0

1
 Polévoque

Managing Editor, David E. Dixon, California State

University, Dominguez Hills
Associate Managing Editor, Salvatore Russo, California
State University, Dominguez Hills
Editorial Board
Davis W. Houck, Florida State University Patrick
McKinlay, Morningside College
Nancy Love, Appalachian State University
David Barrett, Villanova University
Ryan Bowles Eagle, California State University,
Dominguez Hills

2
 Table of Contents

Page
Christopher Hendrix, Eritrean Nationalist Identity, African-Middle East Relations,
And Autonomy...............................................................................................................4

Angel Cervantes-Vargas, Ideologies, Political Parties, and Arab Spring in Egypt...….8

Robert Lopez, A Comparison of the Autogolpes in Venezuela, and the U.S. …..........13

Cynthia Taboada, Separatist Nationalism in Israel, and India…………………..…….21

Sindarvani Lal, Ideologies in Cuba, China, and the Soviet Union………………........26

Zaira Funes, Pura Vida Politics: Reshaping Costa Rica……………………...……….32

Melissa Prado, Guatemala’s Policy Toward the Indigenous…………………….……36

Richard Salinas, Operation Car Wash: A Democracy Fall out…………………...…...40

Stephen Sloane, Is the Canary in our Political Coal Mine Dead or Alive?...................44

3
 Christopher Hendrix
Eritrean Nationalist Identity, African-Middle East Relations, and Autonomy
Abstract
Revisiting themes surrounding social and political movements are imperative in
emphasizing the key goals of sovereignty, interdependence, and democracy. Focusing on two countries: Eritrea & the
United Arab Emirates (U.A.E), we focus on two core questions. How do the Eritrean people foster their political and cultural
autonomy within non-Eritrean borders namely Ethiopia? The second question is what were the movements
associated with the Arab Spring in the UAE and what are the political implications of dissent, as they relate to protest, grassroots
organization, and opposition to political instability? Data in this essay come from the bibliography which appears at the end.

The United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) are a series of around highly conservative ideals, regressive policies, and
federated sheikhdoms within the geographic Middle East political control. Encouraged by the Muslim Brotherhood
consisting of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras Al (MB), this created a climate of instability, arguing for
Khaimah, Sharjah, and Um Al Quwain (CIA Factbook, regressive policies where they hold political power, and
UAE, Introduction). In the decades since its official perpetuating fear and uncertainty where they did not. On
inception (1971), the Emirates have become a political and the other hand, more pro-democratic groups seek to
economic powerhouse in the Middle East, bolstering their increase matters and reforms according to the Western
wealth and advancements largely due to their natural oil model, to the dismay of their ideological counterparts.
reserves. Important events that displayed the nation-states’ Academics in the Middle East and West emphasize a
ability to persist through was the military upheaval stable transition while cautioning against a radical and
between the United States and the Arab states of fast-moving push, which could destabilize the region.
Afghanistan and Iraq. The nation also suffered the loss of Possible conflating regimes and ideologies could lump the
its founder Zayed bin Sultan alNahyan in 2004, who was pan-theocratic nature of the MB alongside more pro-
instrumental in solidifying the seven sheikhdoms together democratic groups (Alnuaimi, Rutledge, & Forstenlechter,
and fostering important diplomatic and economic reforms pg. 55-58,2012).
within the country. A smooth transition of power went
from al-Nahyan to his son, in succeeding the role of The modernization of the Emirates stems back series of
Sheikof Abu Dhabi and President of the Federal Supreme decades, beginning in the early 1970s. Reforms and
Council. As of now the citizens and government have no emphasis were on initiatives surrounding free education,
intention of integrating too much emphasis on democratic healthcare, and more accessible opportunities for both
forms, with relatively stable social and cultural norms genders (Male & Female). Political ideology has made the
(Pollack, pg. 177-178, 2011). U.A.E. utilize a laissez-faire approach to economic
innovations. In turn, blatant opposition results in
During the Arab Spring, speculation among nation- suppressed dissent e.g., the media world and other outlets.
states and those situated in the Western world believed a Ranging from international media corporations such as
domino effect would impact political dissent in other Arab CNN and Sky News have leverage in giving critique
countries, including the United Arab Emirates. After domestic-based media companies, media within the
protests and political unrest sprang forth in neighboring country abide by certain boundaries that prevent negative
countries such as Tunisia and Syria, the UAE began to sentiments towards the government and possible backlash.
expect a contagion of possible protests regarding Many of the controversies settle on possible instabilities in
socioeconomic and political reforms. In the beginning, it Emirati society as a whole, as the radical formations within
had seemed that possibly the UAE would have less tension socioeconomics can have adverse effects on the economy
since they boasted a relatively stable liberal status quo and future sustainability. Most resistance groups aim at
along with the government calling for 6000 potential job holding their Arab governments accountable with the MB
seekers to have work. Unfortunately, this has been and affiliated Al Islah being prominent examples, at least
attributed to the results of regular business and on the right of the political spectrum. The downside is the
communication agreements (Alnuaimi, Rutledge, & loss of human lives when fighting to depose powers whom
Forstenlechter, pg. 55-58, 2012). they deem as a threat or against Muslim-related customs
(Alnuaimi, Rutledge, & Forstenlechter, pg. 55-58,2012).
The UAE government became wary of certain protest
groups and local Islamists whose sentiments revolved

4
 The presence of social media has also shown a high Dergue and Eritrean People’s Liberation Front lasted for
correlation with social and political events, with change, over a decade at this point (Keller, pg.78, 2014).
exacerbated namely before and into the Arab Spring protest.
While known by a few names in social science research, The Dergue hoped to create a classless society through
popular commentators have gone on to call this phenomenon equal treatment and writing the wrongs of colonial
the Facebook revolution. The literature behind this contains imperialism. This was done by confiscating private land
a central theme in how technology is in use; yet not because and making it in the name of the citizens while on the
of the protest but how the collective groups of individuals contrary restricting them from owning or managing the
across different areas and regions resonated with a cause or resources. In doing so, they aimed at making dominating
crisis e.g., political, social, and economic reform. Internet institutions irrelevant to champion social progress and
penetration is the number of Internet users in a country based equality. On the other hand, many complaints from citizens
on the 2011 Internet World stats. Examining how political regarding state violence against political dissent pose
upheaval causes inhabitants to mobilize online is an human rights abuses. The Marxist-Leninist constitution the
indicator of accessibility, movement organization, and country promoted placed them in bad behavior with
raising awareness of suppressor inequitable factors. Another Western-style democracies, namely the United States under
point of view, known as the cultural incongruence the Carter administration in 1977. In response to human
hypothesis, signifies the masses of people’s ideals toward rights violations, the tension resulted in the U.S. cutting off
democratic values and the number of democratic themes military aid. (Keller, pg. 79-80, 2014). These forms of
their country has or minimizes (Segev, Sheafer, & restraint are only one aspect of a far deeper problem, built
Wolfsfeld, pg. 116-120, 2013). more on social and historical autonomy than power.
Spectators within the international community examine
Across the Arab world, these forms of dissent and Eritrea only as the happenstance of its controversial human
rebellion have caused leaders to rethink domestic rights abuses while neglecting the political dimensions
approaches. The United Arab Emirates on the other hand has associated with such events. Another impediment to
controversially associated human rights violations primarily Eritrean autonomy comes in the form of the news media,
with free speech. This comes in the form of laws put in place with certain themes popularized throughout the region,
that have unchecked power in persecuting online critics of unfavorable to the country. The crippling ways in which
the UAE government. This can range from political Emperor Haile Selassie held to erase Eritrean autonomy
cartoons, pictures, and other content that endanger “National through unilateral measures in the constitution had proven
Security” and contend with the public order of the UAE. to be troublesome (Keller, pg. 9, 1991).
Other forms have come in the guise of prosecuting family
members connected with a dissident and or foreigners From a foreign policy point of view, the United States
critical of the administration. Examples of familial targeting aimed for security initiatives between the Eritrean-
range from three sisters who were jailed on behalf of Ethiopian conflict in two ways: the first way was by
protesting the incarceration of their brother, a prisoner of wanting to keep the Eritrean coastline from falling into
conscience. Jordanian Tayseer al-Najjar, a journalist, was Arab hands at the behest of Israel. The second way was to
detained for nine months without a trial, raising questions isolate, contain, and depose the National Islamic Front
and concerns from Human Rights Watch. The severity of the (NIF) with anti-Sudan policies and rhetoric aimed toward
crimes taking place ranges from reaching to purely Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Uganda in hopes the coalition would
mundane, such as sharing sites regarding refugees and even push back the Arab influence. Once again Washington had
relative discouragement of UAE laws can cause an failed to understand the Eritrean Ethiopian conflict,
individual a heavy fine and or detainment (Abrougui, pg. 1- neglecting the importance of Ethiopia’s aim of ethnic
4, 2016). federalism and Eritrea’s assertion of national sovereignty
and self-determination (Barry, Gilkes, pg. 1-6, 2005).
Destabilizing conflicts still wane as Eritrea and Ethiopia Eritrean and Ethiopian conflict had derived from systematic
debate autonomous sovereignty and communication forms of varying autonomy and regional distribution of
disputes arising out of the Eritrean Ethiopian War. Political powers. Caused by factors such as economic currency in
and social instability arises from historical conflicts Eritrea and its relation to the dominant Ethiopian currency,
surrounding the Eritrean people seeking autonomy and assets relating to ports and commerce, and disagreement
recognition in Ethiopia. Political groups such as the over specific demarcation guidelines associated with their
Eritrean Liberation Movement sought self-determination borders. The lack of nation-state building and
and separation from the dominance of Ethiopia. The regime democratization has limited both countries' aims between
in power, otherwise known as the Dergue, had been aware themselves and their legitimacy, geographic sovereignty,
of the unpopular opinion and instability surrounding the and ethnic/cultural identities. Eritrea’s 1998 military attack
multi-ethnic society. These ethnic groups demanded to on the disputed border town of Badme resulted in the start
have equal citizenship under the law and possible of the 2-year Ethiopia-Eritrea conflict. By 2000, both
autonomy, later seen as a form of decentralization and a countries had come to a willing agreement of ceasefire
great amount of regional autonomy. A war between the operations by the internationally observed Algiers Peace

5
Agreement, which implemented certain propositions and negotiations and acceptance of the boundary commission's
regulations in the hope of fostering peace. Though failing ruling, with a joint concession of peace taking place the
in framework and constitution, it helped lay out clear plans following month on the 9th. The benefits of this deal include
and resolutions of interdependence, autonomy, and a the usage of both countries' airspace, less hostility on
ceasefire (Lyons, pg. 168, 2009). Ethiopia’s northern border with the use of Eritrea’s port,
proceeding with sea-related commerce, and the reunification
An Ethiopian/Eritrea Boundary Commission investigated of families and religious groups across community lines
claims regarding territory and military matters, bringing (Asiedu, pg. 7, 2019).
forth a resolution resolving the conflict and tension between
the two countries. In 2005, the commission ruled that Eritrea Recent years have also shown a surprising relationship
had violated rules surrounding territorial and demarcation between the UAE, Eritrea, and Ethiopia. In recent decades,
policies surrounding the 1998 attack, leading to the two-year due to foreign involvement within the Horn of Africa such
war. Awarding this partial award left various forms of as China, Russia, Brazil, and Middle Eastern countries, has
ambiguous language not only on the merits of both sides caused the UAE to press for more influence and diplomatic
merits and the practicality based on past aggression and efforts. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed al-Nahyan of
hostility measures. Eritrea, dismayed with the commission Abu Dhabi visited the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa with
ruling argued that they had no legal jurisdiction to propose state-owned oil company head Sultan Ahmed al-Jaber. The
such an ordinance, as that power and it alone was tied to former announced a three-billion-dollar support package
another body. The articles associated with the Algiers including one billion in the Ethiopian central bank and the
agreement also fail to acknowledge the ‘origins of the other two billion secured in further investments. Prime
conflict’, matters relating to military force, and the Minister Abiy Ahmed of Ethiopia and Eritrea President
‘misunderstanding of border use between both parties’ Isaias Afwerki’s reconciliation shows a positive direction in
(Gray, pg. 700-712, 2006). Relations between the Eritrean regional relations between the two countries. The prince
and Ethiopian borders on domestic and cultural levels have mediated relations further by having the Ethiopian and
been oddly beneficial. Borderland communities utilized their Eritrean leaders at his palace in Abu Dhabi (Fick, Cornwell,
geographical positions to continue cross-communication pg. 1-4, 2018).
between members of either state. The political sphere tries to
compose a more rigid and symbolic hold on a border. Due to In conclusion, the various themes and principles which
kinship relations, communication, reliance between family, stirred the Arab Spring also splintered Ethiopian and
and socioeconomic activities, this makes the Eritrean- Eritrean relationships. The Arab Spring added heavy
Ethiopian border everchanging and essentially invisible emphasis on the work of digital factors and dissent while in
(Okubaghergis, pg. 66-76, 2019). the other case focusing on ethnic sovereignty and
independence. More so on historical inequities and norms,
these events were a catalyst for the groups involved to seek
The year 2018 brought much ideation and calm when the independence, autonomy, and more forms of representation.
President of Eritrea and the Prime Minister of Ethiopia both Themes of democratic ideals and social progression are true
agreed to sign a peace agreement. Taking place in the when analyzing the historiography and data that
Eritrean capital of Asmara, this was a strong pushin' building demonstrates this. It was also quite a surprise to see how
a positive relationship, by giving respectful sovereignty over connections between these countries are today via the
boundaries and regional influences. June 5th, 2018, was vital Asmara agreement that came together with the political and
as Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed conceded to peaceful economic support of the U.A.E.

6
 Bibliography

Abrougui, Afef. “The UAE Has Avoided an 'Arab Spring' by Systematically Repressing Critical
Speech.” Global Voices Advox, 20 Sept. 2016, pp. 1-4. Paginated by Christopher Hendrix

Asiedu, Michael. DIPLOMACY, THE ERITREA-ETHIOPIA PEACEDEAL, AND ITS

IMPLICATIONS. Istanbul: Global Political Trends Center (GPoT), 2019, pp. 1-11.

Barry, Tom, and Patrick Gilkes. “The War Between Ethiopia and Eritrea.” Washington

D.C...Institute for Policy Studies, 7 May 2014, ips-dc.org/the_war_between_ethiopia_and_eritrea/,11

Oct. 2005, pp. 1-6. Paginated by Christopher Hendrix

“Central Intelligence Agency ‘United Arab Emirates.’” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence
Agency.

Edmond J. Keller. Identity, Citizenship, and Political Conflict in Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2014.

Fick, Maggie, and Alexander Cornwell. “In Peace between Ethiopia and Eritrea, UAE Lends a
Helping Hand.” London: Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 8 Aug. 2018, pp. 1-5. Paginated by Christopher
Hendrix

Forstenlechner, Ingo, et al. “The UAE, the ‘Arab Spring’ and Different Types of Dissent.” Middle East
Policy, vol. 19, no. 4, 11 Dec. 2012.

Gray, Christine, The Eritrea/Ethiopia Claims Commission Oversteps Its Boundaries: A Partial Award?
European Journal of International Law, Volume 17, Issue 4, 1 September 2006, Pages 699– 721.

Keller, Edmond J. “Eritrean Self-Determination Revisited. "Africa Today, vol. 38, no. 2, 1991, pp. 7–13.

Lyons, Terrence. “The Ethiopia-Eritrea Conflict and the Search for Peace in the Horn of Africa.” Review
of African Political Economy, vol. 36, no.120, 2009, pp. 167–180.

Okubaghergis, Biyan Ghebreyesus. "The Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Region (1991–98): People without a
Border." Northeast African Studies, vol.19 no. 2, 2019, p. 65-89.

Pollack, Kenneth M. The Arab Awakening: America and the Transformation of the Middle East.
Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011.

