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The amplitude or Fresnel reflection coefficients for the p and s polarization components can
be obtained using appropriate boundary conditions and are given by:
𝑛1 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑛2 cos 𝜃1 𝑛1 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑛2 cos 𝜃2
𝑟𝑝 = and 𝑟𝑠 = .
𝑛1 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑛2 cos 𝜃1 𝑛1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑛2 cos 𝜃2
Here the angle of incidence and angle of refraction are related by the Snell’s law:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 .
Using the expressions for reflection coefficients and the Snell’s law it is easy to show that
when 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝜋/2 or equivalently when 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝐵 = arctan(𝑛2 /𝑛1 ) , 𝑟𝑝 = 0. This angle of
incidence is known as the Brewster angle (𝜃𝐵 ). The reflected wave is thus purely s-polarized
whereas the transmitted wave has both polarizations. The aim of this experiment is to
measure the energy reflection coefficients at air-glass interface for both p- and s-
polarizations and for various values of incidence angle. The typical plots for energy reflection
coefficients 𝑅𝑝 = | 𝑟𝑝 |2 and 𝑅𝑠 = | 𝑟𝑠 |2 are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Plot of energy reflection coefficients as a function of angle of incidence for p- and s-
polarized light. The reflection coefficient for p-polarized wave vanishes when angle of
incidence is equal to the Brewster angle.
The polarization state of light for incident unpolarised light at Brewster angle can be shown
diagrammatically as in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Polarization state of unpolarised light incident at Brewster angle on reflection and
transmission.
Procedure:
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 4 below.
1) Without the glass plate in place, first arrange the laser and the detector such that the
laser illumination falls directly on the detector pinhole and you get some photocurrent
from the detector.
2) Now insert the polarizer in laser path. Rotate the polarizer at 5-degree intervals and
note down the detector signal. Make a plot of detector intensity vs. polarizer angle.
Verify that your plot satisfies Malus law. What do you conclude about state of
polarization of the laser from this plot? Is the laser polarized?
3) Now orient the pass axis of the polarizer (shown by notch on the polarizer mount) in
vertical and horizontal directions. Verify that the detector readings for the two cases
are approximately equal. This will ensure that the laser is oriented such that its
polarization is at 45-degree angle to vertical (why?). If not, then adjust the laser mount
by rotating the laser unit. (Approximate balancing of powers for the two polarizations
is important so that you do not have low signal on the detector for one of the
polarizations).
4) Insert the glass slide in the central mount and identify the p- and s-polarization
components with the horizontal and/or vertically polarized light states respectively.
5) Turn the polarizer such that it passes vertically polarized light. Using the goniometer
arrangement find the reflected light power as a function of incidence angle. Make a
plot of energy reflection coefficient vs. incidence angle. Use sufficient number of
incidence angle values to get a smooth curve.
6) Repeat step (5) for horizontally polarized light.
7) Determine the Brewster angle and the refractive index of glass using your plots.
8) Find log error in estimation of refractive index.
*The energy reflection coefficient can be determined from your experiment as a ratio of the
detector signals for reflected beam and the direct beam for both p and s polarizations.
9.
9.1 Apparatus:
Helium-Neon laser or diode laser, a single slit with adjustable
aperture width, optical detector and power meter
9.2 Theory:
It is generally assumed that light travels in a straight line but
it suffers some deviation from its straight path in passing close
to edges of opaque obstacles and narrow slits. Some of the light
does bend into the region of geometrical shadow and its inten-
sity falls off rapidly. This bending of light which is not due to
reflection/refraction is called as DIFFRACTION:
by
N π d sin θ
sin N −1 λ
R = a[ π d sin θ
]
sin N −1 λ
Here θ is the angle made by the line joining center of the slit
and observation point P with the direction of incident beam. In
the limiting case of N tending to infinity and distance between
two consecutive points on the slit tends to zero then we have
sin πd sin θ
R = a[ πd sinλθ ] (9.1)
Nλ
Rewriting eqn.9.1
sinα
R = A( ) (9.2)
α
Where A = N a and α = πdsinθλ .
Since the intensity at P, being proportional to square of ampli-
144 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi
For α = 0, sinα
α = 1 and I = I0 , which corresponds to the
maximum intensity. Therefore α = 0 i.e. θ = 0 is the central
maximum position.
Minimum intensity positions:
9.3 Procedure:
The laser, slit and an optical detector with a pinhole are placed
on an optical bench as shown in fig.9.2. It should be made sure
that the distance between the slit and the detector should be
2
sufficiently large (>> dλ ) to meet the Fraunhoffer diffraction
condition. The light from the laser is allowed to fall on the
slit and the diffraction pattern can be seen behind the slit. This
diffraction pattern is made to fall on optical detector by laterally
moving the position of the slit and the laser. Starting from one
end of the diffraction pattern, the intensity is scanned by moving
the pinhole detector along the entire length of the pattern. You
need to measure the intensity profile up to 2 minima on either
side of the central maximum. The corresponding power shown
in the power mater at appropriate intervals is noted down. The
plot between the position of detector and the power gives the
diffraction pattern of the slit as shown in Fig.3. The position of
the slit and that of the detector is also noted down; the differ-
ence between them gives the distance D. The slit is now observed
146 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi
Figure 9.3: Typical single slit diffraction pattern observed on a screen. The
arrows indicate positions of maxima and minima to be measured.
9.4 Observations:
(a)Measurement of Intensity distribution of the Diffraction pat-
tern
Single slit diffraction 147
1) Directionality.
2) Monochromaticity.
3) High intensity and power.
4) High degree of coherence.