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Envi Sci Prelim Module

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COLLEGE OF ARTS and SCIENCES,


EDUCATION and NURSING

PAASCU Accredited

GEE 102

Environmental
Science

Name of Student:
Name of Teacher: Ms. Christine May A. Torres -Reyman
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Chapter 1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC


PROCESS

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define Environmental Science and the levels of organization.


2. Follow the steps in solving scientific problems.
3. Apply the values and attitudes of a scientist.
4. Apply the scientific reasoning.
5. Appreciate the limitations of Science.
6. Analyze and interpret specific environmental issue.

Environmental Science Defined

Environmental Science is the study of the multitude interactions


between humans and the world around them, living and non-living. As
Earth’s human population continues to grow, as technology advances and
human needs and wants increase, our impacts on the world become more
widespread and severe, despite improvement in some areas. Environmental
impacts, in turn, affect human health and well-being.

A few of the major challenges that are topics for environmental


science include:

1. Global Climate Change (global warming and all of its


consequences).
2. Management of Earth's water resources.
3. Energy and mineral resource depletion.
4. Meeting the food, fiber and clothing needs of a growing World
population.
5. Air pollution and acid rain deposition.
6. Stratospheric ozone depletion.
7. Water pollution.
8. Soil erosion, fertility depletion and contamination.
9. Deforestation
10. Habitat destruction on land and in the oceans.
11. The spread of infectious diseases, including those caused by
organisms that have developed antibiotic resistance.
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12. Long term sustainability of the Global and national economies.

All of the above and other environmental challenges are


multidisciplinary in nature. That is, in order to understand each
environmental challenge sufficiently well to develop viable solutions,
scientists must assemble expertise in several disciplines. It is true that no
single scientist will be an expert in all of the facets of the several disciplines
needed to address any one problem in detail, but it is also important that
environmental scientists, decision makers and other workers in the field
understand the different sciences sufficiently well to communicate with those
of other specialties and to appreciate the importance of other disciplines in
addressing challenges.

At a minimum, the well-trained environmental scientist will be


conversant in physics, chemistry, biology, ecology and geology (Earth
Science). The environmental scientist will also be familiar with the relevant
economic, social and political science, because all three are essential to
understanding not only how humans come to affect the environment, but also
what options are available for action, because technical fixes will rarely, if
ever, solve an environmental problem once and for all. Politics, economics
and cultural adjustment will each contribute its share to any viable solution.

Ecology and Ecosystem Differentiated

Ecology is the branch of biological sciences dealing with the


interactions between organisms and their environment (chemical and
physical factors). It is a multidisciplinary science that appeals to
Biology, Climatology, Chemistry, Engineering, Mechanics, etc.

Ecosystem is the aggregate of all organisms living in a community


and all the nonliving with which they interact. There must be a fine
equilibrium between biotic and abiotic factors in the ecosystems.

Ecosystem includes all of the organisms in a natural community or


biome plus all of the associated environmental factors with which they
interact. The term ecosystem could actually be applied to any of the
terrestrial biomes or plant communities.

The term ecosystem is well-suited for aquatic communities such as


ponds, lakes, streams and even the ocean. In fact, oceanography is the study
of the ocean ecosystem. Including ocean, topsoil and atmosphere, the earth is
a large, complex ecosystem called the biosphere; however, in terms of the
vast universe it is but a mere dot. A self-contained spaceship in which gasses
and waste are recycled may also be thought of as an ecosystem.
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Levels of Organization

Individual Organism. Any living things are included. The individual


organisms act reciprocally with the abiotic factors of the environment, which
limit their distribution.

Population. It is a group of individuals of the same species, which


inhabit the same geographic area. It comprises all the individuals of a given
species in a specific area or region at a certain time

Community. It is the whole of the organisms living in a specific area.


It includes organisms of different species.

Ecosystem. It is dynamic entities composed of the biological


community and the abiotic environment. An ecosystem's abiotic and biotic
composition and structure is determined by the state of a number of
interrelated environmental factors.

Biosphere. It is the total portion of the planet where inhabit the living
beings. It includes all the communities and all the ecosystems on Earth.

