Lecture 4

1 Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem
1.1 Divergent sequence and Monotone sequences
Definition 1.1.1. Let {an }be a sequence of real numbers. We say that an approaches infinity
or diverges to infinity, if for any real number M > 0, there is a positive integer N such that

n ≥ N =⇒ an ≥ M.

ˆ If an approaches infinity, then we write an → ∞ as n → ∞.

ˆ A similar definition is given for the sequences diverging to −∞. In this case we write
an → −∞ as n → ∞.

Examples 1.1.2.

(i) The sequence {log(1/n)}∞

1 diverges to −∞. In order to prove this, for any M > 0, we
must produce a N ∈ N such that

log(1/n) < −M, ∀ n ≥ N.

But this is equivalent to saying that n > eM , ∀ n ≥ N . Choose N ≥ eM . Then, for this
choice of N ,
log(1/n) < −M, ∀ n ≥ N.

Thus {log(1/n)}∞
1 diverges to −∞.

Definition 1.1.3. If a sequence {an }does not converge to a value in R and also does not diverge
to ∞ or −∞, we say that {an }oscillates.

Theorem 1.1.4. Let {an }and {bn } be two sequences.

(i) If {an }and {bn } both diverges to ∞, then the sequences {an + bn } and {an bn } also diverges
to ∞.

(ii) If {an }diverges to ∞ and {bn } converges then {an + bn } diverges to ∞.

√ √ √ √
Example 1.1.5. Consider the sequence { n + 1 − n}∞ n=1 . We know that n + 1 and n both
√ √ ∞
diverges to ∞. But the sequence { n + 1 − n}n=1 converges to 0. To see this, notice that, for
√ √ √ 1
a given  > 0, n + 1 − n <  if and only if 1 < 2 + 2 n. Thus, if N is such that N > 2 ,
√ √ √ √ 4
then for all n ≥ N, n + 1 − n < . Thus n + 1 − n converges to 0. This example shows
that the sequence formed by taking difference of two diverging sequences may converge.

Definition 1.1.6. Monotone sequence

A sequence {an } of real numbers is called a nondecreasing sequence if an ≤ an+1 for all n ∈ N

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and {an } is called a nonincreasing sequence if an ≥ an+1 for all n ∈ N. A sequence that is
nondecreasing or nonincreasing is called a monotone sequence.

Examples 1.1.7.

(i) The sequences {1 − 1/n}, {n3 } are nondecreasing sequences.

(ii) The sequences {1/n}, {1/n2 } are nonincreasing sequences.

(−1) n
(iii) The sequences {(−1)n }, {cos( nπ n
3 )}, {(−1) n}, { n } and {n
1/n } are not monotonic

sequences.

Remark 1.1.

(i) A nondecreasing sequence which is not bounded above diverges to ∞.

(i) A nonincreasing sequence which is not bounded below diverges to −∞.

Example 1.1.8. If b > 1, then the sequence {bn }∞

1 diverges to ∞.

Theorem 1.1.9.

(i) A nondecreasing sequence which is bounded above is convergent.

(ii) A nonincreasing sequence which is bounded below is convergent.

Proof. (i) Let {an }be a nondecreasing, bounded above sequence and a = sup an . Since the
n∈N
sequence is bounded, a ∈ R. We claim that a is the limit point of the sequence {an }. Indeed,
let  > 0 be given. Since a −  is not an upper bound for {an }, there exists N ∈ N such that
aN > a − . As the sequence is nondecreasing, we have a −  < aN ≤ an for all n ≥ N . Also it
is clear that an ≤ a for all n ∈ N. Thus,

a −  ≤ an ≤ a + , ∀ n ≥ N.

Hence the proof.

The proof of (ii) is similar to (i) and is left as an exercise to the students. ///

Examples 1.1.10.

(i) If 0 < b < 1, then the sequence {bn }∞

1 converges to 0.