7
 Angel Cervantes-Vargas
Ideologies, Political Parties, and the Prospect for Arab Spring in Egypt

In every country start, there is always a corrupt system which tends to make things competitive; those
government that silences it citizens, but to spark change, it parties who have the most supporters will be more
can take one person to light up many. On December 17, influential compared to those who do not have a huge
2017, Mohamed Bouazizi, a street vendor in Tunisia, got following. In this paper, I will be examining, which of
humiliated by government soldiers who took his produce Egypt's political parties stand a chance at achieving
and refuse to hear him out, so he set himself on fire outside democracy and, which are sugarcoating to push their
a government office in Sidi Bouzid (Robinson, December 3, political agenda.
2020, Page1) This single act fueled others to protest the
corrupt government; however, this revolution had a major The Building and Development Party
contributor that helped spread their message, social media.
Throughout the years of the Arab Spring, many of the major The Building and Development Party is one of several
players have been setting themselves back instead of parties, which emerged following the uprising in 2011. The
progressing further into democratic territory. official political party of the Egyptian al-Gama’a al-
Islamiyya was founded by Tareq al-Zumr, The Building and
Social media is a powerful tool that many people use to Development party. Denied a license on September 19,
spread awareness of a situation going on in the world that 2011, because it built its foundation upon religion; The Party
might not be shown on television or in newspapers. This use was later recognized as a political party on October 11,
of social media aided several activists in the spread of 2011, (Al-Talei, September 20, 2011, Pages 1-2). The
information, setting up protests, and informing the public of Egyptian Constitution was passed in January 2014;
current events. Two platforms used during the start of the moreover, banning political parties based on religion
Arab Spring were Facebook and Twitter, which helped (Hassan, 2015, page 197). The Islamic party is for a
many activists plan and organize protests, that will later help parliamentary system, freedom of speech, a separation of
aid in the fall of governments in Egypt and Tunisia, leaders powers, and economic privatization; furthermore, placing
in Jordan and Saudi Arabia, and regimes in Libya, Syria, blame on the Mubarak regime for fostering secularism by
Yemen, and Bahrain being clashed with opposition (Huang, constructing Sharia as the primary source of law rather than
June 6, 2011, page 1). On January 25, nationwide protests the law itself (McCants, May 2012, Page 4). The Party
were published on the Facebook page, “We are all Khaled assures non-Muslims and Women that their rights will not
Said,” urging people to support the uprising against the rule be taken away from them; however, they do not precisely
of Hosni Mubarak (Hassan, 2015, Page 224). January 25 say what they will do to protect them (McCants, May 2012,
also has another significance being the national holiday, Page 4).
Police Day, which one commentator wrote on the Facebook
page in hopes that the police would join the protesters The Constitution Party
because police day symbolizes the fusion of the police with
the people (Hassan, 2015, page 36). This event is just one Following the events in 2011, Mohamed El Baradei,
way of many that social media helped not only for those in popularly known for winning a Nobel Peace Prize and the
Egypt but in other Middle Eastern and North African founder of the Constitution Party founded on April 28, 2012,
countries. started the party with a leftist and revolutionary focus. The
Constitution Party was founded on the principles of reaching
With the many uprising that took place throughout the revolution with several goals in mind: government
Middle East and North African Countries, political parties providing security, social justice, and freedom, and treating
used the Arab Spring movement to begin supporting the Egyptians with human dignity. Because the party's core
movement to gain traction in Egyptian politics. In Egypt, values resonate with Egyptians, it has become popular
many of their political parties have claimed to be democratic amongst the youth having over 85 percent of its members
or want to democratize the country, but some are too under the age of 35 (Times, October 16, 2015, Page1).
unlikely to even achieve democratic status. Unlike the However, just because they have gained popularity amongst
United States two-party system, Egypt has a multi-party the youth does not mean the party has some inner faults.

8
Faced with internal struggles of division; the Party is split Party face; being strongly sectarian in religious stances and
on whether it should support the armed forces. This issue extremely pragmatic in politics (Lacroix, November
stems from the party supporting protest against Muhammad
Morsi, the President at the time, but Baradei had just become 01, 2016, Pages 2-3). After Sheikhs took over the Party in
Vice-president of foreign affairs and late 2012, they have been herding the party into a purely
instrumental approach to politics that still falls in the interest
decided that the values of his political party did not coincide of Salfi Da’wa (Lacroix, November 01, 2016, Page 2-3).
with what they were protesting against; ultimately, choosing
to resign (Times, October 16, 2015, Page1). The Free Egyptians Party

The Freedom and Justice Party Started by Naguib Sawiris the second-richest man in
Egypt, while his brother is the wealthiest. The Free Egyptian
Formed by the Muslim Brotherhood in May 2011, the party started after the Fall of Mubarak, one of the Liberal
Freedom and Justice party and its President Mohamed Morsi Parties (Nsehe, May 19, 2011, Page 2). The Party's slogan,
push their ideals of establishing an Islamic state and “Party for all Egyptians,” simply refers to the Party is open
economy to have an economy with no interest rate (Shehata, to all Egyptians and not just Copts. Sawiris is a Copt, which
November 25, 2011, page 1). Banned from establishing their is Native Egyptian, and rumors of the party being exclusive
political party, The Muslim Brotherhood, was left with no to Copts have been laid to rest by Sawiris (Al Talei,
other choice but to sponsor their parties and individual September 21, 2011, Page 1). The Party hopes to achieve
candidates because of the ban on religious parties; however, freedom, democracy, and a civil state with an emphasis on
after the 2011 revolution, the Muslim Brotherhood was able citizenship; moreover, the Party encourages Egyptians to
to register the Freedom and Justice Party as a civil party work on building big national projects to aid in the
rather than a religious one (September 22, 2011, page1). The development of their country and their people (Shehata,
party plans to use Islamic law to help fix Egypt's political November 25, 2011, Pages 1-2). The Party allied itself with
and economic issues. Islamic law or Sharia law is the the Egyptian Bloc, created to promote a civil state; thus,
principal source of the Qur’an, the bible of Muslims, in making people believe that it was anti-Islam (Ahramonline,
which reside the rules and regulations that govern the November 18, 2011, Page 2). The Free Egyptians Party is in
Muslim religion (Monier and Ditmars, January 24, 2012, opposition with political parties who wish to set up an
page 1). Because the Muslim Brotherhood proposed to use Islamic state such as the Freedom and Justice Party and the
Islamic law for instance in reviewing legislation and Nour Party. The Party allied itself with the Egyptian Bloc,
restricting women from running for president, it instilled which once had twenty-one political groups diminished to
fear in many Egyptian sectors who are afraid of being three political parties; The Free Egyptians Party made up 50
stripped of their rights, even after they came out renouncing percent of the Blocs candidates (Ahramonline, November
these statements (Carnegie, September 22, 2011, page 1). 18, 2011, Page 2). Labor workers were the ones who were
able to take down the Mubarak regime; however, they have
The Nour Party little influence in the political scene and to make matters
worse, Sawiris did not support labor because he comes from
Analogous to the Freedom and Justice Party, The Nour a business world (Beinin, June 2012, page 17).
Party is another Islamist party that focuses point emphasizes
on Sharia Law, but with a Salafist interpretation. The Nour The New Wafd Party
party was set up after the rise of the January 25th revolution
in 2011; in June of that year, it was recognized by the state The New Wafd Party was established on February 4,
for becoming Egypt's largest Salafist party (Times, October 1978; however, the party originally emerged from the
16, 2015, page 2). Salafism, a Sunni theological reform Revolution of 1919, making it one of the oldest political
movement, blames the Declin for becoming Egypt's largest parties in Egypt that are still around to this day (AlTalei,
Salafist party (Times, October 16, 2015, page 2). Salafism, September 20, 2011, Page 2). Founded by Saad Zaghloul,
a Sunni theological reform movement, blames the decline of an Egyptian national hero, praised for his ability to
spirituality and politics in the Muslim World on Muslims understand the struggle of the poor while being able to fit in
who have become ignorant of their religion (Honohan, May with the aristocracy (Mahmoud, May 27, 2015, Pages 2-3).
2014, page 13). Because of the blame put on Muslims, Despite the Party's rich history, it has had trouble in recent
Salafists are all in accord that the only solution is to revert years keeping its followers interested and attracting new
to Islam's original form. This origin is referencing the members; because other political parties can provide what
Golden Age of Islam, the first three generations, because The New Wafd Party lacks. The party has shifted from being
The Prophet Muhammed and his Disciples were the ones tolerant to a more antisemitic point of view. In a desperate
teaching the Muslims (Honohan, May 2014, pages 13-14). attempt to fit in Egypt's growing hostile environment
Founders of The Party have tried to fix a contradiction the towards Jews, the Vice Chairman of The Party, Ahmed Ezz
al-Arab, openly said many controversial things. In a 2011

9
interview with The Washington Times, Ezz al-Arab discriminated group of rural farmers, disenfranchised youth,
commented that terrorist attacks like 9/11 are “made in the and women in society (Times, October 16, 2015, Page 2).
USA, "the 6 million deaths from the Holocaust never `The Conference Party is a pro-business party with similar
happened, and Anne Frank's memoir is fake (Birnbaum, July foundation values as The Freedom and Justice Party. Their
5, 2011, page 1). During the 2011 revolution, the Party did economic goal is to lay the foundations down to ensure a
not at first join the protest, but the leader Badawy endorsed strong Egyptian economy rooted in fair competition and
the youth in the party to participate in the protest; however, protecting consumer rights (Saif and Ghoneim, 2013, Page
this shows the lackluster direction the party seems to be 13). For an unexplainable reason when Omar Samida was
heading (Mahmoud, May 27, 2015, Pages 4). voted in as Head of The Party after Amr Moussa stepped
down, a substantial portion of the youth wing departed from
the party, assembling the Alternative Stream (Times,
The Nation's Future Party October 16, 2015, Page 3). Apart from the youth leaving the
party, the Deputy Head and Spokesperson Salah Hasaballah,
In the early beginning, The Nation's Future Party Started and his counterpart for parliament affairs Moataz Mahmoud,
as a youth campaign in support of the political climate after resigned because of issues with the Party's management and
the fall of Mubarak; however, the campaign started shifting decision-making; Hasaballah then announced he will start
its focus on supporting President AbdelFattah El Sisi in his political group which would represent the younger
November 2013, (Timep, October 27, 2015, page 1). representation (Al-Youm, May 07, 2015, Page 1).
Leading the party is Mohamed Badran, with other founding
members, who registered the campaign as a party on July 22,
2014, after their success in helping President Sisi (Times, Conclusion
October 27, 2015, page 2). During the 2015 Parliamentary
election, the party won 53 seats making it one of the largest While only scratching the surface of some of Egypt's
political parties in the House of Representatives, second to Political parties, it is shocking to see the amount of influence
The Free Egyptians party (Abdel Alim, November 2017, an entire movement can have on a country. Before the Arab
Page 5). This expansion of followers at the early start of the Spring movement had influenced several nations in North
party's political career is representative of the impact it has Africa and The Middle East, countries were under the
done on the youth. The youth play an important factor in the control of a dictatorship that had silenced the voice of many.
party's popularity; encouraging the youth in their party to Egypt had the Mubarak Regime that held their position of
have great influence in post-Uprising politics, saying that the power for 30 years (1981-2011), led by Hosni Mubarak;
youth will bring in a new era of Egyptian politics (Shaheen, who failed to manage Egypt's corruption, cronyism, and
2018, Page 119). More than 90 percent of its inequality over his time in power (Hellyer, February 25,
250,000supporters are under the age of 35 (Abdel Zaher, 2020, Page 2). In just 18 days of the 2011 uprising, with
March 06, 2018, Page 5). several brutal attacks directed toward protesters, the
Mubarak regime fell; however, it was successful as an
The Conference Party uprising, but not a revolution because no change has been
accomplished yet (Hellyer, February 25, 2020, Page 3).
Created on the amalgamation of several parties and Based on all the information that was gathered, the party that
movements, The Conference party was united by Amr has the best chance at achieving Democracy is The Nation’s
Moussa, former Minister of Foreign Affairs, on September Future Party. At an early age in its political career, it has
17, 2012 (Times, October 16, 2015, Page 2). Core policy been able to amass an abundant following that encourages
goals of The Party have remained consistent such as; the youth to participate in shaping its country. Not to water
promoting moderate political options, preserving an down the other parties, but most of them will use religion to
Egyptian identity, and a plurality government (Times, shape politics, while others have certain policies that
October 16, 2015, Page 2). What is more, they have used contradict what they have once said or done. As the name
their political platform to push certain issues to the table, states, the party plans to become the Nation's Future Party.
above all some key elements to be mentioned. Elements At the rate it is going, it will continue to gain traction and
such as improvements in healthcare, increased educational influence the future of Egyptian politics.
spending, and government initiative to improve a batch

10
 Bibliography

Abdel Alim, Mona Taha. "Contemporary Political Ideologies Egypt... facts and discussions." (2017).

Abdel Zaher, Hassan. “Nation's Future Party to Dominate Egypt's Politics after Merger: Hassan Abdel
Zaher.” AW, 6 Mar. 2018, thearabweekly.com/nations-future-party-dominate-egypts-politicsafter-merger.

AhramOnline. “The Egyptian Bloc.” AhramOnline, 18 Nov. 2011,

english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/33/103/26718/Elections-/Electoral-Alliances/The-Egyptian- Bloc.
aspx.

Al-Youm, Al-Masry. “Two Conference Party Vice Chairmen Resign.” Egypt Independent, 7 May 2015.

Al Talei, Rafiah. “Building and Development Party.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20
Sept.2011, carnegieendowment.org/2011/09/20/building-and-development-party-pub-54900.

Al Talei, Rafiah. “Free Egyptians Party.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 21 Sept.
2011, carnegieendowment.org/2011/09/21/free-egyptians-party-pub-54823.

Al Talei, Rafiah. “Wafd Party.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20 Sept. 2011,
carnegieendowment.org/2011/09/20/wafd-party-pub-54806.

Arjomand, Brown, Brown, Nathan J., and Arjomand, SaidAmir. The Rule of Law, Islam, and
Constitutional Politics in Egypt and Iran. Albany, New York: State U of New York,2013.

Beinin, Joel. The Rise of Egypt's Workers. Vol. 28. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 2012.

Birnbaum, Ben. “Egypt Party Leader: Holocaust Is 'a Lie'.” The Washington Times, The Washington
Times, 5 July 2011.

Dunne, Michele, and Amr Hamzawy. "Egypt’s secular political parties." Carnegie Papers 31 (2017).

Gordon, Joel. Nasser's Blessed Movement: Egypt's Free Officers and the July Revolution. New York, New
York; Oxford, [England]: Oxford UP, 1992.

Hassan, Abdalla F. Media, Revolution and Politics in Egypt: The Story of an Uprising. London,
[England]; New York, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2015.

Hellyer, H. A. “Hosni Mubarak Is Dead, and His DownfallIs His Legacy.” Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 25 Feb. 2020.

Honohan, John Stephen. “The Salafi Call: A Social Movement.” Handle Proxy, 6 May 2014.

Huang, Carol. “Facebook and Twitter Key to Arab Spring Uprisings: Report.” Washington, D.C.

11
The National, The National, 6 June 2011.

Hussein, Ebtisam. "Non-Islamist parties in post-2011Egypt: winners in an MB-free political sphere."

Review of Economics and Political Science (2019).

Lacroix, Stéphane. “Egypt's Pragmatic Salafis: The Politics of Hizb Al-Nour.” Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 1 Nov. 2016.

Mahmoud, Nervana. “The New Old Wafd.” Atlantic Council,27 May 2015.

McCants, William Faizi. The lesser of two evils: the Salafi turn to party politics in Egypt. Saban Center at
Brookings, 2012.

Monier, Elizabeth, and Hadani Ditmars. “Islamic Law- The Shariah.” Middle East Institute, 1 Nov. 2019.

Nsehe, Mfonobong. “Egyptian Billionaire Naguib Sawiris Dumps Business for Politics.” Forbes, Forbes
Magazine, 9 Aug. 2011.

Robinson, Kali. “The Arab Spring at Ten Years: What's the Legacy of the Uprisings?” Washington,
D.C. Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 3 Dec. 2020,

Saif, Ibrahim, and Ahmed Ghoneim. The private sector post-revolution Egypt. Universitäts-und
Landesbibliothek Sachsen-Anhalt, 2013.

Shaheen, Yasmeen. "The role of political parties in Egypt (1978-2017) and the resilience of
authoritarianism." (2018).

Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell. Egypt is in transition. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2011.

Shehata, Said. “Profile: Egypt's Freedom and Justice Party.” BBC News, BBC, 25 Nov. 2011,

Sowers, Jeannie Lynn. Environmental Politics in Egypt: Activists, Experts, and the State.1st ed.
Oxfordshire, England; New York: Routledge, 2013. Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern Politics; 50.

Time. “Conference Party (Hizb Al-Mu'atamer).” Parliamentary Elections Monitor Conference Party Hizb
AlMuatamer Comments, 16 Oct. 2015.

Time. “Constitution Party (Hizb Al-Dostour).” Parliamentary Elections Monitor Constitution Party Hizb
AlDostour Comments, 16 Oct. 2015.

Timep. “Nour Party (Hizb Al-Nour).” Parliamentary Elections Monitor Nour Party Hizb AlNour
Comments, 16 Oct. 2015.

Timep. “Nation's Future Party (Hizb Mostaqbal Watan).” Parliamentary Elections Monitor Nations
Future Party Hizb Mostaqbal Watan Comments,27 Oct. 2015.