Reasoning in Science

Scientific Reasoning – is defined as the intellectual method to get at


the truth; scientists tend to use both Inductive Reasoning and Deductive
Reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is reaching a conclusion based upon a number of


observations that is going from the specific to the general. For example, one
might observe brightly- colored snakes as being poisonous; as well as
brightly-colored frogs are also poisonous. By inductive reasoning, one could
conclude that all brightly-colored animals are poisonous

Deductive reasoning is the other side of the coin. Here one reasons
from the general to the specific. It is analyzing specific cases based upon a
pre-established general principle. One might deduce that brightly colored
parrots are poisonous because of the belief that all brightly colored animals
are poisonous. In this case, however, we know it is not true and we must
reconsider our original general statement, arrived at by induction.
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The Scientific Method

The statement that a rose plant does not bear any flower because of
lack of carbon dioxide and water is called a hypothesis, which is a tentative
solution or generalization to a problem. A big part of science is to attempt to
disprove hypothesis. If, over time, the hypothesis survives all attempts to
disprove it, it becomes accepted as a theory that is a general truth about the
natural world but not yet universally accepted. In biology, one example is
the Theory of Evolution. Once the theory is universally accepted, it becomes
a scientific law. Examples of scientific laws are the Law of Inertia, Law of
Gravity and Law of Interaction.

The Scientific Method is a combination of the creative reasoning and


testing of hypothesis. It occurs in a step by step procedures outlined below:

1. Carefully Identify the Problem under study based upon observations of


the natural world. To identify is to specify the problem for the purpose of
gathering specific data or information.
2. Gather Specific Data or Information about the specific problem. These
informations are used to formulate hypotheses as a tentative solution to the
specified problem.
2. Formulate a Hypothesis as a possible answer or solution to the problem.
This hypothesis will be tested in the experimentation process.
3. Plan and conduct an Experiment and Series of Observation. Testing
the validity of the hypothesis and to verify the validity of the tentative
solution to the problem. It is a controlled attempt to verify and test the
hypothesis.
4. Formulate Conclusion/ Generalization based on the facts discovered
from the experimentation/laboratory activity.
5. Communicate the Result through television, radio, magazine, and
science journal for future application.
6. Apply the Result of the process for the formulation of theory and/ or
scientific law.

Values and Attitudes in Science

A scientific attitude is a way of looking at things governed by facts


based on observations. The scientific attitudes are very useful in any career
particularly in Science.
The following are attitudes that one should possess in order to
become more successful in the chosen field like biological sciences (Modified
from Bronowski, Taken from The Kansas School Naturalist, Vol. 35, No. 4, April 1989.)
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1. Empiricism. A scientist prefers to "look and see." You do not argue
about whether it is raining outside -- just stick a hand out the window.
2. Determinism. "Cause-and-effect" underlie everything. In simple
mechanisms, an action causes a reaction, and effects do not occur
without causes.
3. A belief That Problems Have Solutions. Major problems have
been tackled in the past, like sending a man to the moon. Other
problems such as pollution, war, poverty, and ignorance are seen as
having real causes and are therefore solvable -- perhaps not easily,
but possible.
4. Parsimony. Prefer the simple explanation than the complex.
5. Scientific Manipulation. Any idea, it may be simple and conform to
apparent observations, must also be confirmed by work that teases
out the possibility that the effects are caused by other factors. Don't
jump to conclusions, especially if you found what you were looking
for in the first place!
6. Skepticism. Nearly all statements make assumptions of prior
conditions. A scientist often reaches a dead-end in research and has to
go back and determine if all the assumptions made are true to how the
world operates. Be particularly skeptical of assumptions that come
from non-science domains IF they claim scientific truth. In short,
harness a questioning mind bout things said to be the truth.
7. Precision. Scientists are impatient with vague statements. Scientists
are very exact and very "picky."
8. Respect For Scientific Paradigms. A paradigm is our overall
understanding about how the world works. It means a framework or
structure is working at things.
9. A Respect For Power Of Theoretical Structure. A scientist is
unlikely to adopt the attitude: "That is all right in theory but it won't
work in practice." Theory is "all right" only if it does work in
practice. Indeed the rightness of the theory is in the end what the
scientist is working toward; no science facts are accumulated at
random. Theory guides observation; and observation modifies theory.
10. Willingness To Change Opinion. Scientists are willing to
immediately throw away old fashion ideas that are no longer
applicable to scientific endeavor.
11. Loyalty To reality. Ability to accept a model that matched reality
better. A scientist would never have considered holding to an opinion
just because it is associated with his name.
12. An Automatic Preference For Scientific Explanation. No scientist
can know all of the experimental evidence underlying current science
concepts and therefore must adopt some views without understanding
their basis. A scientist rejects non-scientific explanations and prefers
science paradigms out of an appreciation for the power of reality
based, testable knowledge.
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13. A thirst For Knowledge, An "Intellectual Drive." Scientists are
addicted puzzle-solvers. Scientists are willing to live with
incompleteness rather than "...fill the gaps with off-hand
explanations."
14. Ability To Suspend Judgment. A scientist tries hard not to form an
opinion on a given issue until he or she has investigated it, because it
is so hard to give up opinions already formed. Willingness to act on
the best hypothesis that one has time or opportunity to form.
15. Awareness Of Assumptions. A good scientist starts by defining
terms, making all assumptions very clear, and reducing necessary
assumptions to the smallest number possible. Often we want
scientists to make broad statements about a complex world. But
usually scientists are very specific about what they "know" or will
say with certainty: "When these conditions hold true, the usual
outcome is such-and-such."
16. Ability To Separate Fundamental Concepts From The Irrelevant
or Unimportant. Beginning science students get bogged down in
observations and data that are of little importance to the concept they
want to investigate. Levels of analysis vary, and keeping focus on the
"big picture" can be difficult.
17. Respect For Quantification And Appreciation Of mathematics As
A Language Of Science. Many of nature's relationships are best
revealed by patterns and mathematical relationships when reality is
counted or measured.
18. An Appreciation Of Probability And Statistics. Correlations do
not prove cause-and-effect, but some pseudoscience arises when a
chance occurrence is taken as "proof." Individuals who insist on an
all-or-none world and who have little experience with statistics will
have difficulty understanding the concept of an event occurring by
chance, or the relationship of a sample to a population.
19. An Understanding That All Knowledge Has Tolerance Limits.
All careful analyses of the world reveal measurements that scatter at
least slightly around the average point; a human's core body
temperature is about so many degrees and objects fall with a certain
rate of acceleration, but there is some variation. There is no absolute
certainty, nor is it required in science.
20. Empathy For The Human Condition. The practice of science is
bounded by ethical constraints, and good scientists are aware of, and
often deeply involved in, other moral and ideological domains.
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The Limitations of Science

"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right;


a single experiment can prove me wrong."- Einstein

Mankind has never devised a better tool for solving the mysteries of
the universe than science. However, there are some kinds of questions for
which scientific problem solving is unsuited. In other words, science has
limitations.

There are three primary areas for which science can't help us answer
our questions. All of these have the same problem: The questions they
present don't have testable answers. Since testability is so vital to the
scientific process, these questions simply fall outside the venue of science
(Modified from Thompson, Originally published in Reason & Revelation, Revised 1990.).

The Four Areas of Science Limitation are:

1. Science can't answer questions about value. For example, there


is no scientific answer to the questions, "Which of these ladies s is
prettier?" or "Which is more valuable, one ounce of gold or one ounce of
steel?" Our culture places value on the element gold, but if what you
need is something to build a skyscraper with, gold, a very soft metal, is
pretty useless. So there's no way to scientifically determine value.

2. Science can't answer questions of morality. The problem of


deciding good and bad, right and wrong is outside the determination of
science. This is why expert scientific witnesses can never help us solve
the dispute over abortion: all a scientist can tell you is what is going on
as a fetus develops; the question of whether it is right or wrong to
terminate those events is determined by cultural and social rules--in other
words, morality. The science can't help here. But scientists are not
exempted from consideration of the moral issues that surrounds them;
they are accountable morally and ethically for what they do.

There is nothing inherent in the scientific method that provides for


the definition or study of morals. Science simply does not have the
mechanism (by definition of its own method) to legislate morals. This is
not meant to imply that scientists work without morals or values. It is
simply to say that whatever morals or values they possess were not
derived from the scientific method. Science is not equipped to deal with
morals.

3. The scientific method is limited in that it cannot deal with the


unique. The scientific method deals with those things that are: (a)
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timeless; (b) universal; (c) dependable; and (d) repeatable. Those things
that do not fit in these categories are outside the realm of science. The
important distinction between science and those other systematizations
(the arts, philosophy, and theology) is that science is self-testing and self-
correcting. The testing and correcting are done by means of observations
that can be repeated with essentially the same results by normal persons
operating by the same methods and with the same approach.