Solution. We may write bn+1 = bn b < bn . Hence {bn } is nonincreasing. Since bn > 0
for all n ∈ N, the sequence {bn } is bounded below. Hence, by the above theorem, {bn }
converges. Let L = lim bn . Further, lim bn+1 = lim b · bn = b · lim bn = b · L. Thus the
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
sequence {bn+1 } converges to b · L. On the other hand, {bn+1 } is a subsequence of {bn }.
Hence L = b · L which implies L = 0 as b 6= 1.

(ii) The sequence {(1 + 1/n)n }∞

1 is convergent.

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 n    k
X n 1
Solution. Let an = (1 + 1/n)n = . For k = 1, 2, ..., n, the (k + 1)th term
k n
k=0
in the expansion is
    
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1) 1 1 1 2 k−1
k
= 1− 1− ··· 1− . (1.1)
1·2···k n k! n n n

Similarly, if we expand an+1 , then we obtain (n + 2) terms in the expansion and for
k = 1, 2, 3, ..., the (k + 1)th term is
    
1 1 2 k−1 1
1− 1− ··· 1− < . (1.2)
k! n+1 n+1 n+1 k!

It is clear that (1.2) is greater than or equal to (1.1) and hence an ≤ an+1 which implies
that {an }is nondecreasing. Further,
n    k n
X n 1 X 1
an =(1 + 1/n)n = <1+ < 1 + 2 = 3.
k n k!
k=0 k=1

n n
!
X 1 X 1
k! > 2k−1 =⇒ < k−1
<2 for each n. Thus {an }is a bounded monotone
k! 2
k=1 k=1
sequence and hence convergent.

Theorem 1.1.11. Every sequence has a monotone subsequence.

Proof. Pick xN1 such that xn ≤ xN1 for all n > N1 . We call such xN as ”peak”. If we are able
to pick infinitely many x0Ni s, then {xNi } is decreasing and we are done. If there are only finitely
many x0N s and let xn1 be the last peak. Then for n2 > n1 , xn2 is not a peak. That means we
can choose n3 such that xn3 ≥ xn2 . Again xn3 is not a peak. So we can choose xn4 such that
xn4 ≥ xn3 . Proceeding this way, we get a non-decreasing sub-sequence {xn2 , xn3 , xn4 , ...}. ///
The following theorem is Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. Proof is a consequence of Theorem1.1.11
Theorem 1.1.12. Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.
Theorem 1.1.13. Nested Interval theorem: Let In = [an , bn ], n ≥ 1 be non-empty closed,
bounded intervals such that
I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ I3 ... ⊃ In ⊃ In+1 ...

and lim (bn − an ) = 0. Then ∩∞

n=1 In contains precisely one point
n→∞

Proof. Since {an }, {bn } ⊂ [a1 , b1 ], {an }, {bn } are bounded sequences. By Bolzano-Weierstrass
theorem, there exists sub sequences ank , bnk and a, b such that ank → a, bnk → b. Since an is
increasing a1 < a2 < ...... ≤ a and b1 > b2 > .... ≥ b. It is easy to see that a ≤ b. Also since
0 = lim an − bn = a − b, we have a = b.
It is easy to show that there is no other point in ∩∞ n=1 In . ///

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Remark 1.2. closedness of In cannot be dropped. for example the sequence {(0, n1 )}. Then
∩∞ 1 1
n=1 (0, n ) = ∅ because there cannot be any element x such that 0 < x < n else Archimedean
property fails.
Corollary 1.1.14. R is uncountable.

Proof. It is enough to show that [0, 1] is uncountable. If not, there exists an onto map f :
N → [0, 1]. Now subdivide [0, 1] into 3 equal parts so that choose J1 such that f (1) 6∈ J1 . Now
subdivide J1 into 3 equal parts and choose J2 so that f (2) 6∈ J2 . Continue the process to obtain
Jn so that f (n) 6∈ Jn . These Jn satisfy the hypothesis of above theorem, so ∩∞ n=1 = {x} and
x ∈ [0, 1]. By the construction, there is no n ∈ N such that f (n) = x. contradiction to f is onto.