12
 Roberto Lopez
A Comparison of the Autogolpes in Venezuela and the United States

In this essay, I will be comparing the 2002 Venezuelan insurrectionists, with the only difference being that the
coup attempt and the 2021 Storming of the United States American insurrections were trying to overthrow the
Capital Building and discussing how they relate to the act of American government for Trump to consolidate power
autogolpe. Autogolpe is Spanish for self-coup. The act of instead of overthrowing Trump himself (Hsu2021, 10).
autogolpe is when the legitimate and lawful leader of a
nation unlawfully seizes power domestically. Leaders There is a connection with the Venezuelan Coup of 2002
commit self-coups through unlawful means which may and the 2021 Storming of the Capital Building in
include dissolution or neutering of national legislatures, Washington D.C. because there is well documented evidence
annulling constitutions, and suspension of courts. The of the then-current leaders of Venezuela and the United
motivation for autogolpes is for the lawful leader of the States attempting to garner more power and prevent an
nation to seize dictatorial power. outcome they did not want to happen. It cannot be 100
percent confirmed that Chávez and Trump were directly
On 11 April 2002, democratic socialist President Hugo behind the coup attempts, however, the results and
Chavez of Venezuela was ousted from office for 47 hours motivations were in favor of the Presidents.
before successfully retaking power. Right-wing elements of
the Venezuelan Armed Forces ordered the arrest of Chavez, Hugo Chávez was successful in repelling the coup and
and he was detained at a military base. The new government used it to justify extending the power of the president.
attempted to implement significant changes to the Chávez was able to limit the freedom of the media and jail
government that was largely unpopular with the majority of political opponents without trial (Anselmi 2013,56).
Venezuelans and the coup imploded in less than two days due
to popular support for Chavez from organized labor unions Donald Trump’s autogolpe was never fulfilled. Trump
and loyalist forces of the military. With loyalists gaining had lost the 2020 election and Congress only had to certify
complete control of the military, Chavez’s captors began to the results for it to be official, however, thousands of Trump
refer to him as “president” again and he was eventually freed supporters marched into Washington D.C. and later directly
(Cannon 2009, 146). to the Capital Building where they penetrated the premises
and successfully prevented the certification of the 2020
An event that could be compared to 2002 elections. To the chagrin of Trump and the insurrectionists,
Venezuelan coup attempt is the 2021 storming of the Congress still certified the election results in a few hours
American Capital. One of the first big events of 2021 was later after the occupation of the capital building was repelled.
the incident at the US Capital where insurrections supportive President Trump and his supporters failed that day, however,
of President Trump attempted to overturn the results of the that does not mean there was no evidence of an attempt of
2020 Presidential Elections where Trump lost to Joe Biden. autogolpe.
The insurrections stormed the capital building where
Congress was in session with major politicians in attendance It is important to note that the January 6, 2021 storming
Vice President Mike Pence and Vice President-elect Kamala of the Capital Building was not the beginning of Trump’s
Harris. Computers and hard drives were stolen from the autogolpe, it was the crescendo of the Trump
offices of congressmen. The insurrectionists violently beat a Administration’s post-election campaign to delegitimize the
Capital Police officer to death and attempted to attack Pence election and attempt to prevent the certification of the results
but were successfully repelled when a secret service opened which would guarantee Joe Biden’s status as the official
fire on an insurrectionist attempting to breach a blocked president-elect of the United States. For more than two
entryway leading to his location (Barry 2021, 3). The months after Election Day, Trump challenged the legitimacy
insurrectionists were later forced out of the capital building of the election.
and were successful in stopping the certification of the 2020
elections but only by a few hours as Congress eventually The 2020 presidential election was unusual due to how
certified the results later that night. close the race was and the ensuing delay in the delivery of
the result. This contrasts with previous elections where the
The 2002 Venezuelan coup attempt and the 2021 U.S. victor was announced the night of the election day. Most
Capital Insurrection has many similarities. Despite Chavez major news networks and sites did not announce the
and Trump being on opposite ends of the political spectrum, projected victor until November 7, four days after election
the two coup attempts were perpetrated by right-wing

13
day. Before the projected winner was announced Trump breached inside. Insurrectionists vandalized the inside of the
preemptively made announced that the election was a farce. capital and stole computers from the offices of multiple
congressmen including the Speaker of the House, Nancy
The attacks on the validity of the election were Pelosi who is one of the most hated figures of the American
emboldened by Trump and the GOP during the later hours of Right.
Election Day and earlier hours of the following when it was
revealed to the country that the considerable leads Trump Four protestors were killed in the storm and one police
carried in Wisconsin, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Michigan, officer was beaten to death by the mob and dozens were
Arizona, and Georgia were much closer than the night injured. One of the deaths included a protestor, Ashli
previously (Elfrink 2020, 5). Babbitt, a 14-year veteran of the Air Force who was gunned
down by Capital Police as she was attempting to breach a
With millions of votes in half a dozen battleground states locked door that led to the room holding the Vice-President,
still awaiting to be counted on November 4, Trump publicly Mike Pence (Barry 2021, 4).
announced he was victorious while at the same time making
disparaging remarks about the election. Trump’s disparaging Vice President Pence became another enemy to the
comments included referring to the election he claimed to American Rights during the later stages of Trump’s lame-
have won as “rigged” and told supporters at an election party duck reign as many were distraught and felt betrayed that
at the White House, “A very sad group of people is trying to Pence was most likely going to respect the votes of the
disenfranchise [people who voted for me] and we won’t Senate regarding the certification of the election which was
stand for this,” shortly before 2:30 a.m. (Wilkie 2020, 2). at the time most likely going to go in favor of Joe Biden.
Outside the Capital Building, the mob erected full-sized
As the day after the election progressed, Trump’s gallows with a noose hanging which was directed, at Mike
comments became more hostile toward the validity of the Pence. The phrase “Hang Mike Pence” was chanted inside
election. He made a point to claim victory while and outside the Capital Building by members of the violent
simultaneously discrediting the election. Trump would later mob. (Pramuk 2021, 3).
state, “This is a fraud on the American public. This is an
embarrassment to our country. We were getting ready to win There are arguments that Donald Trump is responsible for
this election. Frankly, we did win this election” (Wilkie the storming of the capital due to inciting his supporters into
2020, 8). a fit of violent rage the months prior. The use of aggressive
language when referring to political opponents and accusing
After the election, the Trump administration and allies filed them of significant crimes that affected the election and the
and lost at least 63 lawsuits contesting the results and validity constant stream of lies and accusations from platforms made
of the election. They were not able to overturn any results available to hundreds of millions worldwide not just from
and delay the certification of the Congress election. Due to a official White House statements, but through social media.
lack of evidence, almost every suit was dropped or
dismissed. Lawyers, judges, and observers were largely At the “Save America” rally, Trump said, “probably not
critical of the suits and often described them as “without going to be cheering so much for some of them because
merit” and “frivolous” (Parks 2020, 20). you’ll never take back our country with weakness. You have
to show strength, and you have to be strong” in a speech
It soon became clear that the lawsuits were not going to about supporting the Republican congressmen who were
stop the certification process of the Electoral College and Joe voting against certification of the election. He made it clear
Biden will be the next president. On the morning of January that support through cheering the politicians against the
6, 2021, the day Congress was supposed to certify the results certification was not enough and even admitted that he
of the electoral college, Trump held a “Save America” rally thought it was a weak gesture. Trump then said that the
in front of the White House for an audience of thousands of crowd had to “show strength” which is an alarming thing to
his supporters. Trump and allies made speeches continuing say after admitting he found showing support through
their false narrative that the election was fraudulent and peaceful means like cheering was a sign of weakness. That
“stolen.” Trump made aggressive comments such as, "If you statement could be interpreted as encouragement for
don't fight like hell, you're not going to have a country violence even if he did not explicitly demand it because he
anymore” which could be interpreted as an encouragement told thousands of his supporters to march onto the capital
to physically prevent Congress from certifying the election. Building and that merely cheering support was a sign of
Amid the rally, thousands of Trump supporters marched to weakness. Trump was vague enough in his speech that he
the Capital Building where the Senate was already in the could have meant many different things in showing
process of certifying the election results. “strength” and being “strong” but he still admitted that
peaceful cheering was a sign of weakness and that the
The marchers soon became insurrectionists as they broke protestors were encouraged to do something more (Fuchs
through police defenses outside the Capital Building and 2021, 250).

14
 The Storming of the Capital was a self-coup attempt government. Opposition groups had significant airtime and
because supporters of the President of the United States sympathetic reporting on private news media.
attempted to delegitimize Congress’ control of the capital by
preventing the vote on the certification of an election he lost. Despite the arrest and detainment of Hugo Chavez, the
The self-coup was only minorly successful in that Congress occupation of Miraflores, and millions of supporters in the
had to stop their vote on the certification but only for a few street in support of the opposition, there was still a significant
hours as Congress returned after the violence was quelled number of Chavistas in trade unions and universities, high-
and resumed voting. If the protestors were able to ranking politicians, and members of the military that were
successfully occupy the Capital Building and prevent loyal to Hugo Chavez. Hundreds of thousands of Chavistas
certification of the election by taking various politicians’ flooded the streets of Caracas and surrounded Miraflores
hostage, threatening them into voting against the hours after the inauguration of the new unrecognized
certification, or assassinating them, there could have been a president. Hundreds of opposition paratroopers detaining
chance Donald Trump would have continued being president Hugo Chavez were then trapped inside the palace. Chavistas
past January 20, 2021. However, since there is no precedence regained complete control of the military and the troops that
for self-coups happening at this level of the United States took part in the coup stood down and saluted Chavez
government, it is difficult to predict what exactly would have (Cannon 2009, 108).
happened if Trump were successful.
With the collapse of the coup attempt, Hugo Chavez
An example of a successful autogolpe is the aftermath of regains control of the presidency and a significant response
the 2002 Venezuelan coup attempt. Despite the initial coup was expected. Chavez used the coup attempt to target the
attempt failing, the victim and victor of the conflict, private media. Chavez blamed the private media for the
President Hugo Chavez parlayed that incident into carrying conflict and used the coup attempt to justify a censorship
out his self-coup. campaign. Chavez used similar language to Trump regarding
the media sources that criticized him. In the aftermath of the
General dissatisfaction with the state and the economy led conflict, an enraged Chavez stated, "This coup d'état would
thousands under the banner of the National Federation of not have been possible without the help of the news media,
Trade Unions (CTV) to carry out general strikes that especially television.” In the years following, the Chavez
significantly affected the day-to-day workings of government was successful in its campaigns against private
Venezuelan society. Protests broke out across the country. news. The left in Venezuela became stronger and gained
On April 11, one million anti-Chavez protestors marched in seats at all levels of the government. In 2004, the National
the country’s capital, Caracas. Protestors were eventually Assembly passed the Law on Social Responsibility on Radio
redirected by opposition leaders to march onto the and Television. The law forced all private media to adhere to
presidential palace, Miraflores. At the entrance of guidelines made by the government. It made a way to force
Miraflores, the protestors met with Chavistas and national independent and private media to promote and report news
guard soldiers defending the building. The confrontation was that was “socially responsible.” However, this law created a
violent, and supporters of the government and the opposition legal framework for the government to be able to censor and
began fighting. The opposition and Chavistas began shooting shutdown media sources that it did not find “responsible.”
at one another and resulting in 19 dead and 127 injured on all News sources that were too critical of the government and
sides (Corrales 2015, 23). expressed support for the opposition were deemed
“irresponsible” and they were targeted by the state. In 2010,
In the aftermath of the shootout, a group of higher ranked the law eventually extended to internet news and social
members of the military collaborated with opposition leaders media. Violations of the law could lead to a fine of up to
and formally arrested Hugo Chavez. The national guard that $3000 or 10% of an individual’s annual salary. Journalists
was defending Chavez at first was later tasked with were arrested for “conspiracy against the state.” By 2009
preventing his escape and enforcing his detainment. A over 34 media stations were shut down for “administrative”
falsified resignation was released to justify the removal of reasons (Brewer 2010, 408).
Chavez and the installment of a new president (Corrales
2015, 24). The 2002 Venezuelan coup attempt is a successful
example of autogolpe not because of the actual coup
Pedro Carmona, a high-profile Venezuelan businessman attempt, but the response to it. Hugo Chavez did not
with no prior political experience became the new President orchestrate the coup but when he eventually overcame the
of Venezuela. The inauguration of the new president was attempt, he expanded the power of his office. His party
supported by businessmen as the Caracas Stock Exchange only became stronger, and the power of the party allowed
witnessed record highs with the removal of Chavez. The his government to successfully place strong restrictions on
private news media already had a rocky relationship with the the media. For that reason, the autogolpe was a success.
Chavez regime before the coup attempt due to his public
comments against the media that were critical of his

15
 Bibliography

Anselmi, Manuel. “Chavez's Children: Ideology, Education, and Society in Latin America.” (Lanham,
Lexington, 2013).

Brewer Carías, Allan-Randolph. “Dismantling Democracy in Venezuela: The Chávez

Authoritarian Experiment”. (New York City, Cambridge, 2010)

Call, Charles. “No, it’s not a coup — It’s a failed self-coup that will undermine US Leadership and
democracy worldwide.” (Washington D.C., Brookings Institution, 2021)

Cannon, Berry. “Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution: populism and Democracy in a globalized
age." (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2009)

Cannon, Barry. “Venezuela, April 2002: Coup or popular rebellion? The myth of a united
Venezuela”. (Aberdeen, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 2004)

Corrales, Penfold-Becerra, and Penfold-Becerra, Michael. “Dragon in the Tropics: Venezuela and the
Legacy of Hugo Chavez”. (Washington D.C., Brookings Institution, 2015)

Elfrink, Tim. "Murdoch's New York Post Urges Trump to Accept Defeat: 'You're Cheering for an
Undemocratic Coup'." (Washington D.C., The Washington Post 2020)

Ellen Barry, Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs, & Dave Philipps. “Woman Killed Storming Capitol Discovered
Political Side After Time in Military.” (New York City, The New York Times. 2021)

Fuchs, Christian. "How Did Donald Trump Incite a Coup Attempt?." (London, triple C:
Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information
Society, 2021)

Pramuk, Jacob. “DC Capitol Rioters Nearly Reached Vice President Mike Pence.” (Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, NBCUniversal News Group, 2021)

Seth J. Frantzman. "Washington Chaos Conjures up Coups and Dark Past." (Jerusalem, The
Jerusalem Post, 2021)

16
 Angela Parungao
The Diplomatic Recognition of Taiwan

The fall of China’s Qing Dynasty in 1911 resulted in two until the Cairo Conference of 1943. This is when Chiang
main political parties fighting for control over the type of Kai-Shek proposed that China’s “lost territories,” including
government. The main group was the Chinese Nationalist Manchuria and the Pescadores Islands (Penghu), should be
Party, also called the Kuomintang (KMT). Led by Chiang returned after World War 2 (Bush, 2004, pp. 9). Since a
Kai-Shek, their three main principles were nationalism, large majority of Taiwan’s ethnic makeup was Chinese, the
democracy, and society (Cucchisi, 2002, pp.1). The much Allied leaders agreed that it would be best for China to
smaller, opposing group was the Chinese Communist Party govern the territory (Bush, 2004, pp. 19). After gaining
(CCP), which was founded in 1921 and led by Mao Ze Taiwan after the war, Chiang Kai-Shek planned to use it as
Dong. They agreed with Marxist principles and were a military training area for nationalist forces, on top of
inspired by the communist victory in the Russian Civil War governing it as a Chinese province. Since the CCP
(Monroe, 2015, pp. 5). Chiang Kai-Shek greatly distrusted eventually defeated the Kuomintang in 1949, Chiang Kai-
the CCP, believing that the communists would eventually Shek and the rest of his party fled to Taiwan (Lin, 2016, pp.
take over. This led him to start slaughtering the people at 86).
communist bases, also known as the Shanghai Massacre of
1927. This event officially sparked the Chinese Civil War, The U.S. played an important role in defending China
lasting from 1927 to 1949 (Cucchisi, 2002, pp. 20). from Japan. Even before the U.S. officially joined World
War 2, they already began to aid China under Franklin D.
China’s situation became more complicated when Japan Roosevelt’s administration in 1937 (Monroe, 2015, pp. 5).
began to attack the Great Wall of China in 1933. At first, the Looking at the other events taking place at the same time,
Chinese would try to appease Japan until they finally the U.S. also had other responsibilities outside of the
retaliating in 1937, causing the Second Sino-Japanese War country. Many soldiers were in different parts of the globe
(Monroe, 2015, pp. 5). This temporarily halted the civil war fighting the Axis powers in France and the Philippines. As
to put more focus on fighting the invaders. After hearing the a result of the Cairo Conference between the Allied powers,
news of Japan’s massacre of China’s nationalist capital of the U.S. did more than keep its promise of taking back
Nanjing, the U.S. began to give financial and military China’s lost territories from Japan. They transported their
support to help China fight Japan. Later on, President soldiers along with the Chinese nationalist soldiers to help
Franklin D. Roosevelt invited Chiang Kai-Shek to the Cairo ensure that China successfully manages to govern the
Conference of 1943 as the representative of China, where territory (Lin, 2016, pp. 36). Without any U.S. help or
the Allied powers discussed Japan and post-war issues (Lin, intervention, Japan could have fully taken control of China,
2016, pp. 14). This shows that amid the Chinese Civil War, and Chiang KaiShek and his party could not have also been
the U.S. already favored the Kuomintang as the official able to seek refuge in Taiwan.
government of China. Since the Kuomintang was the
official government party, they had a larger responsibility in During the Truman administration, the Kuomintang’s
defending China against Japan. Although both parties attempts to govern Taiwan were filled with twists and turns.
created a temporary alliance called the Second United Front Since the relationship between Chinese nationalists and the
in 1937, it eventually ended in 1941 when the nationalists native Taiwanese was rather rough, the incident of 1947
decided to return to attacking the communists sparked further conflict (Bush, 2004, pp. 43). On that day,
(Cucchisi,2002, pp. 33). By the end of the war, the civilians’ there was a dispute between a vendor lady and some
confidence in the Kuomintang was weakened. Many people Monopoly Bureau workers, which ended with the woman’s
believed that there would have been fewer damages and death. Naturally, many Taiwanese were upset by this and
casualties if Chiang Kai-Shek had focused more on the protested at the capital of Taipei, where they were met with
Japanese invaders instead of the Communist Party military gunfire (Bush, 2004, pp. 43). The flow of events
(Cucchisi, 2002, pp. 35). Since the Chinese communist worsens as this causes an outbreak of protests all over the
party had been strengthening their numbers by appealing to island, leading to more shootings and bloodshed. Taiwanese
peasants during the war, they were able to take the people requested U.S. aid, but since the island was now
opportunity to overthrow the Kuomintang while it was officially under China, the U.S. could not easily intervene.
weakened in 1949 (Cucchisi, 2002, pp. 35). Instead, U.S. diplomats tried to persuade Chiang Kai-Shek
to replace Governor Chen Yi and allow the political
How post-war Taiwan came to be was not thoroughly participation of local Taiwanese to ease tensions (Bush,
planned. Neither the Kuomintang nor the CCP really viewed 2004, pp. 49).
the island, formerly known as Formosa, as part of China