4. Finally, science can't help us with questions about the


Supernatural. Supernatural means "above (or beyond) the natural." The
toolbox of a scientist contains only the natural laws of the universe;
supernatural questions are outside their reach. They certainly can't prove
this, since by definition a god is a supernatural phenomenon.

Can you name other limitations of Science?

I was trying to get people to see that you can't just grow
forever and hope that the environment will take care of
itself. (Timothy Flannery)

Reflect on THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
10

Worksheet # 01

Name: Date:

Course/ Year: Professor:

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1.Science

2.Scientific Method

3.Ecology

4.Hypothesis

5.Experimentation

6.Scientific Attitudes

7.Theory

8.Scientific Law

9.Generalization

10.Ecosystem
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II. Completion.

1. is the aggregate of all organisms living in a


community and all the nonliving with which they interact.

2. is the branch of biological sciences dealing with the


interactions between organisms and their environment.

3. is the total portion of the planet where inhabit the


living beings. It includes all the communities and all the ecosystems on
Earth.

4. is a group of individuals of the same species, which


inhabit the same geographic area.

5. is defined as the intellectual method to get at the


truth; scientists tend to use both Inductive Reasoning and Deductive
Reasoning.

6. is a general truth about the natural world but not


yet universally accepted.

7. is the whole of the organisms living in a specific


area. It includes organisms of different species.

8. is reaching a conclusion based upon a number of


observations that is going from the specific to the general.

9. is dynamic entities composed of the biological


community and the abiotic environment.

10. is a way of analyzing specific cases based upon a


pre-established general principle.
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III. How and Why

1. Why is there a need for a scientist to know the limitations of


Science? Does these not affect their credibility as scientist?

2. How could you repair an electric fan that is not working properly?
Apply the scientific method.
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3. Why are traits/ scientific characteristics important in the field of


Science?

4. How will you prepare a laboratory procedure to verify the validity


of the hypothesis? Give example.
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IV. Project / Research

1. Scientific research is an unending process. Make a list of current


innovations/ issues in the field of Environmental Science and
discuss the implications.

2. Prepare a “Great Filipino Environmentalists” report. Make a


synthesis of their contributions in the advancement of
Environmental Science and Technology.

3. Identify/ name at least one environmental problem and prepare a


procedure on how to solve such problem then recommend
solutions.
15

Chapter 2

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEMS

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystem.


2. Differentiate autotrophs and heterotrophs.
3. Name and discuss the factors influencing the distribution of
plants and animals.
4. Explain the important processes in the ecosystem.
5. Analyze and interpret specific environmental issue.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors of Ecosystem

Ecosystems are ecological units that include all the living or biotic
factors and non-living or abiotic factors in an area. Examples include regions
such as ponds, caves, or portions of a forest or desert.

Biotic factors, these refer to the biological influences on organisms


within an ecosystem. This includes all ecological community and
relationships such as insect-flower relationships, predator-prey relationships,
seed dispersal, scavenging, symbiosis (mutualism, parasitism &
commensalism), overpopulation, animal behavior, aposematic coloration,
etc.

Abiotic factors are those that relate physical, or nonliving, factors that
shape the ecosystem. These include the climatic conditions of terrestrial,
freshwater and marine ecosystems; including temperature, precipitation, and
humidity; wind; nutrients available; substrate (soil); atmospheric gasses,
currents and sunlight.

Together, biotic and abiotic factors determine the survival and growth
of an organism and the productivity of the ecosystem in which the organism
lives.

The abiotic factors determine the type of organisms that can


successfully live in a particular area. Some of the major nonliving
factors of an ecosystem include:

1. Sunlight. This is necessary for photosynthesis.


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2. Water. All living things require some water, but some can live
with lesser amounts.
3. Temperature. All living things have a range of temperatures in
which they can survive; beyond those limits they will have
difficult time.
4. Oxygen. Many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for
cellular respiration, a process used to obtain energy from food;
others are actually killed by the presence of oxygen (certain
bacteria).
5. Soil. The type of soil, pH, amount of water it holds, available
nutrients, etc determine what type of organism can successfully
live in or on the soil; for example, cacti live in sand, cattails in
soil saturated with water.

The biotic factors include the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and any
other living things that live in an area. Categories include:

1. Producers or autotrophs make their own food. Producers, such


as plants, make food through a process called photosynthesis. In
photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and water to make
sugar. This food is used by the plant for its own energy or may be
eaten by consumers.
2. Consumers or heterotrophs need to eat food that autotrophs
have produced. There are different types of consumers.
Herbivores eat plants. Carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat
both plants and animals.
3. Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down dead tissue and
waste products. They play a very important role in the ecosystem
because they recycle nutrients. Bacteria and fungi are
decomposers.

Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical


area in which they live. The habitat of an organism may include
many different areas. Think of the various places you might find a mouse; in
a field, a garden and in the walls of your house. Animals that migrate will
have different habitats during different seasons.

If events occur to change a habitat a series of changes may result in


the ecosystem. For example, cutting the trees in a forest destroys the homes
of some animals, increases the amount of light that reaches the forest floor,
reduces the amount of food for organisms that depend on those trees, reduces
the amount of carbon dioxide taken from the air and oxygen released into it.
As a result of this habitat destruction, some organisms may become
threatened, endangered and eventually extinct.
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Important Processes in Ecosystems

 Photosynthesis
o carried out by plants (with chlorophyll)
o rate is influenced by light intensity, temperature, and
availability of water

 Decomposition
o reverse of photosynthesis, with organic matter being
converted into inorganic compounds (like carbon
dioxide)
o accomplished by decomposers:
 microorganisms like bacteria & fungi
 larger organisms like earthworms

 Herbivory - the eating of plants by animals of various types


 Carnivory - the eating of animals by other animals

Factors Influencing the Distribution of Plants and Animals

1. Temperature - the ability to withstand extremes in temperature


varies widely among plants & animals

o Animals respond to variation in temperature both


physiologically and behaviorally. Birds and mammals are
endotherms ('hot-blooded') & maintain relatively high body
temperatures using the heat by their own metabolism. Other
animals (such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, & insects) are
called ectotherms & their body temperatures are largely set by
the ambient (surrounding) temperature.
 Ectotherms - use sources of heat such as solar
radiation (direct and indirect) & conduction to help
adjust their body temperature

 Endotherms - may maintain body temperature by:


 changing the position of fur or feathers
 sweating & panting
 shivering
 behavioral means such as seeking shade or
water, burrowing, or varying periods of
activity

 Endotherms - may avoid extended periods of low or


high temperatures by hibernating or estivating
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 Hibernation - winter dormancy
 Estivation - summer dormancy
 common among some desert animals
(permits conservation of water)

o Plants - obviously cannot move to escape high or low


temperatures
 photosynthesis slows down or stops when
temperatures get too high or too low
 at high temperatures, leaves can lose some heat
by evapotranspiration (loss of water through
small holes in leaves)

 plants adapted to withstand low temperatures:


 may have hairs on leaves or stems
 have more solutes in cytoplasm to reduce
freezing point
 tend to be short and grow closely together to
resist the cold temperatures and wind
 tend to be dark-colored to absorb as much of
the sun’s heat as possible

2. Water

a. precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the


world-wide distribution of biomes.

o Primary problem for plants in areas like deserts is a lack of


water. Plants adapted for arid conditions include:
 Xerophytes, such as cacti that usually have special
means of storing and conserving water. They often
have few or no leaves, which reduces
transpiration.
 Phreatophytes - plants that grow extremely long roots,
allowing them to acquire moisture at or near the water
table.

 perennials, survive by becoming dormant during dry


periods, then springing to life when water becomes
available.
 ephemerals, that usually germinate in the spring
following winter rains. They grow quickly, flower and
produce seeds before dying. These seeds are extremely
hardy. They remain dormant, resisting drought and
heat, until the following spring -- sometimes 2 or 3
springs -- when they repeat the cycle, germinating
after winter rains to bloom again in the spring.
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3. Fire

o Historically, humans have thought that all fires were


detrimental because they blackened landscapes and burned
trees. In fact, plants and animals evolved together with fire,
making it a necessary element in the survival of many
ecosystems.

o Effects of fire:
 Plants - Many plants depend on fire to heat and scar
their seeds as a process for germination. Decaying
trees release nutrients into the soil and serve as a base
for new plants to sprout. Much of the plant life in the
United States has evolved to use fire directly as a
catalyst for reproduction or benefited by the
nourishment left in its path.
 Animals - The specific effects of fire on animals
depends on what kind of fire, the type of vegetation,
and the individual animal.
 Larger animals generally survive more often
than smaller ones; although a burrowed
animal can escape burning, usually it
suffocates in the meantime.
 Many birds also thrive after a fire when the
seeds of many trees are dispersed. Birds, like
woodpeckers, take advantage of burned out
trees to make nests or forage for dead insects.
 Insects usually do not survive fires well
because their escape range is too small. This
can affect birds if the specific insects are a
food source for the aviators. Trees can benefit
from the death of insects that reside in their
trunks.

4. Light

o influences daily and seasonal activity patterns of plants and


animals
o necessary for photosynthesis which, in turn, is the source of
energy in almost all ecosystems
 Energy flow through an ecosystem:

 Gross primary production = all the sun's


energy that is assimilated (total
photosynthesis)
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 Respiration = energy needed for maintenance
and reproduction
 Net primary production
 energy remaining after respiration &
stored as organic matter
 energy available to other organisms in a
food chain (or food web)

Well, to me science is nothing mysterious. It's the world


that we live in and it's trying to understand the world
we live in, and we can comprehend it in relatively simple
terms and pass on that wonder and interest in this
fantastic world we all live in very easily I think.
(Timothy Flannery)

Reflect on THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
21
Worksheet # 02

Name: Date:

Course/ Year: Professor:

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Ecosystem

2. BioticFactors

3. AbioticFactors

4. Temperature

5. Photosynthesis

6. Producers

7. Heterotrophs

8. Decomposers

9. Decomposition

10. Endotherms
22
II. Completion.

1. includes all ecological community and


relationships such as insect-flower relationships, predator-prey
relationships, seed dispersal, scavenging, symbiosis, etc…
2. is an ecological unit that include all the
living or biotic factors and non-living or abiotic factors in an area.
Examples include regions such as ponds, caves, or portions of a
forest or desert.
3. means that all living things have a range of
temperatures in which they can survive; beyond those limits they
will have difficult time.
4. The determine the type of organisms that can
successfully live in a particular area.
5. , such as plants, make food through a
process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon
dioxide and water to make sugar.
6. are heterotrophs that break down dead
tissue and waste products. They play a very important role in the
ecosystem because they recycle nutrients. Bacteria and fungi are
decomposers.
7. , survive by becoming dormant during dry
periods, then springing to life when water becomes available.
8. need to eat food that autotrophs have
produced. There are different types of consumers. Herbivores eat
plants.
9. Animals respond to variation in both
physiologically and behaviorally. Birds and mammals are
endotherms and maintain relatively high body temperatures using
the heat by their own metabolism.
10. , such as cacti that usually have special
means of storing and conserving water. They often have few or no
leaves, which reduces transpiration.
23
III. Discussions

1. Discuss the following comprehensively:

1.1 The biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystem

1.2 Differentiate autotrophs and heterotrophs.


24
1.3 Factors influencing the distribution of plants and animals.

1.4 The important processes in the ecosystem.


25
IV. Project / Research

1. Scientific research is an unending process. Make a list of current


innovations/ issues in the field of Environmental Science and
discuss the implications.

2. Identify/ name at least one environmental problem and prepare a


procedure on how to solve such problem then recommend
solutions.
26
Chapter 3

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS AND INTERACTIONS

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate the various ecological interactions.


2. Discuss the three types of direct of interaction.
3. Appreciate the importance mutualism.
4. Discuss commensalism and its significance.
5. Identify and analyze environmental issues and concerns.

Community Interactions.

1. Competition happens when organisms of the same or different


species attempt to use an ecological resource in the same place at the same
time. The competition is generally observed for acquiring some limiting
abiotic factor in the environment.

So plants compete for water, light, minerals, and carbon dioxide for
example. Some plants are better able to compete than others in a given
portion of an ecosystem. These species exclude their competitors from that
part of the ecosystem; this is called competitive exclusion.

2. Predation is an interaction where one organism captures and feeds


on another organism. Predator refers to the organism that kills and
consumes and Prey is an organism turns into someone's dine.

3. Symbiosis refers to any relationship in which two species live


closely together. Species always live together in communities, but some
species interact in a much more intimate way. We call these more-intimate
interactions a symbiosis.

Three Types of Direct Interaction

Mutualism occurs when both species benefit from the relationship.


Ex. Flowers and insect.
27
Examples of Mutualisms

Pollination

 Pollinator may get:


o Food (nectar, pollen- high energy or high protein food)
o Mating advantage - some bees get scent molecules
o Nesting materials - some bees get wax for their nests
 Flowering plant gets:
o Efficiency of pollen transfer (compared to wind)
o Mixing of pollen from many plants and prevention of
inbreeding
 Pollinators include flies, bees, wasps, bats, beetles, birds
o any animal that visits the flower regularly may be a pollinator

Dispersal Mutualisms

 Fruits are plant rewards for animal dispersal of seeds


 Seeds often pass through the guts of dispersers without harm
o some seeds even benefit from this by being deposited with the
manure as a fertilizer
o some seeds use the passage as a signal to germinate and will
not do so without this
o some plants protect the seed with toxins while making the
fruit palatable
 peach seeds (pits) are full of cyanide
o some plants sacrifice some seeds to dispersers (seeds are
usually very good food - lots of vitamins, protein and lipids)
 Lots of cheaters in this system (whenever seeds are eaten as food and
are not just passing through the gut)
 Fruit colors are important signals
o make fruit apparent to dispersers (advertisements)
o green fruit often contain same toxins as other part of plant to
stop herbivory
 when ripe, color change signals readiness in that the
fruit has:
 lost it toxins
 been stocked with sugars

Cleaning Mutualisms

 one species gets food by removing (and eating) ectoparasites of


another
 partner loses its parasites without having to clean itself
o happens on reefs where cleaner shrimp clean parasites from
fish at "cleaning stations"
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o also on reefs, cleaner fish perform same function as shrimp
o birds eat parasites from outside of large herbivores (carabao)

Defense Mutualisms

 one species gets food and/or shelter from another species


 other partner gets protection from being eaten
o Ant-Acacia system
 Acacia Tree provides:
 place for ants to live in swollen base of tree.
 food for ants in form of special extension of
leaves.
 ants are aggressive and attack almost anything that
comes into provide protection from
 other insect herbivores
 large, vertebrate herbivores (including you, if
you happen to lean on the tree)

Importance of Mutualisms

 Mutualism once thought to be important in the way nature worked


 Mutualism fell out of favor:
o Competition/predation studies became more common
o Theory predicted either that mutualist populations became
infinite in size or that an equilibrium was unstable (tended to
go to extinction when perturbed from equilibrium point)
 Correlated point is that you never see three-way
mutualism (where there must be three partners
present) and theory predicts that instability goes up
very sharply as the number of partners increases
 Many feel that some mutualisms get their start as parasitic
relationships and that evolution of the system may, under certain
conditions, favor mutualism as the final outcome

Commensalism happens when one member of the association


benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. Commensalism means
literally 'at table together'. This is a symbiotic relationship between two
species in which one species benefits and the other neither benefits or harms.
Often, the host species provides a home and/or transportation for the other
species.

Examples:

 clownfishes live within the waving mass of tentacles of sea


anemones; Because most fishes aviod the poisonous tentacles, the
clownfishes are protected from predators. Perhaps this relationship
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borders on mutualism because the clownfishes actually may attract
other fishes on which the anemone can feed. The sea anemone's
tentacles quickly paralyze and seize other fishes as prey;

Parasitism if one organism lives in or on another organism, obtaining


from its host part of all of its nutritional needs. Ex. Fleas, lice, tapeworms

This is a symbiotic relationship between two organisms in which one


species (parasite) benefits for growth and reproduction to the harm of the
other species (host). It must be emphasized that parasite and host interact and
that excessive harm done to a host, which makes it less competitive , also
endangers the survival of the parasite species. Parasitism can be
differentiated into ectoparasites and endoparasites, depending respectively,
on whether they live on or in the host. Lice, flea, ticks, etc. are examples of
ectoparasites. Tape-worms and the malaria parasite are examples of
endoparasites.

A parasite is an organism that:

 lives on or in the body of another organism (the host)


 from whose tissues it gets its nourishment, and
 to whom it does some damage

Animals are parasitized by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans,


flatworms (tapeworms and flukes), nematodes, insects (fleas, lice), and
arachnids (mites).

Plants are parasitized by viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and a


few other plants.

Parasites damage their host in two major ways:

 consuming its tissues, e.g., hookworms


 liberating toxins, for example,
o Tetanus bacilli secrete tetanus toxin which interferes with
synaptic transmission.
o Diphtheria bacilli secrete a toxin that inhibits protein
synthesis by ribosomes.

The relationship between parasite and host varies along a spectrum


that extends from.

1. "hit and run" parasites that live in their host for a brief period and
then move on to another with or without killing the first
to
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2. parasites that establish chronic infections. Both parasite and host
must evolve to ensure the survival of both because if the parasite kills
its host before it can move on, it destroys its own meal ticket.

Examples:

 Parasitism in Plants

A plant parasite is the Dodder (Cuscuta sp.). It is often found twined


round the stems of clover plants or grasses, which it damages severly. Each
Dodder plant consists of a long slender yellow or pinkish stem, with the
leaves reduced to tiny scales, and roots being absent except for a short time
after germination. At intervals along the twining stem small rootlike
structures, called haustoria, link the Dodder to its host and penetrate to the
host's vascular bundles. In this way the parasite obtains organic nutrients,
water and mineral salts directly from the host. The Dodder is not fussy about
its host. Any herbaceous plant can be infected. Woody plants are usually too
hard for the haustoria to be able to penetrate. If plants are densely packed,
dodder will spread rapidly to adjacent plants. It can cause a great deal of
damage to wheat or lucerne fields.

 Parasitism in Animals

The bilharzia parasite, Schistosoma haematobium, a parasitc


flatworm, is a good example of a successful parasite. It completes its life
cycle in two hosts. The male and female adults live in the blood of humans
while larval forms live in the bodies of a type of snail, Bulinus africanus.
The adults posses suckers with which they attach themselves to the walls of
blood vessels. Their bodies are covered with thick cuticles. When mature,
adults meet in the blood of man. The male and female become 'associated' in
that the slightely broader male rolls its body into a tube in which the long,
thin female lives. When the female is ready to lay eggs she frees herself and
moves into small blood vesels in the wall of the bladder. There she lay eggs.
When the egg comes into contact with the water, its shell breaks and a
ciliated larva, called a miracidium, is released. If it comes in contact with a
host it works itself into the body of the snail by means of hydrolysis.
Sporocysts are produced by the miracidium. Cercariae are produced after
several generations of sporocysts. The cercariae make their way into the
water and make contact with a human. Their it comes into the blood stream
and live their. Within six to twelve weeks the larvae develop into adults and
the cycle is reported once more.
31

But no matter how big the effort to push a propaganda


line might be, climate change is bigger. This, undoubtedly
and regrettably, is the biggest immediate long-term
environmental challenge we face. A failure to concretely
come to some policy outcome on climate change has not
only a negative environmental impact but also social and
economic consequences for us.
( Peter Garrett)

Reflect on THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
32

Worksheet # 03

Name: Date:

Course/ Year: Professor:

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Parasitism

2. Mutualism

3. Symbiosis

4. Predation

5. Competition

6. Pollination

7. Endoparasites

8. Ectoparasites

9. Predator

10. Parasites
33

II. Completion.

1. refers to any relationship in which two


species live closely together. Species always live together in
communities, but some species interact in a much more intimate way.
2. happens when organisms of the same or
different species attempt to use an ecological resource in the same
place at the same time.
3. Some plants are better able to compete than others in a given portion
of an ecosystem. These species exclude their competitors from that
part of the ecosystem; this is called .
4. refers to the organism that kills and
consumes and Prey is an organism turns into someone's dine.
5. happens when one member of the association
benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. Commensalism
means literally 'at table together'.
6. It must be emphasized that parasite and host interact and that
excessive harm done to a host, which makes it ,
also endangers the survival of the parasite species.
7. Theory predicted either that became infinite
in size or that an equilibrium was unstable (tended to go to extinction
when perturbed from equilibrium point)
8. Parasitism can be differentiated into ectoparasites and endoparasites,
depending respectively, on whether they live on or in the host. Lice,
flea, ticks, etc. are examples of .
9. are usually too hard for the haustoria to be
able to penetrate. If plants are densely packed, dodder will spread
rapidly to adjacent plants. It can cause a great deal of damage to
wheat or lucerne fields.
10. Cercariae are produced after several generations of
. The cercariae make their way into the
water and make contact with a human.
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III. Discussions

1. Discuss the following comprehensively:

1.1 Dispersal Mutualisms

1.2 Cleaning Mutualisms


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1.3 Parasitism in Plants

1.4 Parasitism in Animals


36

IV. Assignment.

Discuss the issue on “Biodiversity's Response To Ecosystem Productivity Depends


On Historical Plant And Animal Relationships”.

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