance
China surpasses Japan as the world’s Modern container shipping
2011 second largest economy. It then is changing the world
overtakes the US in 2014. structure.
Use of remote tracking systems in
New technology is
2017 containers is expected to reach over
improving service reliability.
one million.

SUMMARY:
Shipping in the 1930’s
Even as recent as the 1930’s the traditional approach to shipping was to adopt break-
bulk container handling, where goods were transported loose or packaged in boxes,
bags, barrels, or other relatively small containers that varied depending on the type of
good. This method of transportation meant that large teams of port workers were
required in order to unload every shipment that arrived. Ships would often spend as long
in port as they would at sea.

The 1950’s and containerisation

Everything then changed in the 1950’s when Malcom McLean, a trucking entrepreneur
from North Carolina, USA, realized that if transportation could be integrated it would be
much simpler, quicker and less expensive to have one container that could be lifted from
a vehicle directly on to a ship without first having to unload its contents. Inspired by the
US Military who had begun using 8'6"x6'3"x6"10" metal shipping containers during
World War II McLean developed the concept of using metal shipping containers for the
commercial market. Larger than the containers used by the military, yet still capable of
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being transported by truck or train, in 1956 McLean shipped a vessel loaded with 58
metal shipping containers from Newark to Houston thus giving rise to the birth of
containerisation.
The impact proved positive for businesses shipping goods as containerisation led to
decreased shipping costs due to economies of scale and lower staffing costs, as well as
better cargo security. Products were no longer visible to the casual viewer so were less
likely to be stolen, and with the doors of containers generally sealed, tampering became
a less likely occurrence.
However, the expanded use of containers was immediately felt by port workers. The
amount of goods per worker that could be loaded or unloaded with containers compared
to break bulk was much higher meaning fewer workers were required.

Shipping containerisation in the 1960’s and 70’s

Throughout the 60’s and 70’s as containerization became the norm, ISO specifications
were introduced to ensure standardization of container sizes across the shipping
industry, which allowed for more aggressive investment in purpose built vessels and
container-handling equipment. New ports had to be developed as the larger vessels
required deeper water and containerised trade required more space. The lower shipping
costs associated with containerisation led to additional volume in trade and despite
there not being a need for warehouses at portside, space was required for the containers
themselves. Port operations were moved away from city centres such as London and New
York to less developed locations nearby such as Tilbury and Elizabeth respectively,
where there was the space available that was required.
To this day vessels continue to increase in size and investments made to improve port
facilities to enable the shipment of goods globally, many of which will end up in yours or
mine homes.

8. Containerization in India
Given the continental distances in India (almost 3000 km from north to south and east to
west), rail transport is most cost effective option for cargo transportation over medium and
long distances. Indian Railways (IR) started door-to-door movement of domestic cargo in
special DSO containers in 1966. In 1981, first ISO container moved by IR to India’s first
Inland Container Depot (ICD) at Bangalore, managed by IR. By 1988, the network
expanded to 7 ICDs.
Container Corporation of India Ltd (CONCOR) set up in 1988 as a PSU under Ministry of
Railways. CONCOR aimed to develop multimodal logistics support for India’s international
& domestic containerized cargo & trade. CONCOR today has a network of 63 terminals
spread over the country. CONCOR has three distinct activities - a carrier, a terminal
operator and a warehouse operator. CONCOR’s ICDs are dry ports in the hinterland and
bring all port facilities including customs clearance to the customer’s doorstep.

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CONCOR provides single-window facility coordinating with different agencies like

customs, gateway ports, IR, road haulers, shipping lines, CHAs and forwarders.
In terms of TEUs handled every year, CONCOR’s Throughput has grown tremendously
(52,000 TEUs in 1989-90 to 3.11 million TEUs in 2014-15). In Feb 2006, Ministry of
Railways granted license to private players to operate container trains. These companies
are expected to invest in rolling stock, ICD and logistics parks. Apart from CONCOR, 16
container train operators were granted license.