17
 Unfortunately, Chiang Kai-Shek kept Chen Yi as Conference to declare that China would rather negotiate
governor and failed to ease the strict rule over the with the U.S. than go to war (Hartnett, 2018, pp.795).
Taiwanese. Especially since Taiwan was their chance of
refuge after losing mainland China to the Chinese Although having to keep up with Taiwan’s affairs was
Communist Party in 1949, the Kuomintang put Taiwan extra work, Americans believed that it was vital to prevent
under martial law, which was later known as the “White Taiwan from being under communist control, especially
Terror.” In just that year, “about 10,000 people were during the Cold War tensions. Their theory was that once a
interrogated and over 1,000 executed,” (Bush, 2004, pp. 50). place fell to communism, it would trigger a “chain of
Once again, the Kuomintang’s solution was to use force to reactions,” which would cause the surrounding Asian
get rid of as many critics and opposition as possible, just like countries to eventually become communist as well
their strategy with the communists in the civil war. Although (Hartnett, 2018, pp. 769). That was probably the main
the U.S. did not approve of the KMT’s actions, they were reason for supporting Chiang KaiShek’s rule over Taiwan,
more concerned about Taiwan falling into the hands of despite the Kuomintang being a repressive and
communism over the welfare of the native Taiwanese authoritarian government. There were many human rights
(Bush, 2004, pp. 50). Even if the U.S. wanted to intervene, issues under his regime and the political participation of
the Cold War against the Soviet Union also occurred during local Taiwanese was still minimal despite the passing of 15
this time, so being involved would mean extra money and years (Bush, 2004, pp. 64). Since Chiang Kai-Shek’s rule
effort. Instead, the U.S. officials sent a message to Chiang contradicted American values of democracy and freedom
KaiShek saying that they would no longer protect or give of speech, it is clear that the U.S. did not favor Chiang Kai-
aid to Taiwan (Bush, 2004, pp. 51). Shek or his party. Instead, the U.S. decided to support the
“lesser evil” over letting communism spread.
Although President Truman wanted to remain neutral and
no longer aid Taiwan, the Korean War erupted soon after in When the legitimacy of Taiwan’s seat at the United
1950. Since it was between the Soviet-occupied north and Nations were challenged in the early 60s, the Kennedy
the U.S.-occupied south, the Truman administration was administration tried to secure Taiwan's spot. Two options
concerned about China using the war as an opportunity to would allow China and Taiwan to have their
attack Taiwan (Monroe, 2014, pp.7). This led Truman to representation. The first option was to state that China had
assign the U.S. Navy Seventh Fleet to the strait of Taiwan, two governments: the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
which lies between China and Taiwan, to prevent any other from mainland China, and the Republic of China (ROC)
possible conflicts during the war. When the Korean War from Taiwan. The second option was to claim that China
ended in 1953, President Eisenhower ordered the and Taiwan were separate nations, which Kennedy better
withdrawal of the Seventh Fleet, as it was no longer needed preferred (Bush, 2004, pp. 105-107). Unfortunately,
(Monroe, 2014, pp. 7). Soon after the removal of the fleet, Chiang Kai-Shek disagreed with the idea of ‘two Chinas’
Chiang KaiShek continued his plans to overthrow Mao Ze and would rather lose the UN seat than give in (Bush, 2004,
Dong by stationing thousands of troops in the Quemoy and pp. 108). Ultimately, Kennedy publicly announced that he
Matsu islands, which are off the coast of mainland China. In always viewed the ROC as “the only rightful government
response, Mao Ze Dong began to shoot the nationalist representing China,” and that the PRC should not be
islands on September 3 of 1954, starting the Quemoy Crisis allowed a seat at the UN (Bush,2004, pp. 109). Since this
(Hartnett, 2018, pp. 769). action made clear that the PRC was not seen as legitimate
under the U.S., the PRC trade embargo was still intact.
Taiwan first initiated a mutual defense treaty since
Eisenhower became President, but it was only accepted and Although President London B. Johnson’s administration
made official by the U.S. three months after the September continued to secure Taiwan’s seat at the UN, they
3rd shooting of Quemoy (Lin, 2013, pp. 2). The following eventually turned to a two-China approach in 1968. At the
year, the Formosa Resolution was passed, stating that the Cincinnati World Affairs Council, it was announced that
U.S. would provide the necessary resources to prevent mainland China and Taiwan were to be acknowledged as
Taiwan from being invaded. different nations, in which the U.S. would now deal with
them separately (Bush, 2004, pp. 114). With having to deal
Although these helped secure the safety of Taiwan, it with the Vietnam War in 1965, it is probable that the U.S.
was not in favor of Chiang Kai-Shek’s desire to wage full no longer prioritized Taiwan as much as they did in the past.
war to regain mainland China. Chiang Kai-Shek had to Under the Nixon administration, the U.S. no longer pursued
comply with the treaty terms, in which Taiwan was not a two-China policy or claimed that the ROC was the only
allowed to take independent military actions without U.S. legitimate government. Nixon announced, “Principle one.
consultation and instead only act in defense (Lin, 2013, pp. There is one China, and Taiwan is part of China,” (Bush,
991). Later in the year, Eisenhower even publicly 2004, 114). It seems that Nixon took advantage of the
threatened to unleash atomic bombs in case of a war. weakening relationship between the Soviet Union and
Whether he was serious or bluffing, it was intimidating China in the late 50s by trying to gain China’s support. In
enough that Mao sent a representative to the Asian-African the early years of his administration, Taiwan ended up

18
losing its UN seat, and the strict trade embargos that the U.S. Even today, the relationship between the mainland
and China had on each other were now lessened (Monroe, China and Taiwan are still tense. China still refuses to
2015, pp. 8). acknowledge Taiwan as an independent nation and claims
that the island is its property. Although the East Asian
After the death of Chiang Kai-Shek in 1975 and Mao Ze neighbors have the same ethnic makeup and languages,
Dong in 1976, President Jimmy Carter entered office in their upbringing since 1945 was different. While China
1977. The Carter administration continued to work towards remains communist, Taiwan eventually became a
a better relationship with China by both governments democracy in the 1990s. When comparing life expectancy
issuing a joint communique for diplomatic relations and infant mortality rates, Taiwan appears to do a better
(Monroe, 2015, pp. 8). Unfortunately, one of China’s terms job in taking care of its citizens than China. Taiwan’s life
before entering partnerships is for the countries to follow expectancy is about 4.6 years longer and its infant
their “One-China Policy,” which ultimately ended the mortality rate is almost three times lower than China’s
diplomatic ties between the U.S. and Taiwan. Despite this, (CIA Factbook, Taiwan, People and Society, Life
the Taiwan Relations Act was passed in 1979, allowing expectancy & Infant mortality rate). When comparing the
U.S. and Taiwan relations without violating China’s policy real GDP growth rate and gross national savings, it seems
(Monroe, 2015, pp. 8). This was a huge shift since the that China exceeds Taiwan economically. China’s GDP
previous administrations have been siding with Taiwan and growth rate is almost 4 percent higher, and its gross
the Kuomintang for about 23 years since Taiwan returned national saving is about 9 percent higher than Taiwan’s
to China after WW2. The death of the initial PRC and ROC (CIA Factbook, China, Economy, GDP growth rate &
leaders probably allowed for a new start in creating Gross national saving).
diplomatic relationships with the United States.

19
 Bibliography

Bush, Richard C. “At Cross Purposes: U.S.-Taiwan Relations Since 1942,” New York: Routledge, 2004.

“China,” CIA World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2021.

Cucchisi, Jennifer Lynn. “The Causes and Effects of the Chinese Civil War, 1927-1949,” Seton Hall
University Dissertations and Theses, 2002.

Erin Monroe. “U.S.-China Relations: A Brief Historical Perspective,” U.S.-China Policy Foundation,
Circa 2015.

Hartnett, Stephen J. “Avoiding ‘A Chain Reaction of Disaster’: A Reappraisal of the Eisenhower White
House’s Handling of the 1954-1955 Quemoy Crisis,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, 2018, pp.
768-803.

Lin, Hsiao-ting. “Accidental State: Chiang Kai-shek, the United States, and the Making of Taiwan,”
London: Harvard University Press, 2016.

Lin, Hsiao-ting. “U.S.-Taiwan Military Diplomacy Revisited: Chiang Kai-shek, Baituan, and the 1954
Mutual Defense Pact,” Diplomatic History, Vol.37, 2013, pp. 971-994).

“Taiwan,” CIA World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2021.

Comparing and Contrasting the Founding Periods of Israel and India

20
 Cynthia Taboada
Separatist Nationalism in Israel and India
With a history dating back to 7000 years BCE and 70 learned how to craft tools and cutlery from natural
AD, India and Israel both have large founding periods resources which furthered their ability to irrigate and
that are used to describe and explain their current expand their agricultural capabilities. One example of
political, economic, and social status. Like many other their ability to craft tools and cutlery is exemplified by
countries, the two share similarities while also having their ability to craft tools, ornaments, and personal items
differences that distinguish them from one another. from bronze. This technique and use of natural resources
India’s founding period began with ancient civilizations not only allowed them to facilitate their agriculture but
and their abilities to adapt to changing geographical also exposed them to external markets as it opened an
shifts. Israel’s founding period began with the migration avenue for trade and selling (Charvát,2013, p. 165). The
of Jews from central European countries who wished to trade and selling of these crafts spurred the growth of
return to Zion (the name in the Hebrew Bible used as a India's economy.
synonym for Jerusalem, as well as for the Land of Israel
as a whole). During and after the development of Israel The proto-Indian culture of the Indus River Valley
and India’s founding periods, both nations experienced a civilization, although very successful during the
violent subpopulation fight for independence from their Harappan Periods (3300 - 1300 BCE), began to decline
control, West Bank and Kashmir, respectively. When due to the lack of proper health precautions. Civilizations
analyzing the founding periods of both countries, it can were able to manipulate bodies of water for their benefit.
be concluded that although they may have different Societies instituted public and private wells located in
origins, they both experience similar social and political very close proximity to sewage drains, and watering pits
responses, as well as challenging relationships with other were often located where house sewage would be
growing nations. discharged into. Additionally, in some cities, when the
main sewage drains would get clogged and backed up,
Like most modern countries and civilizations, India they would cause sewage to spill throughout the streets
went through several different settlement phases, which (Charvát,2013, p. 198). This caused a huge outbreak of
led to the development of the proto-Indian culture. The diseases such as typhus and cholera diseases very
creation of the Indian region stems from around a 66 common to occur from contaminated water - which
million years ago during the Tertiary Period when there caused dramatic changes to the civilian populations.
was a shift in tectonic plates (Charvát, 2013, p. 150). (Charvát, 2013, p. 199). Despite these illnesses
From the very start, the subcontinent of India had an detrimentally impacting Indian societies, protoIndian
abundance of arable land that became of great use for the culture was able to survive, with many of the practices
proto-Indian culture and pushed the region into developed during this period still being used in modern-
modernization. In addition to arable land, the Indus River day India.
flows through the northwest part of India and became a
crucial part of pushing India's agricultural prowess to its The Partition of India in 1947 separated the greater
current state. During this period, the Indus River Valley region into two independent sectors: India and Pakistan.
civilizations began to adapt throughout the region and After this split, India's economy faced many hardships,
began to learn basic survival skills to continue growing as many of which stemmed from the original formation of
a civilization and a nation. the region (Priyadarshi; Chandhoke, 2009, p.1). While
the split was a main contributor and factor to the
Fundamentally stemming from hunter-gatherer economic struggle India faced, it is important to highlight
lifestyles, both Indian and Israeli civilizations began to the historical background of the region and its
integrate productive farming, agriculture, and livestock development to accurately calculate damages. While the
breeding (Charvát, 2013, p. 150). By learning more about economy struggled for a few years, India recuperated
farming and agriculture practices, farmers began to and grew its economy based on the economic, social, and
manipulate the land for their benefit and built a political ideals rooted in its historical past. India
framework for civilizations that followed. For example, incorporated multiple plans between 1950-1990 in an
during the hot summer, the Indus River would produce attempt to rebuild its economy and pursue growth as a
overflow in its banks and would flood the terrain which in nation. It integrated economic policies after 1947 that were
turn would create ponds. Farmers could then either drain adopted and conditioned by the “colonial legacy” and the
these ponds and use the water for irrigation purposes or international situation of the time (Priyadarshi; Chandhoke,
they would use the water to help expand their volume of 2009, p.4). In addition to economic changes that occurred
usable land (Charvát,2013, p. 163). In addition, civilians during the independence of India, India experienced political

21
changes that have persisted into the development of India’s Zionist leaders in terms of “public expressions, fund-raising,
modern-day Parliamentary system. and effective access to influential public figures” (Howard,
2017, p.24). In September 1939, the outbreak of World War
Similarly, the discussion of India’s founding period can be II in Europe expanded German intervention in Central
interpreted in retrospect of India and external influences as a Europe, and by the end of1939, reports of German mass
“Euro-Asisan Land,” (Kaviraj 2010, p.11). Originally murder against Jews spread among Jewish circles in the
designated a Euro-Asian land during the initial geographical United States and several European countries (Howard,
formation of India over 66 million years ago, India has 2017, p. 25) With Germany posing itself as a threat to
partially self-established itself despite external political Britain in 1939 and onward, the British did not want to risk
pressures of other European countries and has not followed alienating Arabs, so the McDonald White Paper became
European ideals and forms of governing. Specifically, British policy for the next six years. This pushed for all Jews
through political development throughout the 1900s, India to begin seeking asylum in non-European countries
challenged hierarchical systems of government already (Howard, 2017, p. 26). This policy was hugely important in
present in other European Countries to suit its citizens and the foundation period of Israel; it is what spurred the
population. India was more focused on developing together immigration and migration of Jewish members outside of
as a whole country through government intervention rather Europe.
than individual development like in European countries of
the time. Thus, creating and establishing India separate from Zionism was very sought out by the Jewish members from
European countries and as a more complex society. European states, especially during the years of the
(Kaviraj2010, p.11) Holocaust. Labor leaders foresaw that the national tragedy of
the Holocaust would contribute to the strengthening of the
Unlike the development and founding period of India, Yishuv, with several Jewish residents present in Israel,
Israel's founding period begins closer to the 1900s. Ideology, especially in the struggle over immigration and settlement
politics, diplomacy, and war, play significant factors in the (Troen; Lucas, 1995, p.213). Labor leaders understood that
foundation of Israel. Alongside reencounters of several Holocaust survivors could serve in terms of active
individuals that grew up in the founding period, Israel’s participation in Zionism. As a result of this realization, there
founding period can be analyzed and compared to that of would be wide support for finding a solution to the Jewish
India. As mentioned previously, Israeli political thought, problem in the postwar world.
diplomacy, and various conflicts and wars contributed to the
construction of Israel. Now exhibiting a current population After further analysis studied on the region of Israel, many
of over 5 million people, Israel has a wide concentration of researchers and scholars point to the importance of the
Jewish followers and sects who are practicing Jews (Gilbert, Holocaust when discussing the formative period Israel.
2014, p. 7). In the early 1900s, over half a million Jews from During Israel's first decade, the Holocaust repeatedly became
Palestine pushed for their return to Zion. This movement the source of both popular and parliamentary controversies.
spurred the declaration of Israel and its founding (Gilbert, Moroccan Jews can be seen to have followed a distinctive
2014,p.7). These Palestinian Jews led the start of Israel and mobility route when migrating to Israel in the 1900s. After
were very eager to establish their statehood. Motivated by years filled with turmoil and tensions, Jews later began to
inequality and injustices they faced for their religion; these organize collectively and became, ineffective, the
Jews sought to establish Zionism - a movement for the prototypical Israeli ethnic group (Troen; Lucas, 1995,
reestablishment, development, and protection of a Jewish p.523). This meant that as more immigrants began migrating
nation. As time passed, Zionism began to dwindle. However, toward Israel, they became the new normal in the nation and
these thoughts rearose when Democratic Socialism and other many people were less surprised to see them there. The
similar parties began trying to convert and impose religious Jews’ journey is bittersweet and complicated, yet in recent
sanctions on individuals (Gilbert, 2014, p.7). These events decades they skillfully managed to use their newfound status
established the foundations for the foundation of Israel as in society to their advantage. In addition to this, they
many people began to migrate back to the area and establish managed to further progress and develop Israel as a nation
it as a center of promise after several years. through the use of politics and electoral processes. (Troen;
Lucas, 1995, p.524). Viewing and analyzing the
Between 1929 and 1932, non-Zionist labor leaders and development and progression of Israel from the 1900s and
their organizations became increasingly engaged with onward, it can be seen that its transformation is unlike any
Histadrut, the General Organization of Workers in Israel, and other.
its endeavors (Howard, 2017, p. 24). Histadurt worked
tirelessly through the mid-1900s in an attempt to effectively With such differences in origin and foundations, Israel and
strengthen the Zionist enterprise throughout Palestine. India have similar societal responses to their political
Notably, by the late 1930s, many non-Zionist labor leaders actions. Firstly, in India, they faced the issue of the Kashmir
and their allies had taken steps toward supporting the Road to secession from the State. Starting in the late 1600’s
establishment of a Jewish homeland in Israel. It was seen there were several international moments of secession
that non-Zionist leaders were progressing at a faster rate than stemming from the Treaty of Westphalia that originated in

22
European countries (Webb, 2012, p.1). From this, many Both India and Israel have established themselves their
states began to resist protestors by implementing stricter forms of government ruling based on their historical past and
freedom laws and striping the country of also all its rights. framework. However, the responses they have received from
States, like India, began using repressive measures which their citizens have been highly contested. Especially through
included, “suspension of civil liberties, incarceration, torture, analysis of the abuses and inhuman rights that both nations
and extra-judicial execution” (Webb, 2012, p.1) This, inflict on territories and citizens, there has been a significant
however, often only reinforced the claims of protestors, uproar. Through political pressure and territorial dispute,
prompting an equally uncompromising and violent response many individuals have been stripped of their social and
that initiated a cycle of resisting and oppressing. political freedom. This has led to substantial conflict. While
both Israel and India have experienced different forming
Focusing on Kashmir specifically, it began its road to periods and came to be the nations they are under different
secession after understanding its rights to secede and as a circumstances, both nations have exploited the rights of their
result of the Partition of India in 1947. India and Pakistan citizens to the point of secession.
began conflict over who would control the majority of the
Kashmir region after the split. This began a year-long Modern India and its society as we know it is heavily built
dispute between the two countries and ultimately led to and developed off of the events that occurred in its formative
Kashmir’s push for secession from either region. Beginning period. Through several years of wars, secession, and
in 1989, several protest movements have occurred in development, India could progress and developed into the
Kashmir in an attempt to vocalize its problems with the strong nation that it is today. With its history from before the
Indian government and rulings (Webb, 2012, p.21). This common era, India has traversed through many different
dispute and movement have only developed over the years. periods of development, one of the most important being its
forming period. Without the basic framework,
The Kashmir dispute grew deeper in 2010 after alleged understanding, and development of its history, societal
altercation between local youth and armed security forces. structure, and economic prevalence, India would not be the
Thousands of youths attacked security forces with rocks, nation it is today. Its advancements and developments allow
burned government offices, and attacked railway stations for it to be compared and contrasted with several other
and official vehicles in a series of protests that only escalated nations and regions such as Israel.
in violence. The Indian government blamed separatists and
Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Pakistan-based militant several abuse Israel’s framing period and formative era have pushed the
group, for fueling the 2010 protests (Chhotray, 2011,p. 43). country into what it is today. Israel experienced several years
These protests continuously grew due to the several abuses of immigration, migration, and pressure as it began
of human rights inflicted upon Kashmir citizens by the developing and growing. It’s the ability to advance and
Indian government. In the 21st century, India continues develop under trying times and as a developing country in
insert and assert rights over Kashmir, while Pakistan is less the 1900s pushed Israel aside from most other countries.
present concerning India, but still fights for control of Paying close attention to its formative period and how it has
Kashmir. This is one of the most famous cases of secession framed its current political structure is crucial to
that India has experienced, but not the last due to its understanding Israel and the identity it has maintained in
historical, and political past. modern society. An analysis of Israel’s modern influence, as
well as the foundation upon which it was built upon, gives an
Similarly, Israel has experienced movements of secession individual the ability to not only deem Israel as effective or
stemming from their formative / founding period. West Bank not, but also its integral role in the worldwide structure. This
is a landlocked territory bordered by Jordan and the Dead analysis can then be used to compare Israel’s position to
Sea to the east, and by Israel to the south. In 1988, after the other nations such as India which has been a primary focus
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) declared a of this discussion.
Palestinian state, some settlers began to fear that outside
pressure from other nations would lead to Israel withdrawing As developed throughout this discussion, both India and
from West Bank. This in turn led to these settlers setting Israel have had developing formative or founding periods
down the groundwork for an Orthodox Jewish state in the that have greatly impacted the socio-political ideologies
West Bank in case anything changed with Israel (Harms; prevalent within these respective countries. As the two
Ferry, 2012, p. 85). This groundwork became known as the nations have developed, they have both experienced
State of Judea, a “halachic state” in the West Bank that was differing governing bodies and changing ideals over the
established by Israeli Jewish settlers (Harms; Ferry, 2012, p. centuries. This in turn has instigated conflicts between the
85). Within the next year, several settlers began to advocate countries themselves and the territories they have
for themselves and stated they would create their state tried to control Although they both differ in specific
should Israel decide that it would withdraw itself from the frameworks, religions, and other factors prevalent in
West Bank. countries, both Israel and India have prevalent standings in
the world. As such, these countries can be compared as to
how their formative periods have subsequently shaped their

23
political ambitions and strategies over time. Despite India As such, it is important to take into consideration that each
and Israel’s different origins and how they established country exemplifies practices for the betterment of itself and
themselves into countries, both countries experience similar its citizens. Israel and India both remain powerful in their
social and political responses, as well as challenging ways and have developed uniquely over time (especially due
relationships with other growing nations. As with every to their formative periods and how they chose to build off of
country, both India and Israel exemplify the strengths and them) which has ultimately resulted in the nations we can
weaknesses that distinguish them from one another. Both see to this day.
Israel and India have adopted policies from neighboring
countries as well as instituted their policies for the
advancement of their respective nation.

24
 Bibliography

Amar-Dahl, Tamar. Zionist Israel and the Question of Palestine: Jewish Statehood and the History of
the Middle East Conflict. München; Wien: De Gruyter Oldenburg, 2016.

Chandhoke, Neera, and Priyadarshi, Praveen. Contemporary India: Economy, Society, Politics. 1st ed.
Harlo Longman, 2009.

Chhotray, Vasudha. The Anti-Politics Machine in India: State, Decentralization, and Participatory
Watershed Development. London: Anthem, 2011. Anthem South Asian Studies.

Gilbert, Martin. Israel: A History. Place of Publication Not Identified]: Rosetta, 2014.

Harms, Gregory, and Todd M. Ferry. The Palestine-Israel Conflict: A Basic Introduction. Third ed.
London: Pluto, 2012.

Howard, Adam M., and ProQuest. Sewing the Fabric of Statehood: Garment Unions, American Labor,
and the Establishment of the State of Israel. Urbana, Chicago, and Springfield: U of Illinois, 2017.
Working Class in American History.

Kaviraj, Sudipta. The Imaginary Institution of India: Politics and Ideas. New York, NY: Columbia UP,
2010.

Lea, David, and Annamarie. Rowe. A Survey of Arab-Israeli Relations 1947-2001. London: Europa,
2002.

Lintner, Bertil, and ProQuest. Great Game East: India, China, and the Struggle for Asia's Most Volatile
Frontier. New Haven; London: Yale UP, 2015.

Mehra, Ajay K., Centre for Public Affairs, and Heinrich Böll Foundation-India. Emerging Trends in
Indian Politics: The 15th General Election. London: Routledge, 2010.

Regev, Motti, Motti. Seroussi, and Seroussi, Edwin. Popular Music and National Culture in Israel.
Berkeley, CA: U of California, 2004.

Rejwan, Nissim. Israel in Search of Identity: Reading the Formative Years. Gainesville: U of Florida,
1999.

Troen, Lucas, Troen, S. Ilan, and Lucas, Noah. Israel: The First Decade of Independence. Albany: State U
of New York, 1995. SUNY Ser. in Israeli Studies.

Webb, Matthew J. Kashmir's Right to Secede: A Critical Examination of Contemporary Theories of

Secession. London ; New York: Routledge, 2012.Routledge Contemporary South Asia Ser.; 54.

25
 Sindarvani Lal
A Shift in Ideologies and Policies in Cuba, China, and the Soviet Union

This essay will focus on the different relationships everything in the nation it leads to corruption and
and influence that ideologies had on China, Cuba, and eventually sparks a revolution.
Russia. Russia and the US intervened in Cuba’s affairs
on many occasions which led to tension and unrest. Over the years, China has transformed their economy
Revenues, ideologies, policies, and several other factors into a superpower. China has tremendous influence and
led to the downfall of the Soviet Union and the rise of global power in terms of economy, technology, military,
China. This essay will proceed as follows: part 1 will diplomacy, and many other areas. China is Cuba’s
analyze and determine if Cuba received revenues from second-largest trade partner: “Their bilateral trade
China post the 1992 period, part 2 will explain the reached $1.39 billion in 2014, one-third of which
downfall of the Soviet Union and Part 3 will describe consisted of Cuban exports” (Hearn, 2016, 16). Cuba’s
the relationship between Cuba and the Soviet Union. relationship with China was not as harmonious as it is
The Soviet Union was once a superpower but certain now. Fidel Castro’s administration leaned more toward
decisions led to its downfall. China has emerged as a the Soviet Union side than China’s. Even though Cuba’s
superpower by advancing its military, economy, government was the first to recognize the Peoples'
technology, and various other sectors. Cuba has been Republic of China, Fidel Castro was in favor of the
heavily influenced by Russia to continue a communist Soviet Union and depended on them for aid in any
path despite many efforts from the US to transform the situation (Hearn, 2016, 17). Relations between China
nation into a democracy. Democracy leads to freedom and Cuba differed in many ways, but they did not break
of speech and religion whereas communism leads to their economic ties. Since the two nations possessed
control and dominance. The more nations that are similar ideals of communism, they figured out ways of
democratic the better it is in terms of negotiations and communicating and formed diplomatic relations. The
understanding the political atmosphere. Chinese government shows an interest in the oil off
Cuba’s north coast. “Chinese trade credits and
In 1959, Fidel Castro became prime minister, and unsecured loans have helped Cuban gross domestic
Cuba began to witness his violent behavior. Castro product to rebound” (Hearn, 2016, 17). China has a
executed people he thinks are his rivals which led to massive influence on smaller nations which strengthens
tension and unrest in the nation. In 1961, Washington their friendship.
broke all diplomatic ties with Havana (Dixon, 2/22/21,
10 am). As a result of this, Cubans began to suffer as It is beneficial for Cuba to stay on China’s side as the
Washington was not sending aid to Cuba. The United two share similar ideals. As China is a superpower and
Nations General Assembly voted for Washington to end is expanding on its political and economic ideals, Cuba
the embargo. The crisis that the Cubans endured can learn some of the concepts and use them to better
prompted several humanitarian responses in the US. their nation. Chinese immigration is also high in Latin
Cuba-Americans sent remittances to Cuba, but the American nations to work on plantations and maintain
United States declared them illegal in 1993, rendering the relationship between China and Cuba. Family
dollars worthless on the black market (Morley et al, relations and ethnic allegiances benefit startup
2005, 15). When Trump became president, remittances businesses, the labor force, and a loyal customer base in
to Latin America slowed down because he was tough on Cuba (Hearn, 2016, 22). Chinese influence on Cuba has
immigration. By 1990, Cuba received one hundred and resulted in thriving restaurants with foreign and state
fifty to two hundred million annually (Morley et al, investments and an increase in commercial exchange
2005, 15). “By 1994, cash transfers to Cuba had risen to (Hearn, 2016, 23). Immigration in this context can be
beneficial as the Chinese are having a cultural influence
$500 million a year” (Morleyet, 2005, 15). Even though in Cuba. A result of this is an increase in wealth for
Cuba was tense, Cuban- Americans helped their Cubans which is much needed. After revolutions and
homeland by sending as much money as they could, corrupt families who took control of everything, Cuba
which totaled millions of dollars. Remittances became needs aid, which can increase its imports and exports.
the driving force for the Cuban economy as corruption
is quite high. Because one person or family owns Cuba reformed its agricultural sector by
reconfiguring their model of socialism. After the

26
economic crisis in the 1990s, Cuba was preparing to power, the Soviet Union remained with the same
endure another situation of similar magnitude. The year ideologies and policies hence they could never develop
1993 was a turning point in Cuba’s economic crisis into a superpower like China and the US. The policy-
because after this point exports dropped by eighty making strategy was lackadaisical, stagnant, and
percent, imports had dropped by seventy-five percent outdated which left no room for progression. These
and the GDP dropped by thirty-five percent (Enriquez, policies may have worked in a particular era but as
2010, 126). The origins of these structural imbalances people and the world economy changed these policies
stemmed from the country’s lack of productivity and should have changed. The Soviet Union is learning from
dependence on other nations for imports and exports. As the West and competing with the West which creates a
new leaders came into power in Cuba, they began to complex situation. Soviet production lowered as they
strengthen and modify the nation’s foreign economic viewed Western practices and production as modern
relations. Tourism began to increase and there was an (Sanchez-Sibony, 2014, 176). The Soviet Union
increase in sugar production (Enriquez, 2010,127). It is experienced a tumultuous history, with some leaders
evident that Cuba relied heavily on Russia and the US forming policies that pushed the country backward
for aid but altering political values and ideologies rather than forwards.
became a hindrance in Cuba’s progression. The
economic crises paved the path for Cuba to reform their The Soviet Union boasted of a stabilized and
economic policies and strengthen their ties with foreign powerful army to rival the US but the nation
nations to increase their imports, exports, and overall experienced poverty and possessed a repressive regime
GDP. (Ryan, 2017, 1). North Korea in recent years also boasts
of such aspects but further investigation has led the US
Moving onto part 2 of the essay which will be and other nations to believe otherwise. At the time of the
focusing on the downfall of the Soviet Union. Fidel Cold War, a large portion of the Soviet Union lived in
Castro’s control over Cuba was similar to that of Stalin impoverished and unstable situations. Leaders before
in the Soviet Union. Stalinism could be described as Gorbachev followed the ideals of Marxism. When
autonomy, dictatorship, or one person who owns Gorbachev became President, he developed a system
everything (Dixon, 2/22/21, 10 am). In 1924, Lenin that was a hybrid between communism and capitalism
developed democratic centralism in which everyone which is similar to modern-day China. This meant that
could share their arguments over policy decision- the people of the Soviet Union had freedom of speech
making in the initial planning process and once all the and religion which led to the downfall of the nation.
views have been considered, any decision Lenin made According to several discoveries, democracy and
people had to have loyal opposition (Dixon, 2/22/21, 10 communism cannot exist simultaneously as the ideals
am). One of the people at the table arguing and policies are extremely different. In the years
policymaking with Lenin was Stalin and he completely following the Cold War, the Soviet Union “adopted an
ended democratic centralism (Dixon, 2/22/21, 10 am). expansionist policy” which they used to influence
Stalin’s idea of stabbing people in the back has a deep neighboring nations to adopt a communist regime
significance as it influenced other world leaders of third (Ryan, 2017, 2). Communist and totalitarian regimes are
world countries to do the same. The idea of stabbing motivated by ideology to achieve their goals and are
people in the back was close to Castro’s execution of overthrown when there is an invasion by external
people he considered his competitors. When analyzing powers (Saxonberg, 2012, 44). Incorporating
the thought process of Stalin and Castro, they are similar communist and capitalist ideas became the major
in terms of control and dominance. The concept of downfall of the Soviet Union and these ideas can lead to
leapfrog existed as Khrushchev trained Yeltzin and an invasion. Ideology altered the views of the nation
Gorbachev and their ideas and policies are about which led to unrest and tension.
democratic centralism (Dixon, 2/22/21, 10 am).
Different elected figures formulated strategies based on Historians have debated for years about the main
their perceptions of how to best fit the global economy, causes of the collapse of the Soviet Union. Few analysts
oblivious to the fact that their actions did more harm did predict the collapse, but many denied that the Soviet
than success. Union and Gorbachev were in the middle of a crisis. The
end of the USSR also signaled the end of the Cold War
Another group that followed the concept of leapfrog between the Soviet Union and the West which resulted
involved Stalin who trained Brezhnev who trained in a victory for the latter (Marples, 2004, 124). The
Andropov trained Putin and they followed Stalinism collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in the United
(Dixon, 2/22/21, 10 am). The names mentioned above States merging as the world’s only global power which
alternated in power and now Putin has been president changed the course of decision-making and influenced
for someone who a decade. Once Putin is no longer in the United Nations and wartime treaties (Marples, 2004,
power, those who possess similar ideals as him will be 124). The collapse of the Soviet Union proved to be
the new leader. Because the same individuals took beneficial for the US as it did not have to compete with

27
any other nation. Several theories suggest that the Cuba, the nation will follow the political ideals of
collapse of the Soviet Union was the result of democracy. The result of this led to more corruption and
Gorbachev undermining the authority of the Communist unrest in Cuba. A major problem with following a
Party, however, his structural reforms created “a different type of regime is that it is difficult to explain
vacuum of power in the Soviet structure” (Marples, how a regime transition occurs which made it difficult
2004, 125). Gorbachev, Yeltsin, and Lenin proved that for Cuba to transition to a democratic regime
it was much easier to take power than to rule. Gorbachev (Saxonberg, 2012, 41). Once a nation follows a
was blamed for his share of blunders in the collapse of particular type of regime, it can be theorized that the
the Soviet Union but many historians point to the other nation will continue to do so until a major change occurs
aspects such as narrow visions and economic mayhem in the political culture.
(Marples, 2004, 133). Leaders in the Soviet Union came
into power easily, but they did not possess the skills to Fidel Castro dominated the victory of the Cuban
take the nation forward. Revolution and the transformation of Cuba’s internal
and foreign policies. The victory and transformation of
Soviet history post-1953 indicates that contacts with the government gave rise to the idea of Fidel
nations abroad fostered the spread of Western products personalismo (Bain, 2013, 2). The concept of Fidel
and values in the USSR (Rupprecht, 2015, 286). When personalismo is the specific Cuban version of the Great
analyzing Soviet internationalism, it is used as a model Man Theory that concentrates on the emergence of an
to explain the integrative movement and a means of individual within a country who has been able to
control over third-world nations. Underdeveloped dominate a country’s political process. The Great Men
nations underdeveloped need aid and the USSR used Theory is put to the test by Joseph Stalin and Adolf
this opportunity to construct its self-image of an Hitler as the two men resembled superior and had
economically superior superpower. The Soviet Union hegemony over their nations. Because Cuba is a poorer
influenced third-world nations by spreading communist nation, they have always been dependent on Russia and
ideals and policies. Before its collapse, the Soviet Union the United States for aid in times of need. Throughout
can be viewed as today's North Korea but at a larger Cuban history, dependency has been their main issue
magnitude. Because the Soviet Union had power and because the larger nations hindered Cuba’s progression
control, it could spread fear among its citizens and other which led to an underdeveloped and poor nation. Many
parts of the world. During the 1980s, Soviet weakness theorists assumed that sovereign states regard
had reached critical mass and Western intelligence themselves as the primary players in an international
refused to accept that the Soviet Union would collapse setting and that their primary purpose is to safeguard
(Arbel, 2003, 199). The Stalin regime was brutal in its their interests (Bain, 2013, 2). Many historians
treatment of the army and the citizens. hypothesize that some nations are wealthy and others
remain impoverished because of the productivity of
The above paragraph alludes that Gorbachev was labor and capital resources (Bain, 2013, 2).
blame for the collapse of the Soviet Union but further Dependability is a critical element in the relationship
research and analysis show that more aspects resulted in between Cuba and the Soviet Union because the latter
the downfall. Gorbachev’s idea of slowly democratizing wanted a country that was reliant on them to maintain
the Soviet Union led to tension and unrest in the nation. their privileges.
The Bush administration decided to work with
Gorbachev as they viewed him as a more reliable The Soviet Union needed to protect Cuba from
partner, and this would promote US interests in third- becoming a democracy as the two nations shared similar
world nations such as Cuba. But domestic issues in the beliefs about communism. Because of the concept of
Soviet Union began to grow as there was a battle communism, the Soviet Union maximized its powers
between different ideologies. The dissolution of the and began to dominate smaller and poorer nations. As
Soviet Union helped the US to emerge as the only global discussed in Part 2, Marxism played a crucial role in
power at the time. If Gorbachev had not introduced new shaping the policies in Russia and Cuba. Realism was
political ideas, then the Soviet Union could have still dominant in International Relations, but between the
been in power and continued to influence third-world Soviet Union and the United States Marxism was a
nations. crucial factor (Bain, 2013, 2). Marxism provided a new
model of international relations and played a crucial part
Lastly, part 3 of the essay will be describing the in Soviet foreign policy (Bain 2013, 2). Cuba and the
relationship between Cuba and Russia. Cuba was a US formed a political relationship whereas Cuba and
buffer state and battled with the concept of communism Russia formed cultural links. Over the years there have
and democracy. The two superpowers at the time, the been many reports of Russian dancers performing in
United States and the Soviet Union desired to instill Cuba (Bain, 2013,96). Cultural links seemed to be
their versions of an ideal political system in Cuba. The crucial for Cuba and Russia compared to political
U.S. trained Batista and hoped that once he is back in relations. When deducing the cultural link between

28
Cuba and Russia, certain theories suggest that the two the Soviets became traitors (Blight, 2002, 74). Cubans
nations lean more on the side of traditional avenues. The became scarred psychologically and ideologically as
United States was more modern in their approach to they could never fully trust the Soviet Union again. Had
transforming Cuba into a democracy. Because the it not been for the demise of the Soviet Union, Cuba
Cuban economy was heavily dependent on the Soviet would have been behind in changing their governmental
Union and the US, Cubans did not how to respond or act policies and implementing new laws and regulations.
when they would not have any aid from the two
superpowers. For Central America to increase its quality of
democracy there have to be ten components of
Between 1989 and 1991, the collapse of the Soviet consolidation that must remain: elites must feel
Union changed the Cuban government economically, comfortable and not threatened, there must be
psychologically, and geo-politically (Sweig, 2016,125). autonomous civil society, there must be mass support
Cuba was in a bind because its people have been used to for democratic norms, there has to be strong
a certain way of life for decades and adopting certain programmatic parties instead of personalistic, there
changes can be detrimental to the citizens and the have to be stronger legislatures, there has to be a strong
economy. Cuba was in an insurmountable situation as and effective government, there have to be loyal
many people lost weight and food and electricity fell militaries who respect the constitution instead of
into short supply (Sweig, 2016, 127). The collapse of suspending and subverting it, there has to be
the Soviet Union did give rise to Cuban leadership and redistribution, economic growth and supportive
introduced changes to previous Soviet and communist external actors (Dixon, 2/10/21, 10 am). Supportive
policies. For example, the 1992 constitution recognized external actors can be the United States, China, IMF,
the freedom of religion, Cubans could directly vote for and World Bank. Each nation will have a different
People’s Power representatives, emphasis was given to model of democracy and that is dependent on its
Cuban Communist Party and lastly the constitution political history. Nations that have similar histories like
“recognized the ability of foreign joint ventures to Cuba will take time to build their economy according to
legally own property” (Sweig, 2016, 128). When the their standards and superpowers like China and the US
Soviet Union was in control certain changes seemed to would have to be patient and accept those models.
become an impediment to the progression of Cuba.
Even though the Cuban economy did struggle, it slowly The dynamic between Cuba and the Soviet Union
began to change its policies to fit its economic and took a drastic turn which led Cubans to revolt. To some
political needs. scholars, revolution may seem detrimental to a nation’s
development but for Cuba, it created a slow path toward
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba endured progression and independence. The US attempted to
revolutions with many historians asking why it did not instill democracy in Cuba’s government on numerous
plummet. The Cuban government did not fall because occasions which led to failure, tension, and unrest in the
the revolt took place within the country and had no nation. Because corrupt families took control after the
association with any outside forces (Sweig, 2016, 129). Soviet Union collapsed, Cubans had little knowledge of
The downfall of the Soviet Union left Cuba extremely how a nation should function. Cuba has always been
vulnerable, but the nation was dependent on the survival dependent on superpowers for advice and aid but once
of leading Cuban thinkers in hopes of progression left alone the Cuban political atmosphere changed its
(Blight, 2002, 74). Cuba and their relationship with the policies. China will benefit from Cuba’s communist
Soviet Union may have begun positively but once the ideals which will help to create foreign trade policies in
Soviet regime collapsed Cuba felt humiliated. Cubans the underdeveloped nation. For as long, as Cuba can
used to believe that the Soviet Union was their true stay away from revolution and continue to modify their
salvation, but as time passed, they began to believe that constitution, it can slowly erase poverty and corruption
in its nation.

29
 Bibliography

Arbel, et al. Western Intelligence and the Collapse of the Soviet Union, 1980-1990: Ten Years That Did
Not Shake the World. Frank Cass, London, United Kingdom, 2003.

Bain, Mervyn J., and Ebrary. From Lenin to Castro,1917 - 1959: Early Encounters between Moscow and
Havana. Lexington Books, Washington DC,2013.

Brenner, et al. A Contemporary Cuba Reader: the Revolution under Raúl Castro. 2nd ed., Rowman &
Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland, 2015.

Busky, Donald F., and Ebsco. Communism in History and Theory. From Utopian Socialism to the Fall
of the Soviet Union. Praeger, Westport, Connecticut,2002.

Dixon, David, "Lectures for POL 344, Spring 2021, "MW 10 am-11:15 am.

Enríquez, Laura J, et al. Reactions to the Market: Small Farmers in the Economic Reshaping of
Nicaragua, Cuba, Russia, and China. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania,
2010.

Fernández, Damián J., et al. Cuban Studies since the Revolution. University Press of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida, 1992.

Franco, Jean., et al. On Edge: The Crisis of Contemporary Latin American Culture. University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota 1992.

Friedman, Jeremy Scott. Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 2015.

Hearn, Adrian H., et al. Diaspora and Trust: Cuba, Mexico, and the Rise of China. Duke University Press,
Durham, North Carolina, 2016.

Jesse, Neal G., et al. Beyond Great Powers and Hegemons: Why Secondary States Support, Follow, or
Challenge. Stanford University Press, Redwood City, California, 2020.

Loth, Wilfried. Europe, Cold War and Coexistence,1953-1965. Frank Cass, London, United Kingdom,
2004.

Marples, David R. The Collapse of the Soviet Union: 1985-1991. 1st ed., Routledge, Abingdon, England,
2015.

Morley, et al. Cuba, the United States, and the Post-Cold War World: The International Dimensions of the
Washington-Havana Relationship. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 2005.

Mullerson, R. A. Regime Change: from Democratic Peace Theories to Forcible Regime Change.
Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2013.

30
Piqueras, et al. State of Ambiguity: Civic Life and Culture in Cuba's First Republic. Duke University
Press, Durham, North Carolina, 2014.

Ryan, James. The Collapse of the Soviet Union. Great Neck Publishing, Toledo, Ohio, 2009.

Rupprecht, Tobias. Soviet Internationalism after Stalin: Interaction and Exchange between the USSR and
Latin America during the Cold War. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2015.

Sanchez-Sibony, Oscar. Red Globalization: The Political Economy of the Soviet Cold War from Stalin to
Khrushchev. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 2014.

Saxonberg, Steven. Transitions and Non-Transitions from University Press Communism: Regime
Survival in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England,
2013.

Seliktar, Ofira. Politics, Paradigms, and Intelligence Failures: Why so Few Predicted the Collapse of the
Soviet Union. Routledge, Abingdon, England, 2015.

Siegelbaum, Lewis H. Soviet State and Society between Revolutions, 1918-1929. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, England, 1992.

Sweig, Julia. Cuba: What Everyone Needs to Know. 3rded., Oxford University Press, Oxford, England,
2016.

Tompson, William. The Soviet Union under Brezhnev. Routledge, Abingdon, England, 2014.

Wädekin, Karl Eugen., and International Conference on Soviet East European Agricultural Affairs.
Communist Agriculture: Farming in the Far East and Cuba. Routledge, Abingdon, England, 2003.

Wishnick, Elizabeth. Mending Fences: The Evolution of Moscow's China Policy from Brezhnev to
Yeltsin. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2001.

31
 Zaira Funes
Pura Vida Politics: Reshaping Costa Rica

When most people think of Costa Rica, most people think figures of Costa Rica to gain control and the aftermath of his
of picturesque landscapes, tropical jungles, volcanoes, regime with citizens wanting more democratic elections.
environmentally friendly, and Costa Rica’s “Pura Vida”
slogan and way of life. While these attributes are well By 1919, the first democratic elections were held, and
recognized for tourism, regarding Costa Rican politics, Julio Acosta Garcia won the race, they ran under the
many recognize Costa Rica as being Central America’s Constitutional Party. The Constitutional Party was formed
“Switzerland” because of its solid and stable democracy. in 1868, which sought to go against the presidential
Costa Rica is also worldly recognized as being the only candidacy, at the time, Julian Volio Llorente (Lehoucq,
Central American country without armed forces. All these 2015, 35). The party was never really recognized until the
tributes have molded Costa Rican identity and, for some, an first elections with political parties in 1889 by Conservative
example of how this small nation is leading by example. presidential candidate, Jose Joaquin Rodriguez Zeledon,
However, the Costa Rica we know today was not always the who became endorsed by the Catholic Church (Lehoucq,
same stable democracy we know now, the country has seen 2015, 40). Another significant political party that emerged
its fair share of political transitions which have then led to during the 1919 elections was the formation of the
developments, globalization, and reimagining of the Democratic Party, which was the left-liberal political party
country. During the early 20th century, Costa Rica saw itself of Costa Rica. The name was thrown by the Costa Rican
in the 44-day civil war that was the start of political citizens who, after overthrowing Tinoco’s dictatorship, felt
transitions in the country and following the election in 1948 that they wanted more political choices. Although the
saw social democratic power, as the way, we now recognize Democratic Party did not win the 1919 election, we would
Costa Rica. later see future presidential candidates partake in this party
and play a crucial role in shaping Costa Rican politics during
The small Central American country was the first part of the elections of the 1940s.
the First Mexican Empire and later became part of the
Federal Republic of Central America, which soon separated After Julio Acosta Garcia’s win, the country's
and became its independent nation in September. 15th, 1821. developmental and economic changes, however, Costa
While historically Costa Rica has enjoyed rather peaceful Rica saw hardly any revenue with production it saw less
and political stability, in sharp contrast to neighboring than 5 percent of annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
Central American countries, it has seen it's a fair share of where much of the extracting resources were from rural
political uncertainty. During the early 20th century, a family areas (CIA Factbook, Costa Rica, GDP, History). It was
rule started with General Federico Tinoco Granados also during this time that Costa Rica started to vastly export
becoming dictator of the country from 1917 to 1919 (Dixon, coffee and bananas, and despite the limitations, politicians
2/3/21, 10 am), who was appointed Minister of War in started embedding state resources to produce support with
January. 27, 1917 Tinoco and his brother seized power, in the electorate (Lehoucq, 2015, 36). It averaged 70 percent
what became known as the 1917 Costa Rican coup d’état. of state revenues. This allowed expenditures on health,
Both brothers took this opportunity to establish harsh education, and public works to increase by 24 percent, and
militarization in an attempt to get rid of any competition. The later 55 percent by 1947 (Lehoucq, 2015, 36). Politicians
coup was unannounced but had the support of the Costa and their parties take this opportunity to expand labor
Rican oligarchy, mostly from coffee growers and bankers, employment to their followers, which in return would
Catholic churches, the military, and the upper class (Burrell, guarantee voters. By 1920, the country saw its population
2012, 80). Tinoco’s dictatorship was described as brutal, and employed and many moving to urban areas, San Jose the
his popularity was declining by one in 1919. In fact, one of country’s capital, for these work opportunities. According
the interchanges of power Tinoco wanted to do was he to Lehoucq’s study, 14 percent of work employees were
wanted to declare war against the German Empire during men and 26 percent were female that were employed
World War 1, but former U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, (Lehoucq, 2015, 41). These employments were of strategic
did not identify Tinoco’s regime as legitimate and blocked importance to state jobs as this led many to obtain better
Costa Rica from participating in the war (Burrell, 2012, 81- livelihood, obtainable medical care, and access to
82). When Tinoco’s brother was assassinated in 1919, rebel education. It is imperative to point out, that Costa Rica has
forces were ready to overthrow Tinoco and restore one of the lowest Indigenous populations, with the majority
democratic elections to the country. Tinoco’s legacy is of its population made up of white and mestizo, 83.6
remembered as being one of the first powerful political percent of its population (CIA Factbook, Costa Rica,
Ethnic Groups). Many of the Indigenous population died

32
during the Spanish conquest which allowed for easier entry candidacy and won. While previous presidents were in
of white European descent people into the country, and favor and good relations with the wealthy elites, Guardia
much of the growing workforce in San Jose was made up expressed his focused-on poverty and poor working and
of white Costa Ricans while remaining Indigenous, health conditions for the working poor. This was unheard
African, Mestizo peoples were left to work in rural areas of in previous leaders and became the first Central
with little pay (Sawchuk, 2004, 5). This is a significant American president to be openly vocal in demanding
factor in the social class hierarchy as it affected which reform and paying attention to well, less developed areas of
provinces grew in revenue and saw much of its population the social, economic and cultural development areas of the
socially and economically advance while other ethnic country. This all became part of Costa Rica’s Reform
groups hardly saw any social or financial stability. Much of period, shifting from unstable capitalism to a progressive
the Caribbean and rural areas like Guanacaste and Limon— economic Welfare State (Burrell, 2012, 81), economic and
particularly in the province of Limon, remained the same social reform. Opposing parties were not in favor of
and where approximately its African and Indigenous Guardia and wanted to plan a coup d’état against him but
communities continued as developmental stability was were ultimately unsuccessful as word got to Guardia about
rising (Dixon, 2/3/21, 10 am) and later would become the these plans, and started to form allies (Sawchuk, 2004, 21).
crucial area of the United Fruit Company and employing Guardia found allies with The Communist Party and the
the largest number of agricultural workers. These issues Catholic Church with Monsignor Victor Manuel Sanabria
continue to persist in modern-day Costa Rica. which allowed him to have Social Guarantees
(Sawchuk, 2004, 22). Upset by this, many from the
The 1928 presidential election was won by Cleto Conservative Party publicly spoke against Guardia and
Gonzalez Viquez of the National Union party. This party sparking accusations and voter fraud. During his time as
was introduced by presidential candidate, Alberto Echandi President, Guardia established the Work Code, which
Montero, to represent the agricultural green flag and was introduced minimum wage to the country and protection of
Centre-right of the political spectrum. This general election laborers. He also introduced national healthcare programs
saw Costa Rican politicians spending more money on and established the University of Costa Rica.
election propaganda and mistrust between political parties to
gain political control. By the 1930s, running for president All these accomplishments from Guardia were greatly
was costing approximately half a million colonies, and the influenced by his time in Belgium and learning of the
Costa Rican currency, unlike any other elections was seen. European welfare system, by the time he returned to Costa
Political parties like the PRN (National Republican Party) Rica and won his election, he wanted to implement those
and PUN (National Union) were ludicrously willing to elements into Costa Rican society. As a result, it allowed
spend money to have their political presidential candidate the country to be better off than neighboring Central
reelected (Burrell, 2012,106). Another political party, the American countries and these institutions continue to exist
Communist Party formed during Viquez’s presidency and today (Segura-Ubiergo, 2007, 208). It was a small glimpse
became an important minor party throughout the 1930s and of shaping the modern Costa Rica we recognize today. By
1940s. The Communist Party retained its name until the 1944, Guardia supported Teodoro Picado Michalski to
early1940s, which renamed itself PVP, Popular Vanguard become his successor as president, who also had the
Party, and aligned itself with PRN. It was also during this support of Monsignor Sanabria. When election time took
presidency that many started declaring voter fraud over place in 1944, Guardia had arranged for Michalskito to
Viquez’s win and accusations of limited information being have his spot set to win the presidency through legal and
shared publicly by parties held against voters. A PRN illegal negotiations (Sawchuk, 2004, 22). Michalskidid win
activist accused organizations of being behind voter fraud the elections that year, but opposition accusations of fraud,
and accused a hospice director of forcing patients to vote for money laundering, and voter fraud were rampant and
the opposition candidate by withholding information from would affect any decision-making Michalski would do.
the voter. This trend will continue to affect voters and
electoral law into the 1940s when political instability will Four years later in the 1948 presidential election, Otilio
heighten with an imperial presidency and election Ulate Blanco, running under the PUN party, and former
fabrication. president, Rafael Calderon Guardia running for PRN, caused
tensions and was deemed fraudulent by both parties. Ulate
1940s Costa Rica started with the presidential win of Blanco won by 55.3 percent of the votes, and movements to
Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia, who ran under the stop Guardia from winning the elections heightened further
National Republican Party was heavily influenced by after the elections when Ulate Blanco allied with another
European Social Christian philosophy and created presidential candidate, Jose Figueres. The anti-Guardia
Catholic workers’ unions and organizations (Sawchuk, sentiments helped fuel the Costa Rican the 44-day led Civil
2004,4). Guardia was a medical doctor, who studied in War after anger erupted from oppositions who saw
Belgium and came from a powerful family (Dixon, 2/3/21, Michalski as a weak figure controlled by Guardia and going
10 am). And with the support of the wealthy elites of the against the constitution which prevented consecutive
nation, he was able to obtain his spot for presidential reelection. Many also opposed Michalski following into the

33
same political militarization presence and causing fear in the war as chaos and resurgence would cause more harm
people from the heavy military and police in the streets than good and ultimately destroy the country. Manuel Mora,
(Segura-Ubiergo, 2007, 215). congressman and part of the Popular Vanguard Party, and
Father Benjamin Nunez signed the Pact with the Mexican
Jose Figueres was a businessman and journalist who went Embassy, ending the war (Sawchk, 2004, 35). The next day,
into exile in Mexico in 1942 after going on the radio to Picado went into exile in neighboring, Nicaragua, and
declare his criticism of Guardia. He returned to Costa Rica Figueres took control of the government for eighteen months
shortly after the results in 1948, hoping to plan a war against and was the leader of the government junta, but quickly
the regime, when the National Republican Party, the party abolished the military and after eighteen months were over,
Guardia was running with, claimed fraud and requested he handed power back to Ulate Blanco. The aftermath of the
Congress to investigate the results. When Congress agreed war resulted in more than 2,000 dead—the deadliest event
to his request the country erupted in distrust, dissatisfaction, the country had faced during the 20th century—a modified
and chaos, arguing unconstitutional what Guardia wanted to 1949 Constitution, which under Article 12, resulted in the
do (SeguraUbiergo, 2007, 216). The same day in the evening abolishment of the military and became the second country,
saw gunshots in the streets and opposition and Guardia after Japan, to lawfully do this and proclaiming the right to
supporters surrounded the home of Dr. Carlos Luis Valverde live in a healthy natural environment (Burrell, 2012, 80).
where Ulate Blanco and Figueres had been moments before These were the early laws reshaping Costa Rica in favor of
escaping when the noise of gunshots was heard in the streets. intergovernmental and free trade and seeking environmental
Ulate Blanco and Figueres fled Dr. Valverde’s home as he improvements and social development, in sharp contrast to
opened his door and was shot in his doorstep, collapsing and neighboring Central American countries (Sanchez, 2009,
later dying as a result of the gunshot (Segura-Ubiergo, 2007, 35). This would also be the first time post-Civil War that the
217). The violent insurrection was the tip of the iceberg and country would become part of Central American integration
thus began the Civil War. Figueres immediately made the and would do so during the Central American revolution in
call to bring his militias and police allies, the rebels, to go the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.
after the right-wing junta backed by Guardia.
Costa Rica is a unique example of forming political
News of the outbreak spread rapidly and the rebels, now stability after experiencing one of the bloodiest events the
calling itself The National Liberation Army, started to go country has faced and has maintained relative peace in
across the Pan-American Highway to gain alliance while the comparison to the other Central American neighbors, even
right-wing junta was backed by Nicaraguan right-wing neighboring Nicaragua has a radically different approach to
dictator, Anastasio Somoza, who would send trained political history. Sometimes referred to as “the awkward
Nicaraguan soldiers to go against the rebels. Granting, the partner of Central America integration,” Costa Rica has
rebels were anti-communist, they were eventually backed by prioritized political, social, and economic development as its
the United States and leftist Guatemalan president, Juan Jose natural interest and concerns and sought to adapt by taking
Arevalo who assisted with aid and weapons (Seguara- advantage of concentrated markets and unskilled and skilled
Ubiergo, 2007, 219). labor (Sanchez, 2009, 33). The internal and external
transformation has allowed Costa Rica to expand its GDP
Eventually, the two oppositions would meet in the and showcase to the world its relationship to the isthmus and
province of Cartago, the second-largest city, to discuss its attitude towards change has signified its success and
negotiations, but as the government army was beginning to catapulted its image as a model of integration based on
run low on supplies, they wrote a letter to Figueresto to end transparency in investing with its people.

34
 Bibliography

Burrell, Jennifer L., Ellen. Moodie, and Ebrary. Central America in the New Millennium: Living
Transition and Reimagining Democracy. New York: Berghahn,2013. CEDLA Latin America Studies
(CLAS); v. 102. Web.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Report. Costa Rica (1997). Web.

Lehoucq, and Molina Jiménez. Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in
Costa Rica. New York: Cambridge UP, 2002. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Web.

Paus, Eva. Foreign Investment, Development, and Globalization: Can Costa Rica Become Ireland? New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Print.

Sánchez, Rafael A. The Politics of Central American Integration. New York: Routledge, 2009. Latin
American Studies (Routledge (Firm)). Web.

Sawchuk, Dana, and Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion Content Provider. The Costa Rican
Catholic Church, Social Justice, and the Rights of Workers, 1979-1996. Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier
UP, 2004. Editions SR; v. 30. Web.

Segura-Ubiergo, Alex. The Political Economy of the Welfare State in Latin America: Globalization,
Democracy, and Development. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge UP, 2007.
Web.

35
 Melissa Prado
Guatemala’s Policy Towards the Indigenous

Until a revolutionary movement transpired within the an uprising revolt. As the tension between the government
country, Guatemala primarily experienced a military and rebels originated from issues of class conflict, the civil
authoritarian regime. Political resistance from left-wing war symbolized state violence against the guerrilla armies,
guerilla rebels initiated a civil war. During this military reformers, activists, and ordinary civilians (Konefal 2010,
conflict, Guatemala's political domain transitioned into a 2). The military further weakened ties between political
democracy in the late twentieth century (McCleary 1999, parties and civil society (Brett 2008, 39).
195). Higher powers and rebel groups later signed a peace
treaty that signaled the end of brutal warfare (McClearly The revolutionary movement sought to fix the political
1999, 195). However, a transition to a democratic political instability in Guatemala and challenge military sovereignty
regime only occurred because of the capitalist interests of (Booth 2014, 181). Yet, the state issued military intervention
governing elites (McClearly 1999, 195). Guatemala's against those proclaiming leftist ideology because
political economy historically depends on the oppression managed the social hierarchy of Guatemala.
dehumanization of its Indigenous population. Yet, Higher powers prioritized regulating various social and
regardless of their circumstances, Indigenous Guatemalans economic problems throughout the country. Just as other
never submitted to racial injustices and began mobilizing to nation-states adopted neoliberalism or free-market
reclaim their autonomy. economics, the governing elites of Guatemala decided to do
the same and seek democracy as a more profitable regime
While most dictatorships wielded authority during the (McClearly 1999, 195). Without altering the social
twentieth century, two left-leaning leaders held political hierarchy, governing elites focused on economic gain and
power for nearly a decade. In 1945, citizens elected Juan prioritized the expansion of capitalism. The country slowly
José Arévalo Bermejo as the president (Brockett 2005, accepted a less restrictive government and favored its private
206). Bermejo identified with the Revolutionary Action sector (McClealy1999, 194).
Party (PAR). The former president reformed several social
and economic issues. For instance, Bermejo sought to Guatemala replaced the need for domestic production with
create social programs and legalize social unions (Copeland greater participation by private entities (Clearly1999, 195).
2019, 168). Following Bermejo, citizens elected Juan As Guatemala inherited democratic principles, governing
Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán as the president in 1950. The elites sought no reason to prolong a violent civil war. The
former president sought to address land inequality. peace accords of 1996 signified the end of the political
revolution (Booth 2014, 173). Guatemala’s political domain
Guzmán began his mission by legalizing the Guatemalan incorporated and acknowledged various rebel groups, known
Labor Party (PGT), a communist party that attempted to as the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union (URNG),
redistribute land back to Guatemalans of low social status as a political organization (Booth 2014, 173). Nonetheless, a
(Booth 2014, 174). With restricted power over United Fruit democratic transition to a civilian government did not
Company holdings, the former president redistributed land institutionalize revolutionary conceptions in Guatemala’s
by transferring private ownership to state control. Despite political domain.
this, the U.S. coup forcibly removed Guzmán from
governmental power in 1954 (Dixon, 2/8/21, 10:00 A.M.). After nearly half a century, citizens elected Alvaro Colom
The president's ideals did not coincide with capitalist Caballeros in 2008 (Copeland 2019, 169). The left-leaning
interests that depended on domestic production (McClearly president identified with the National Unity of Hope Party
1999, 195). Private entities then reclaimed control of the (UNE). Colom established the “anti-impunity agency
land from the rural, lower-class communities (Brett CICIG” and legislative reforms that demonstrated
2008,115). Following a short break with left-wing politics, democratic and humanitarian ideals (Booth 2014, 192).
the Guatemalan government resurged as a militarized While the former president attempted to implement positive
nation. change, Guatemala’s higher powers forbid thoughtful and
radical solutions to fix the country’s political instability,
Citizens proceeded to undergo political suppression in “social violence,” and the poverty-stricken state of poor
Guatemala; an example that is the most massive violent communities (Booth 2014, 197). In more contemporary
repression is the Guatemalan civil war. During the 1960s politics, the Guatemalan government continues with this
and 1970s, leftist and revolutionary ideals grew throughout theme as it focuses on the rise in crime instead of the
Guatemala (Konefal 2012, 2). In contrast, governing elites “impunity and corruption” that has defined the nation (Booth
viewed political resistance as a threat and did not allow for 2014, 197).

36
 While prioritizing economic development, higher powers economic exclusion (Konefai 2012, 185). Nearly eighty-six
consistently ignore the harsh realities of the rural, lower percent of Indigenous peoples live in poverty, seventy-five
class, which disproportionately represents Indigenous do not own land, and forty-two percent are illiterate (O’Neill
communities. The alienation of Indigenous communities in 2010, 18). Conquest and colonial law continue to define the
contemporary Guatemalan society stems from when Spanish Indigenous majority as a separate class (Reeves 2006, 186).
settlers first arrived in the country nearly five hundred Since the beginning, higher powers recognized Indigenous
centuries ago (O’Neill 2010, 17). Spanish settlers killed two- peoples as economic ventures and disposable bodies in the
thirds of Indigenous populations (O’Neill 2010, 17). Spanish quest for power and development (Nelson1999, 290).
settlers proceeded to create “colonial systems of forced
indigenous labor” that shaped the current state of Guatemala Guatemalan society disregards the wellness of Indigenous
(McClearly 1999, 7). Guatemala treats Indigenous peoples populations. The nation-state depends on racial and ethnic
as utilizable tools. The country obtains a historical record of distinctions to monopolize Indigenous land and labor
governing elites of “European descent” exploiting (Reeves 2006, 186). Because of this, dismantling systems
Indigenous communities (Dixon, 2/10/21, 10:00 A.M.). that rely on Indigenous exploitation would leave the nation-
Higher powers expropriated Indigenous land and coerced state at a loss. Aside from perpetuating physical violence on
Indigenous peoples to work on coffee plantations in the brown bodies, higher powers worked diligently to
nineteenth century (O’Neill 2010, 17). As a result, disempower Indigenous Guatemalans through the heart and
Indigenous peoples produced the majority of agricultural soul. The uprising of a Western nation-state then derived
labor, where their hard work and efforts established the from the intention of denying Indigenous peoples the right to
building blocks of the economic prosperity of Guatemala. live freely on their ancestral lands (Konefal 2010, 3).
Yet, Indigenous peoples never received proper Indigenous peoples could not engage in cultural practices
reimbursement for their free or extremely low wage labor. without legal repercussions (Konefal, 2010,3). The country
Elites ensured the exploitation of Indigenous peoples enforces external control and Western ideology onto
through practices like seasonal labor or debt peonage Indigenous peoples.
(McCleary 1999, 8). As time progressed, Guatemala’s native
population suffered financially as higher powers In retaliation, Indigenous communities in Guatemala
accumulated steady wealth. exhibited resilience and resistance. As the country
experienced democratization, Indigenous Guatemalans
The dehumanization of Indigenous communities mobilized into a Pan-Maya movement (Fischer 2001, 4). The
constituted the social and economic formations of Maya constitutes the majority of Indigenous communities in
Guatemala. A transition to democracy merely disillusioned Guatemala. Nonetheless, Pan-Maya activists do not strive to
the abolishment or the reduction of unjustified inequalities homogenize the diversity of Indigenous peoples. In contrast,
that the Indigenous majority experience in the country. A the movement unifies various Indigenous groups with
democracy permits a civilian-chosen government (Booth differing languages, land, and local traditions (Fischer 2001,
2014, 182). Although, a civilian rule society did not 5). Overall, the movement exemplifies how Indigenous
guarantee the election of left-leaning leaders. After Colom’s peoples withhold agency against colonial institutions.
term in office, the nation did not resurge with left-leaning
parties. Rigoberta Menchú, an Indigenous rights activist, ran Various Maya communities stand in solidarity with one
for president in 2007 and 2011 with the Winaq Party another. As groups organize towards freedom against
(Copeland 2019, 169). The political party symbolized an colonial control, Indigenous communities recognize
alliance between leftist parties, rural and lower class, and differences from each ethnic group. In doing so, Indigenous
indigenous movements (Copeland 2019, 169). Guatemalans understand how the global and local political
economy played a critical role in contemporary Indigenous
Menchú desired to implement the peace accords of identity and culture (Fischer 2001, 30). They recognized how
1996 from the Guatemalan civil war into contemporary violent warfare between revolutionaries and dictatorial
Guatemalan politics. The Indigenous activist planned to higher powers in the Guatemalan civil war shaped a pan-
dismantle the uneven distribution of wealth, institutionalize Maya identity (Nelson 1999, 5). This unique identity
Indigenous rights, and hold accountable oppressive higher prevents the country from transforming into a homogenous
powers (Copeland 2019, 169). Be that as it may, Menchú and Westernized nation-state (Fisher 2001, 207); the
won 3 percent of the vote when she ran for president both collective movement is an act of survivance.
times (Copeland 2019, 169). While showcasing the left’s less
presentable presence in Guatemala’s political realm, Indigenous activism acknowledges the erasure of a
Menchú’s loss presents Guatemala’s disinterest in colonial past to ensure the creation of the Guatemalan nation-
dismantling the marginalization of Indigenous peoples and state. While striving to end state violence, the Pan-Maya
systematic racism (Booth 2014, 197). movement ensures the continuance and prosperity of
Indigenous culture (Fischer 2001, 84). For instance, the
Despite making up nearly half of the population of Guatemalan government portrays the Indigenous population
Guatemala, Indigenous communities face the most social and as a people of the past (Nelson 1999, 8). Guatemala conveys

37
that the Spanish conquered and killed the Indigenous population of Guatemala (Booth 2014, 197). At the same
peoples. While embracing Maya folklore, the Guatemalan time, Guatemalan society slowly recognizes the demands of
government justifies the massacre of Maya communities the Maya (Nelson 1999, 6).
(Konefal 2010, 2). The civil war allowed for “earth attacks
on highland villages,” mass murder, and the disappearance As Indigenous communities practice self-determination,
of thousands of Indigenous peoples (Nelson 1999, 9). Pan Maya activism showcases progression in spreading
awareness about the socioeconomic realities of Indigenous
The civil war produced a long series of genocidal attacks communities (Fischer 2004, 92). While the movement
on Maya communities (Konefal 2012, 2). Even long after the demonstrates development, Indigenous groups did not
violent warfare, Guatemala failed to prosecute Rios Montt, collectively produce a stagnant change in Guatemala’s
the genocidal leader of the war, in 2013 (Dixon 2/8/21, 10:00 political realm, one reason being that Pan-Maya activism
A.M.). The annulment of Rios Montt further exemplifies the does not inherit a single leader. The movement consists of
lack of justice for Indigenous peoples in Guatemala. In times numerous organizations (Fischer 2001, 102). The
of pain and loneliness, the Pan-Maya movement provided a fundamental ideology of various Indigenous groups shares
sense of community for Indigenous Guatemalans. A Pan- similarities. The groups share a common goal that stems
Maya identity permitted Indigenous activists to refer to the from the secular combination of individual frameworks and
twenty-one differing ethnic and linguistic communities in the intentions (Fischer 2001,101).
country (Nelson 1999, 5). A safe space allows Indigenous
organizers to save the diverse Indigenous culture from Nevertheless, Guatemala’s political realm prohibits Maya
colonial destruction. activists from advancing within the nation. Whether the
country exhibited a military regime or a democracy,
One vital element the movement prioritizes is citizenship Guatemala exempted Indigenous peoples from basic human
for Indigenous Guatemalans. The peace accord, the decency. Since the arrival of Spanish settlers, the Indigenous
Agreement on the Identity and Rights of Indigenous Peoples, majority struggled with discrimination, assimilation, and
conveyed democratization to recognize all identities in territorial rights (Nelson 1999, 290). The forced removal of
Guatemala (O’Neill 2009,17). However, Indigenous peoples Indigenous sovereignty over lands and resources founded the
perceived the legislative body to exemplify racial Guatemalan nation-state (Nelson 1999, 308). The creation of
discrimination. The concept of citizenship prohibits Maya the Guatemalan nation-state deprived Indigenous peoples of
communities from actively participating in Guatemala’s the right to self-government and function independently
political realm. One way this is enforced is through the (Nelson 1999, 308).
officialization of Spanish as Guatemala’s official legal
language (O’Neill 2009, 17). Consequently, Indigenous Indigenous autonomy is difficult to attain under a settler
peoples who speak a native dialect do not inherit the political state. Guatemala refuses to address the historical account of
rights guaranteed to citizens (O’Neill 2009, 17). dehumanization against Indigenous Guatemalans. Despite
inhabiting an abundance of cultural diversity, Guatemala
Guatemalan citizenship demonstrates a cultural category continues to deny the country’s complexity (Nelson 1999,
that alienates Indigenous populations. The dominance of the 330). The reasoning for this predicament is that the
Spanish language is not only an act of exclusion, but it forces acknowledgment of the human rights of Indigenous people
Indigenous communities to participate in assimilation for a calls for the end of colonial institutions. In fear of
mere chance at survival. Furthermore, Indigenous peoples dismembering the nation-state, higher powers prolong the
acknowledge how the violence and erasures of a destructive economic exploitation of the Indigenous majority (Nelson
colonial past continue to impact contemporary Indigenous 1999, 308). Yet, Indigenous communities continue to
communities. While colonization strives to obliterate the demonstrate agency. A Pan-Maya identity flourished to
native population, the colonial process created Maya spread awareness about the injustices against Indigenous
activists (Nelson 1999, 6). While remaining resilient, Guatemalans. Consequently, Guatemala obtained a vast
Indigenous communities demonstrate to be more politically increase in Indigenous organizing around demands (Nelson
active and organized than Ladinos or the Hispanicized 1999, 346).

38
 Bibliography

Booth, J. A., Wade, C. J., & Walker, T. W. Understanding Central America: Global Forces,
Rebellion, and Change. (Boulder: West View Press, 2014).

Brett, Roderick Leslie. Social Movements, Indigenous Politics and Democratization in Guatemala, 1985-
1996. (Boston: Brill, 2008).

Brockett, Charles D. Political Movements and Violence in Central America. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005).

Burrell, Jennifer L. Maya After War: Conflict, Power, and Politics in Guatemala. (Austin: University of
Texas Press, 2013).

Copeland, Nicholas. The Democracy Development Machine: Neoliberalism, Radical Pessimism, and
Authoritarian Populism in Mayan Guatemala (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019).

Fischer, Edward F. Cultural Logics, and Global Economies: Maya Identity in Thought and Practice.
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001).

Konefai, Betsy. For Every Indio Who Falls: A History of Maya Activism in Guatemala, 1960- 1990.
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2010).

McCleary, Rachel M. Dictating Democracy: Guatemala and the End of Violent Resolution. (Gainesville:
University Press of Florida, 1999).

Nelson, Diane M. A Finger in the Wound: Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala. (Berkeley and Los
Angeles: the University of California Press, 1999).

O'Neill, Kevin Lewis. City of God: Christian Citizenship in Postwar Guatemala. (Berkeley: The University
of California Press, 2009).

Reeves, René. Ladinos with Ladinos, Indians with Indians: Land, Labor, and Regional Ethnic Conflict in
the Making of Guatemala. (Redwood City: Standard University Press, 2006).

39
 Richard Salinas

Operation Car Wash: A Democracy Fall Out

The purpose of this research paper is to analyze the cause twenty years of authoritarian rule. The government structure
and effect of one of the biggest corruption scandals in Latin is rapidly on the verge of retrogressing to its authoritarian
America. In my research about Operacão Lava Jato also roots. Brazil has fallen back to its old habits of corruption
known as Operation Car Wash, I found a few authors who and abuse of politics towards the people. Businessmen, high-
published books about Brazil’s scandal and political elites ranking politicians, and ex-presidents like Luiz Inácio Lula
that played a pivotal part in the scheme, particularly in film, da Silva remain in prison for having involvement in a
journals, and books. The authors of my research findings political scheme. Lula’s successor, Dilma Rousseff
often placed Brazil’s scandal in the context of corruption. impeached after allegations of corruption. No presidential
My goal in this paper is to analyze the cause and effect of administration has escaped the corruption in modern times
Brazil of the most notorious political corruption that took (Keystone et al, 2017, pg. 77). Corruption has been endemic
place in all of South America, Operation Car Wash, and the and has grown to an unprecedented level in Brazil.
social economic effect it left on the people of Brazil.

To achieve this goal, I have organized my paper into Democracy in Brazil is slowly fading away from its
four main sections. In the first section, I give a brief citizens. Brazilian history continues with political corruption
historical context of Brazil and the ex-president, Luiz (Bourne, 2008, 130). To gain a better understanding of
Inácio “Lula” da Silva. In the second section, I will provide Brazil's corruption we need to understand who Luiz Inácio
a detailed outline of how Operation Car Wash operated. I “Lula” da Silva is. Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, better known
end my paper with a third section that offers research as “Lula,” represented a populist movement and built a solid
questions that can extend to future versions of this paper reputation with lower-class citizens during Brazil’s
and conclude with a fourth section that discusses the dictatorship. Lula established Brazil’s first Workers Party
importance of expanding this research project. I also (PT) (Hunter, 2010, pg.21). This would help him achieve
include a bibliography page that contains the research political success in running for Presidency. He served as the
findings that I examined. 35th President of Brazil from 2003 to 2011 (Machado, 2018,
pg. 398). Lula became unsuccessful in achieving higher
I have chosen to examine the most notorious scandals, office the first three times. Citizens voted for Lula in the
Operation Car Wash is a scheme involving two major hope that he would ethically reform the political system.
corporations that were a center of a money laundering Soon the people of Brazil would learn that he was repeating
operation that involved presidents, elite politicians and practices that he had always criticized.
business leaders, and small business corporations that
resulted in the nation's political and economic downfall. In Lula’s first scandal was buying the majority of his votes.
the first section of this paper, I raise the basic understanding Lula’s administration started to build a bad reputation among
of the level of unprecedented corruption that involves the people of Brazil. Soon it would catch up to him for his
Brazil's former president, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and involvement in Operation Car Wash. In 2005 Lula launched
Dilma Rousseff played key roles in Brazil this operation. In Brazil’s largest energy project in Itaboraí, a small city
the second section, I demonstrate the cause and effect of the located in Rio de Janeiro (Vox, 2016, Film). The energy
operation and explain the main components of the scandal. project intended to develop Brazil’s economy with industrial
How the current political and economic system is slowly chemicals, employment opportunities, and infrastructure.
progressing back to the solid democracy it once visioned.
Lastly, I examine leftwing politicians that still have a chance Dilma Rousseff damaged her reputation towards the
of running for political power despite the downfall of its people of Brazil with her involvement in manipulating the
infamous political scandal. federal budget to cover budget gaps. This scandal broke out
during the same time as Operation Car Wash. Investigators
Does Brazil's democracy become a fall from lying corrupt suspected Rousseff's involvement due to her close
politicians with the uprising of left-wing politicians? The relationship with Lula (Vox, 2016, Film). Upon her
level of corruption and fraud that is veiled in Brazil remains impeachment crowds of people began to show victory that
unprecedented. Brazil has deeply fallen into turmoil with its another politician had been voted out of office (Kingstone et
government and economic system that has exhausted its al, 2018, pg. 34). Many speculated her involvement in
citizens to demand change. Brazil is a country that declared Operation Car Wash that led to her impeachment as she was
slavery at one time and advanced to independence after the operating chairwoman of the Petrobras that played a role

40
in the scheme. It damaged Rousseff's reputation in bribes from Odebrecht (Felter & Labrador,2018, pg.1).
tremendously leaving citizens outraged by her conniving This is equivalent to $924,527 US dollars.
actions.
The interesting part to note is the bribes are marked as
How can the people of Brazil be so sure that she was not incentives exclusively to keep giving contracts to the cartel.
involved? The entire country wanted her out of office. On State governor, Sergio Cabral of Rio de Janeiro, received
March 17, 2014, Brazil faced one of the largest corruption more than $800,000 for contracts to a firm in the cartel
operations in Latin America. It destroyed Brazil's democracy (Douglas, 2015, pg. 1). Odebrecht endorsed political parties
and left the people dry. Former Federal Judge, Sergio Moro and candidates. Lula’s Workers Party had an interest that all
led the investigation. Moro’s Federal investigation suspected South American presidents share the same political and
unusual bank activity that involved a major oil company, economic line as the Workers Party (Hunter, 210, pg.44).
Petrobras. Petrobras is a multinational corporation in the Odebrecht had strong links with Lula’s Party which became
petroleum industry in Rio de Janeiro. A multi-billion-dollar a geopolitical strategy that indicated corruption.
project of petrochemical would give jobs to the people of
Brazil (Vox, 2016, Film). Moro’s prosecutor team believed Operation Car Wash became simultaneously systemic
that Petrobras had been taking bribes from another large corruption throughout Latin America. Former president of
construction cooperation, Odebrecht, in return for contracts Peru, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski who at the time served as a
(Vox, 2016, Film). Thousands of citizens relocated to public official was up against impeachment but avoided it for
Itaboraí seeking employment opportunities. People of money contributions with Odebrecht (Bechara &
Itaboraí felt optimistic about their future, that big Goldschmidt, 2020, pg. 6). This began as a series of very
development would help contribute to the rise of Brazil’s complex crimes that involve several different governments.
economy. Though that wasn’t the case and optimism had For example, Federal prosecutors investigated crimes
been replaced by corruption. The multi-billion-dollar project relating to drug trafficking, money laundering, corruption,
is planned to open in 2011 (Vox, 2016, Film). But and abuse of the international financial system (Felter&
construction had stopped after the company had colluded Labrador, 2018, pg.2). The key player involved, Luiz Inácio
with engineering firms to overcharge on its construction Lula da Silva, was sentenced to 12 years in prison for
contracts, with the surplus cash lining the pockets of corrupt corruption. and money laundering (Felter & Labrador, 2018,
politicians and businessmen (Douglas, 2015, pg. 1). pg.2). Dilma Rousseff's efforts of covering up federal budget
Infrastructure projects were suspended. Petrobras and gaps led to impeachment. Rousseff Though operated as the
Odebrecht left hundreds of thousands of workers company’s chairwoman from 2003 to 2010 (Felter &
unemployed. There’s a saying in Portuguese, “Merda quanto Labrador, 2018, pg.1).
mais se mexe, mais fede”, which means the more you stir
shit, the worse it stinks. The more Lula and his allies Eduardo Cunha, former Chamber of Deputies, was
furthered this scheme the worse it got. It did not only become charged with accepting millions of dollars in bribes and
a domestic scandal, but an international scandal that became money laundering and sentenced to more than 15 years in
a systemic corruption. Brazil began to see the tremendous prison (Felter & Labrador, 2018, pg.1). Marcelo Odebrecht,
involvement of political corruption in Latin America. former CEO of Odebrecht sentenced to 19 years in prison for
his involvement in 30 million dollars in bribes (Felter &
Federal officials intercepted phone conversations Alberto Labrador, 2018, pg.1). There is speculation of outside
Youssef, a black-market money dealer, laundered money to involvement such as former Colombian President Juan
executives at Petrobras. (Felter & Labrador, 2018, pg.1). Manuel Santos, Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro, and
former Peruvian President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (Felter &
Prosecutors found evidence of corruption and money Labrador, CFR, 2018, pg.1). Marcelo Odebrecht, Juan
laundering at Petrobras (Keystone, Power, 2017, 80). Manuel, and Pedro Pablo have allegedly participated in the
Youssef's involvement had him prosecuted. Yousseff notorious scandal.
signed a plea deal to offer inside information to prosecutors
(Vox, 2016, Film). The way the process worked Petrobras The Effect of systemic corruption that damaged Brazil
started a bidding process for jobs that were to develop the remains unprecedented. It left a devastating mark from a
Petro-Chemical complex. Petrobras took advantage of its political and economic standpoint. Operation Car Wash
projects to cultivate engineering firms such as OAS, UTC, revealed the rottenness of Brazilian politics. In return, it led
Camargo Corrêa, Galvão Engenharia, and others that people to have doubts about the democratic system. The
formed an agreement that took turns accepting projects rottenness was feeding on a fake democratic system and a
(Douglas, 2015, pg. 1). Odebrecht won the majority of the false state of law. It is necessary to change the profound
contracts which allowed it to overcharge Petrobras. corruption and history of impunity. For example, corruption
Odebrecht then laundered money through an outside gas had a severe impact on Brazil’s economy and its citizens led
station that ran a car wash before paying bribes (Felter& to mass protests (Keystone, Power, 2017, 190). The
Labrador, 2018, pg.1). For example, former executive, movements became urgent for Brazilian democracy. These
Aldemir Bendine of Petrobras would take three million reais movements had a distinctive social, economic, and political

41
character (Keystone, Power, 2017, 190). They signified Although most politicians lost their political right to gain
missed opportunities for political, social, and economic political success again. Lula’s reputation for crime and
development and the dysfunction in the political system that political trust led him to be one of the most notorious corrupt
included widespread political corruption throughout Brazil. politicians in South America in the modern day. Supporters
This is a painful process for the citizens of Brazil. It is an still recognize Lula’s fighting effort in contributing to
immense injury. Itaboraí has had the greatest economic dismantling a dictatorship (Londoño & Casado, 2021, pg. 1).
impact from the Petrobras scheme (Keystone, Power, 2017, Lula's career is a reminder for those supporters that he paved
190). Its economy came to a devastating halt. Brazil's future the way for democracy. Brazilians looked up to Lula as a
came to a halt. A bad reputation started to mount high in hero and an intellectual leader.
Brazil. Due to a lack of income residents became bankrupt
which resulted in becoming homeless (Felter& Labrador, Corruption is a “serial killer” that kills, disguised as the
2018, pg.2). The workers suffered the most from the scheme holes in the pavement. Brazil has suffered immensely
rather than those prosecuted. There was not much light through poverty (Felter, 2018, pg. 2). Has Operation Car
coming out of the dark tunnel. Key infrastructure projects Wash become an attitude for the people to overcome being
were put on pause due to pending investigations. Brazil on the edge of democracy? Brazilians seem to be vigilant. It
suffered from relying much on Petrobras (Felter & Labrador, is an expectation that impunity will start to fade away.
2018, pg.3). Itaboraí was left as a ghost town and small Corruption within Brazil's government system remains an
businesses were left high and dry. It seemed like a issue. It is evident that Brazil's government does not
nationwide infrastructure construction block out. demonstrate democracy, thus it lacks a civil component. The
Brazilian democracy does not protect its citizens from
Today Brazil’s current president, Jair Bolsonaro, faces corruption (Reiter, 2009, 28).
criticism of his handling of the ongoing pandemic Covid-19.
Bolsonaro is facing scrutiny from the public eye. Citizens The eroded governmental structure has neglected its
want Bolsonaro impeached for the crimes against humanity people and once again conquered political power through
from the pandemic (Londoño, Casado, 2021 pg.1). corruption from its very own. The people’s man, Lula once
Campaigns have started for the 2022 presidential elections. promised to fight for a sustained and civil government.
The economy of Brazil has been left in turmoil by the novel Dilma Rousseff preached the same words, demanding
virus. Currently, the unemployment rate is at a staggering reform in its economic development. Infrastructure and
high of 14.6 percent, from 13.5 percent in 2020 (CIA petroleum development became critical in her first year not
Factbook, Brazil, Economy, 2 Paragraph). only in office (Fishlow, 2011, 193). Organized crime is not
only embedded in Brazil’s political structure but also
The pandemic might affect his presidential bid in 2022. In economically and socially (Casas Zamaro, 2013, pg.42).
an unprecedented twist of events, Lula has made headlines How could Brazilians fall into evil lies? Brazil once fought
in Brazil. Ex-president, Lula Inácio Lulada Silva has stirred for its independence and regime change to avoid rotten
up political chaos as a Supreme Court judge, Edson Fachin corruption. It is though it seems as if the people of Brazil are
officially declared Lula’s convictions invalid, allowing him reliving the past in a more modern and devious way. The
to run for president in 2022. This surprising ruling restored democratic government has quickly vanished away, leaving
Lula’s political rights. Lula was allowed to remain free by a people to believe that they cannot trust their very own
Supreme Court ruling in November of 2019 (Londoño & government again.
Casado, 2021, pg. 1). On March 8, 2021, the Supreme Court
annulled Lula’s conviction. The court that convicted Lula for Operation Car Wash amounted to unprecedented events.
his involvement in the scandal did not have jurisdiction to do Mass protests erupted after Dilma Rousseff's Impeachment
so. There is a chance that the ex-president will face charges trial. Politicians, and business elites from Petrobras, and
in the state of Brasilia, its appropriate jurisdiction innocent. Odebrecht were charged and convicted in the scandal. The
Many supporters have recognized this annulment as people of Brazil face a democracy that is on the edge of
innocent. disappearing. It will be interesting to see in the next coming
months if there will be another election that involves a left-
Supporters have stood by Lula since his conviction. wing politician. Will the people of Brazil come together to
They believe that his conviction is unjustified. Half of prevent another scandal from happening? