THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

ECE 2204
Introduction:
• Lecturer: Ms. Magdalene Nafula
• Civil Engineer – 6 years experience in construction of roads and
structures
• M. Sc. - Construction Eng. & Management
• B. Sc. - Civil Engineering.
• Contact email: magdalene.otieno@dkut.ac.ke

• Students: Introduce yourself

• Name
• Your expectations for this class.
Course Outline:
• Introduction: Structural forms and their identification.
• Free body diagrams
• Bending structures: Shear force and bending
moments diagrams for simply supported beams.
• Determinate Frames: Shear force, bending moments,
thrust force diagrams and deflected shapes.
• Determinate trusses - Analysis of determinate trusses
Expected Outcome:
• Analyze statically determinate structures for:
• Static loading for support reactions, shear force, axial force
and bending moments
• Draw and analyze free body diagrams
• Draw the deflected shape of a structure under given
load conditions.
• Carry out analysis of determinate frames and trusses
Course Assessment:
• Exam - 70%
• CATs - 15%
• Assignments - 15%
• Class participation - Very important

References:
• Megson, T.H.G., (2005). Structural analysis and stress. Butterworth-
Heinemann 2000
• Kassimali Aslam, (2011). Structural Analysis. Bill Stenquist
• Hibbeler R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis. Pearson Prentice Hall Pearson
Education, Inc
 STATICS
Definitions:
• Statics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of
bodies at rest or forces in equilibrium.
• Static means – Stationary or “at rest”
• Equilibrium means balanced
• A force is a vector quantity which means that it has both a
magnitude (size) and a direction associated with it.
• When the size and direction of the forces acting on an object
are exactly balanced, then there is no net force acting on the
object and the object is said to be in equilibrium.
Statics: Types of Equilibrium
According to Newtons First Law of Motion – “An object at rest
stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the
same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.”
There are two main types of equilibrium:
• Static Equilibrium – Is experienced with an object at rest.
Example: is a motionless person or object.

• Dynamic equilibrium is experienced with an object in motion.

Example is a vehicle moving at a constant velocity with forces in
all directions balanced.
Statics: Types of Equilibrium - Examples
• The objects below are in static equilibrium because they are
motionless and all the forces acting on the objects are balanced.
Statics: Types of Equilibrium - Examples
The car is in a dynamic equilibrium because it is moving at a
constant velocity and all forces are balanced.
Statics: Conditions of Equilibrium
There are two main conditions of equilibrium:
1. The net force on the object must be zero.
• Fnet=0
• Forces in all directions x, y and z directions must be = 0
• Fx =0, net Fy = 0 and net Fz = 0

2. The net torque acting on the object must be zero

• Torque is a rotational or twisting effect of a force.
• This condition involves avoiding accelerated rotation.
• A rotating body or system can be in equilibrium if its rate of rotation is
constant and remains unchanged by the forces acting on it
Statics: Equilibrium of Structures
Engineering structures is said to be in equilibrium if it remains in a state
of rest, externally and internally when subjected to a system of forces.
Equilibrium can be assessed in:
Two dimensions for planar structures
Where stresses are in x and y planes only. Conditions of equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0 (1)
Where:
∑ Fx - Summation of the forces in the x – axis
∑ Fy - Summation of the forces in the y – axis
∑ Mz is the summation of the couple moments and the moments of all the
forces about an axis z, perpendicular to the plane xy of the action of the
forces.
Statics: Equilibrium of Structures
Three Dimension for space structures
Where stresses are in x, y and z planes. Conditions of equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝐹z = 0
∑ 𝑀x = 0 ∑ 𝑀y = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0

Where:
∑ Fx, ∑ Fy , ∑ Fz - Summation of the forces in the x,y and z axes
∑ Mx , ∑ My , ∑ Mz is the summation of the couple moments and
the moments of all the forces about an axis z, perpendicular to the
plane xy of the action of the forces.
 Structural Forms and their
identification
To Discuss:
•Loads – Types of loads and their classification
•Structures –Types of structures
•Structural members – Types of structural members
Structural Forms and their identification
Loads
A weight or source of pressure borne by something or
someone.
Any force or pressure applied on a structure that causes
stress, deformation or displacement is known as a
structural load.
Types of Loads
There are two main types of Loads.
• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
Structural Forms and their identification
Dead Loads
These are loads of a constant magnitude that are
permanently attached to the structure.
Examples of Dead loads include: Self weight of a structure
Live Loads
These are loads of varying magnitudes and positions.
They are temporarily placed on the structure.
Examples of live loads include: People, furniture, vehicles.
Structural Forms and their identification
Types of Live Loads
Impact loads – These are sudden or rapid loads applied on a
structure over a relatively short period of time compared with other
structural loads. E.g. vehicle bouncing on a road will cause a
temporary impact.
They are experienced on manufacturing industries, bridges,
highways and railroads

Environmental Loads - Forces or pressure on a structure resulting

from changes in weather and environmental conditions.
Structural Forms and their identification
Types of Live Loads
Examples of Environmental Loads include:
➢Rain loads - These are loads due to accumulation of water on a roof top
after a rainstorm.
➢Wind loads - These are loads due to wind pressure exerted on structures.
➢Snow loads - These are loads exerted on a structure by accumulated snow
on a rooftop
➢Earthquake loads - These are loads exerted on a structure by the ground
motion caused by seismic forces.
➢Hydrostatic and earth pressure - These are loads on retaining structures
due to pressures developed by the retained materials. They vary linearly with
the height of the walls.
Structural Forms and their identification
Classification of Loads
Loads are classified according to their application on a
structure:
They include:
• Concentrated Loads
• Uniformly distributed Loads (UDL)
• Uniformly varying Loads (UVL)
• Concentrated Moments
Classification of Loads
Concentrated Loads - This type of load acts relatively
on a smaller area. Example is a table leg on the
supporting floor.
Classification of Loads
Uniformly Distributed Loads (UDL) - This type of load is spread over a
large area. Its magnitude is designated by its intensity (N/m or kN/m).
Example: A symmetrical wall supported by a ground beam
Equivalent concentrated load acts at the center of the beam
Classification of Loads
• Uniformly Varying Loads (UVL) - This type of load will be uniformly
varying from zero intensity at one end to the designated intensity at the other
end.
• Example is triangular wall loading on a beam.
• Equivalent concentrated load will be the area of the loading triangle wall
located @ 1/3 of the length.
Classification of Loads
• Concentrated Moments - This occurs when a beam is supporting a
bracket (mounted on it) that has a load.
• That means the load acts on the bracket which is ultimately transferred to
the beam as concentrated moments.
Structural Forms and their identification
Structures
A system of interconnected parts known as structural
members used to support external loads.

Structural Members
Parts of a structure that are interconnected to support
external loads.
 Types of Structures
Trusses
Trusses are structural frameworks composed of straight members
(struts and ties) connected at the joints.
Loads are applied at the joints, and members are assumed to be
connected at the joints using frictionless pins.
Example of trusses include: Planner truss, Space truss etc.
 Types of Structures
Frames
Structures composed of interconnected columns and beams.
Their classification include: Sway frames, non-sway frames, rigid
frames, flexible frames.
 Types of Structures
Cables
These are flexible structures that carry their loads in
tension.
 Types of Structures
Arches
These are rigid structures that carry their loads in
compression
 Types of Structures
Soil/ Earth Pressure Structures
These are underground structures such as basement walls, floors
and retaining walls that are designed to resist soil pressure.
 Types of Structural Members
Ties
• Structural members that are subjected to axial tension forces
only.
• Load is applied to ties only at the ends.
• Ties cannot resist flexural forces.
 Types of Structural Members
Struts
• Structural members that are subjected to axial compression
forces only.
• Like ties, struts can be loaded only at their ends and cannot resist
flexural forces.
 Types of Structural Members
Beams and Girders
• Structural members that are primarily subjected to
flexural forces.
• They usually are thought of as being horizontal members
that are primarily subjected to gravity forces; but there
are frequent exceptions (such as inclined rafters).
• A girder is considered to be a large beam with smaller
beams framing into it.
 Types of Structural Members
Columns
• Structural members that are primarily subjected to axial
compression forces.
• A column may be subjected to flexural forces also.
• Columns usually are thought of as being vertical
members, but they may also be inclined.
 Types of Structural Members
Slabs or Diaphragms
• structural members that are flat plates.
• Diaphragms generally have very high in-plane stiffness.
• They are commonly used for floors and shear resisting
walls.
• Diaphragms usually span between beams or columns.
• They may be stiffened with ribs to better resist out-of-
plane forces.
Types of Structural Members
 Structural Members - Beams
Types of Beams
They are classified according to the mode of support. They
include:
1. Cantilever Beam
2. Simply supported Beam
3. Overhand Beam
4. Fixed Beam
5. Continuous beams
6. Cantilever, simply supported beams
 Structural Members - Beams
Cantilever Beam
A beam that is fixed on one end and is free the other end.

Simply supported Beam

A beam which is freely supported at both ends. The end support only exert
reactive forces but not moments.
 Structural Members - Beams
Overhanging Beam
The beam freely supported at any two points and having one or both ends
projected beyond these supports

Fixed Beam
A beam whose both ends are fixed or built-in walls. A fixed beam is also
known as a built-in or encased beam.
 Structural Members - Beams
Continuous Beam
The beam which has more than two supports.

Cantilever, Simply supported Beam

A beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is simply supported