III. TYPES OF CONTAINERS:

Container units form the most integral part of the entire shipping industry, trade, and
transport. These shipping containers are the structures that store various kinds of
products that need to be shipped from one part of the world to another. Moving containers
protect contents on the long journeys they make and ensure they make it back to you in
one piece.

As such, depending on the type of products to be shipped or the special services needed
from them, container units may vary in dimension, structure, materials, construction etc.
various types of shipping containers are being used today to meet requirements of all
kinds of cargo shipping. Some of the most common types of shipping containers in use
today are mentioned below.

1. Standard Storage Container:

The 20 feet standard shipping container and the 40 feet standard shipping container
are two of the most widely used containers in the world to transport ocean freight
goods.

The standard shipping containers differ from other types of containers in that they
are completely airtight. These hermetically sealed shipping containers are not
equipped with cooling nor ventilation systems like the refrigerated and ventilated
containers.

The 20 ft standard shipping container can hold up to 10 standard pallets or 11 Euro

pallets across its floor base.

The standard shipping containers are also known as dry shipping containers or dry
vans.

There are five common standard lengths:

a. 20-ft (6.1 m) gross mass 24,000 Kg,

b. 40-ft (12.2 m) gross mass 30,480 Kg,
c. 45-ft (13.7 m),
d. 48-ft (14.6 m), and
e. 53-ft (16.2 m).

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US domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft (15 m) and 53-ft (rail and
truck).

2. Flat Rack Container:

Flat rack shipping containers are designed to transport merchandise whose overall
measurements and/or weight prevent them from fitting into a standard container.

With collapsible sides, these are like simple storage shipping containers where the
sides can be folded so as to make a flat rack for shipping of wide variety of goods.

These containers are made of metal plates that fit a standard structure of 20 or 40
feet. Its sides are collapsible and it does not have a roof or top. This makes it easy
for top- or side-loading. Such features make flat rack containers suitable for
transporting:

Heavy or over-sized cargo such as construction equipment, building supplies or

heavy machinery. These cargoes usually need to be loaded onto the flat rack with a
crane or other special equipment.

Goods with a height higher than that of a 20 or 40 feet high cube container or
irregularly shaped goods such as industrial vehicles or pipes.

Because the flat rack container has no side or top to protect the cargo, extra care
must be taken to prevent damage by weather conditions such as heavy rain or
strong winds. Lashing the cargo will help secure the cargo and make sure it stays
in its place.

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3. Open Top Container:

The type of goods typically transported in open top containers is essentially the same
as those being transported in flat rack containers, but with more irregular heights.

Some examples include goods that are too heavy for manual handling and must be
lifted and loaded with a crane, or top-protruding merchandise that cannot fit into a
40 feet high cube standard container. A 20 feet open top container has a maximum
load of approximately 28 metric tons, while the 40 feet open top container can hold
up to 30 metric tons.

Unlike the flat rack, which also has no roof, open top containers have walls to protect
the goods. A tarpaulin will be needed to cover the top to protect the merchandise.

Note that the opening of an open top shipping container through which you load
your cargo is slightly smaller than the container’s interior. This is similar to the door
of a regular container and it’s for structural integrity purposes. In other words, there
is less room to work with for manoeuvring when loading your cargo through the top
of an open top shipping container.

Due to low demand for open top containers, some carriers may find it difficult to
secure cargo requiring open top containers to be able to send the containers back
to the origin. As such, carriers may implement an extra cost to transport open top
containers, which can vary according to the destination.

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4. Tunnel Container:

The Tunnel containers have eight feet ends at both sides which looks like a tunnel
when both sets of doors are open. In some locations, tunnel containers are also
known as tunnel-tainers, Double Enders container or double end door container.

Loading and unloading are easy in a tunnel container due to its accessibility than a
standard container. The cargo can be loaded and unloaded from both ends of doors.
Small and many number of packages can be easily stuffed and de stuffed. A partition
at middle of container can be made for any specific cargo to be loaded and unloaded
easily.

Generally, the tunnel containers are available in 20 feet. The tunnel containers of
10 feet x 8 feet – 20 feet x 8 feet – and 40 feet x 8 feet are also available. Standard
shipping containers and high cube cargo containers are also converted in to tunnel
container units as per requirements. The present business world is 100%
customization. So the container manufacturers are ready to make any types, sizes
and other facilities as per requirements of customer.

5. Open Side Storage Container:

An Open sided container has two sets of double door at the lengthy side. Such two
doors are arranged to open the entire length of the container with complete access
to the container for loading and unloading. However, in exceptional cases, three
doors open sided container is also manufactured to facilitate customers to meet
their requirements. The side doors are manufactured to open either an eight feet
opening or a twenty feet opening for a 20 feet container as per requirements.

The doors of open sided container are made from flat steel panels instead of heavier
corrugated steel which is compatible with storage use, as the doors are opened and
closed on a regular basis. The security lock box over the padlock provides better
protection. The rubber seals fitted at each door opening locations helps for not
entering water or moisture in to the container.

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The major advantage of open side container is that the oversized equipment can be
fit. Another advantage of an open sided container is that the amount of space can
be utilized to its maximum. Apart from that, the stuffing and de stuffing are faster
than other types of container. The bigger size of goods can be easily fit in to an open
side container unlike other standard container. Another benefit of an open side
container is that the sorting of goods can be easily done without offloading all items
in the container.

Normally 20 feet and 40 feet open side containers are available. 40 feet high cube
open side containers are also available as per customer need.

6. Refrigerated ISO Containers:

Refrigerated shipping containers, also known as reefer containers, are equipped with
a system that helps to maintain an internal temperature of between -25º and + 25º.
Contrary to popular belief, these refrigerated containers do not regulate
temperatures, they can only maintain them. There are certain types of refrigerated
containers that are capable of maintaining temperatures as low as -60º.

Although refrigerated containers have integrated systems that help with

maintaining the internal temperature, the container must be connected to an
external power source such as the vessel’s generator or the port’s power supply.

Reefer containers are most commonly used to transport fresh and frozen foods such
as fish, meat, fruits, and other perishable items, they are also regularly used to
transport medicines and pharmaceutical products over long distances.

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7. Insulated or Thermal Containers:

Insulated containers protects goods from temperature which are used to move cargo
such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, foods etc. The thin wall of a standard dry
container may be effected with external climate severely in hot summer days due to
a lot of heat and severe cold in winter season. Insulated container helps to maintain
consistent internal temperature up to some extent.

The standard container can also be temporarily made insulated by covering inner
part of body with necessary insulating materials.

In built insulated containers are generally available in 20 feet and 40 feet. However,
the customization is available with all insulated container manufacturer.

An insulated container also prevent rainwater getting inside the container and
minimize condensation especially at door opening area. The durability of storage
(long term storage) is another advantage of insulated container.

8. ISO Tank Shipping Container:

ISO tank or ISO containers are containers specially designed to transport liquids or
gases. They can hold bulk cargoes ranging from perishable liquids such as oil or
wine to hazardous substances.

Additional requirements will need to be fulfilled when shipping hazardous

substances in ISO tanks. And once an ISO tank has been tagged to ship hazardous
substances, it can no longer be used to ship food, and vice versa.

The ISO tank is supported on a structure that can be adjusted according to its
dimensions. It’s also lined with an insulating material that protects it from the cargo
it’s transporting.

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ISO tanks offer one of the most effective intermodal transportation methods for bulk
cargo. They are safer, offer more flexibility, are more environmentally friendly, and
relatively cheaper than other options such as OTR tank trucks.

The most commonly used ISO tanks measure 20 or 40 feet there are also 10 and 30
feet long ISO tanks. They’re also widely known as ISO containers or tank containers.

Container storage units used mostly for transportation of liquid materials, they are
used by a huge proportion of entire shipping industry. They are mostly made of
strong steel or other anti-corrosive materials providing them with long life and
protection to the materials.

9. Cargo Storage Roll Container:

Cargo storage roll containers are a special kind of containers. They are used for
transporting sets or stacks of materials. Cargo storage roll containers are foldable.
They are made up of wire meshes that are thick and strong and also rollers that
enable free and easy movement.

They come in various sizes and various colours of wire meshes and look attractive.
These are some of the unique storage container units in the shipping industry. They
are expensive to make, and transport and hence, many companies avoid the use of
these shipping units. Still, these are some of the most important shipping and
storage units in the industry because certain loads specifically demand these kinds
of containers.

It is a foldable container, this is one of the specialized container units made for
purpose of transporting sets or stacks of materials. They are made of thick and
strong wire mesh along with rollers that allows their easy movement. Availability in
a range of coloured wire meshes make these shipping container units a little more
cheerful.

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10. Roll Container:

If you need to clean out a house for a renovation or complete demo project, or tear
off a roof and need a place to throw shingles and other construction debris, you
need a long, open container. These range in size from 10 to 40 yards.
General household items like housewares and clothing can all go into a dumpster
container. Remodelling debris, such as drywall, lumber, flooring, cabinetry, and
siding are all acceptable.
Another use for a large container might be for landscaping debris, such as soil, grass
clippings, leaves, shrubbery, and small branches.
Roll-off containers can also be ordered with locking sectional lids installed to avoid
storm water and snow exposure, and offer security against theft and unauthorized
dumping. The rain and snow weight can add extra expense for overages at the
scales, so best to protect your original investment.
The only way such a large container can be delivered is by a truck with a low-boy,
tilt-bed trailer, and a winch. The trailer will tilt up at the front, rolling the container
off the back. That is where the name “roll-off containers” comes from.

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11. Half Height Containers:

Generally half height containers are used to transport heavy cargo. Half height
containers are also used to move vehicles. The half-height containers are useful to
transport over height goods, pipes, tools and other equipment. Half height
containers are used to transport gravel, sand etc. locally.

Like other containers, half height containers are also manufactured as per DNV
standards. Certified slings complete with shackles, multiple internal tie down points
for security and safety, net securing points, cargo restraining nets, anti-slip surfaces
on floors, fork lift pockets etc. are some of the features of half height container.

Open top Half Height Containers are also available which helps to load and unload
cargo from top side of container.

Half height containers are also manufactured as per requirements of customers with
extensive range of sizes, removable sides or swinging doors etc.

12. Car Carriers:

Car Carriers are the kind of container storage units which are specifically designed
for the transportation and shipment of cars over long distances by sea routes. Cars
are not usually transported by ship. However, in some cases, shipping arrangements
need to be done for the vehicle to be transported.

Shipping cars in a container may provide a better solution to the client’s

requirements than a Roll on Roll off (Ro-Ro) service for a number of reasons
including the type of vehicle needed to be shipped, the intended destination or it
may simply be client’s preference to use a container to ship their cars. Unlike Ro-
Ro services, if there are any some personal items or perhaps spare parts which also
need to be shipped, these can be loaded in the car and shipped with it inside client’s
respective container.

Transportation of automobiles on the sea is usually done with roll on roll off shipping
arrangements which are cheaper than car carrier shipping containers. They have
collapsible sides which make it convenient to fit a car inside the container without
damaging it. They can come in various sizes and dimensions. Even though these

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containers are known as car carriers, they can be used to transport any kind of
automobile vehicles.

13. Ventilated Shipping Container:

The ventilated container is a shipping container that offers a ventilation system due
to its lateral openings that permit air flow and circulation.

These characteristics make it suitable for the transportation of goods that require
constant temperature and conditions.

Thanks to its ventilation system, the ventilated container is able to expel hot air and
allow fresh air to enter, thus preventing condensation and humidity changes that
may damage the cargo.

One of the main products transported in the ventilated container is coffee, which is
why it may also sometimes also be known as the “coffee container”.

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14. Intermediate Bulk-Shift Containers:

An intermediate bulk container (or IBC) is a pallet mounted, industrial grade

reusable container that is used for storing and transporting bulk liquids and
powders. Also known as a tote, the IBC is capable of stacking and can be moved by
a pallet jack or forklift. The term ‘intermediate’ comes from the volume that
intermediate bulk containers carry, which sits in between that of tanks and drums.
The two most common volumes of the rigid IBC are 275 gallons and 330 gallons.

They are also reusable and can come in various sizes, dimensions, and colours. The
three broad types of IBCs in use today can be categorized under rigid, folding and
flexible.

Intermediate bulk shift containers are storage shipping containers which are
specifically made for the transportation of intermediate goods. They can be used to
carry large amounts of materials which can include liquids or semi-solids and are
usually used to shift the kind of material which requires to be further packed and
sent off to a final spot after arriving at its destination.

Some advantages of these containers are that they are relatively cheap to ship, they
are highly organized, mobile and integrated. They are also very durable and provide
a consistent and reliable way to store material. They are often used to transport bulk
chemicals, raw materials, food syrups, petrochemicals, paints, and pharmaceutical
compounds.

15. Drums:

Drums are circular shaped shipping container units. They are made up of materials
like steel, hard plastic, fibre or weight metals. Drums are strong and durable. These
containers are small in size but have a large volume due to their shape. Hence, they
require extra space. Drums are also called barrels in common language.

Drums/Barrels are mostly used to handle and transport bulk materials, usually
liquids. Drums can be used to ship petrochemicals or other liquid products as well.

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Most of the material that they transport is dangerous or highly inflammable. They
can come in various sizes. Normally, each drum has a capacity of 200 litres.

16. Special Purpose Containers:

Special purpose containers are not like ordinary containers. They are the containers
that are customized and specifically made for particular purposes usually at the
request of the manufacturer or the client. Due to this, the material used for the
composition of the container and its construction depends on the kind of purpose
that they would serve. Most of the times they are used for security purposes.

They can come in any shape or sizes. Most of the shipping companies do not make
these containers or rather avoid their use because they are expensive to make and
to transport and cannot be used for purposes other than the ones they are currently
serving. They are however still in use because certain goods demand a specific type
and size of containers.

Not the ordinary containers, these are the container units, custom made for
specialized purposes. Mostly, they are used for high profile services like shipment of
weapons and arson.

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17. Swap Bodies:

They are a special kind of containers used mostly in Europe. Not made according to
the ISO standards, they are not standardized shipping container units but extremely
useful all the same.

They have a strong bottom part and a top which is convertible. This makes them
suitable to ship many different kinds of products. The designs of these units are
such that they do not waste any space. That is, they are optimized to minimize
empty weights.

Used both on road and rails, they’re the ideal option for transferring goods via both
these methods. They are lifted from the bottom corners. Hence, it is inconvenient to
use them for shipping transportation, and most of the shipping companies avoid
their use as swap body containers cannot be easily stacked.

Due to the design of this type of container, fuel costs are lower; swap bodies
minimise empty weight, so there is less ‘dead weight’ carried. This results in lower
fuel consumption, and therefore cheaper transportation of goods.

18. Platform Containers:

Like other containers, platform containers are also manufactured with steel and
hard wood. A Platform container does not have sides, ends and roof, which looks
like a pallet. The customers can load cargo to platform containers from side also.
Normally platform containers are used to transport goods which are heavy weight
on small areas. Platform containers are also useful to load odd sized cargo.
Generally, the platform containers are used to move machinery, oil and gas
equipment and other heavy weight equipment. Like other cargo containers, platform
containers are also comply with ISO standard for domestic and international
transportation.
For easy transportation and movement by road, 40 feet platform containers have
gooseneck tunnels at each end of container. These recesses allow the containers to
lie lower and therefore to be of taller construction. For more security on loads,

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lashing rings are fixed in the side rails of platform containers. All platform
containers have fork pocket holes for easy handling.

19. Garment On Hanger Container (GOH container):

GOH containers are available in 20 feet and 40 feet. GOH containers also known as
“Hangtainers”. The GOH containers are available as dry cargo container, reefer
container etc. as per the requirements of apparel shipper.
In GOH containers arrangements to use string or bar or combination of string and
bar are available. So, GOH containers are flexible, greater loading capacity and
minimizing transportation and handling costs. GOH containers are useful mainly
for apparel exporters who can save a good amount of time, labour and money. GOH
Containers are connected with racks and poles by screws and nuts so as to enable
the garments to be loaded safely. The clothing cover made of plastic covers inner
sides and dryer hanged on every pole which is dustproof.
The systematic arrangements of horizontal poles on the roof of GOH containers help
to load maximum volume of garments. The garments can be directly hanged by
using hooks as GOH container poles hangs buckles, nylon straps or ropes.

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20. Specialized Air Freight Containers:

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ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF CONTERIZATION:

1. Standardization:
Standard transport product that can be handled anywhere in the world (ISO
standard) through specialized modes (ships, trucks, barges and wagons) and
equipment. Each container has a unique identification number and a size type code.

2. Flexibility:
Can be used to carry a wide variety of goods such as commodities (coal, wheat),
manufactured goods, cars, refrigerated (perishable) goods. There are adapted
containers for dry cargo, liquids (oil and chemical products) and refrigerated cargo.
Discarded containers can be recycled and reused for other purposes.

3. Costs:
Lower transport costs due to the advantages of standardization. Moving the same
amount of break-bulk freight in a container is about 20 times less expensive than
conventional means. The containers enables economies of scale at modes and
terminals that were not possible through standard break-bulk handling.

4. Velocity:
Trans-shipment operations are minimal and rapid and port turnaround times have
been reduced from 3 weeks to about 24 hours. Containerships are faster than
regular freighter ships, but this advantage is undermined by slow steaming.

5. Avoid Repeated Loading/Unloading:

Containerized cargo is packed once and for all at the dispatch point and opened
only at the destination. On the way it can be quickly, safely and easily transferred
from one mode of transport to another without the goods themselves being handled.

6. Warehousing:
The container is its own warehouse, protecting the cargo it contains. This implies
simpler and less expensive packaging for containerized cargoes, particularly
consumption goods. The stacking capacity on ships, trains (double-stacking) and
on the ground (container yards) is a net advantage of containers.

7. Security and Safety of the Goods:

The container provides great protection to the goods, because once sealed, it’s a
physical barrier against bad weather, temperature variations, fire, theft, and
impacts during handling. The container thus greatly reduces the risks of
deterioration, loss, and theft that can be found in ground transport.

8. Confidentiality and Secrecy of the Goods:

The contents of the container is unknown to carriers since it can only be opened at
the origin by the seller/shipper, and then at customs by the respective authorities.
Towards the destination the containers are opened by the customs authority and
the buyer.

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LIMITATIONS OR DRAWBACKS OF CONTAINERIZATION:

1. Site Constrains:
Containers are a large consumer of terminal space (mostly for storage), implying
that many intermodal terminals have been relocated to the urban periphery. Draft
issues at port are emerging with the introduction of larger containerships,
particularly those of the post-panamax class. A large post-panamax containerships
requires a draft of at least 13 meters.

2. Capital Intensiveness:
Container handling infrastructures and equipment (giant cranes, warehousing
facilities, inland road, rail access) are important capital investments that require
readily sources. Further, the push towards automation is increasing the capital
intensiveness of intermodal terminals.

3. Stacking:
Complexity of arrangement of containers, both on the ground and on modes
(containerships and double-stack trains). Restacking difficult to avoid and incurs
additional costs and time for terminal operators. The larger the mode or the yard,
the more complex the management.

4. Repositioning:
Many containers are moved empty (20% of all flows). However, either full or empty,
a container takes the same amount of space. The observed divergence between
production and consumption at the global level requires the repositioning of
containerized assets over long distances (transoceanic).

5. Theft and Losses:

High value goods and a load unit that can forcefully opened or carried away (on
truck) implied a level of cargo vulnerability between a terminal and the final
destination. About 1,500 containers are lost at sea each year (fall overboard), but
these figures vary substantially depending on if a specific incident takes place on
any given year.

6. Illicit Trade:
The container is an instrument used in the illicit trade of goods, drugs and weapons,
as well as for illegal immigration (rare). There are concerns about the usage of
containers for terrorism but no documented use has emerged.

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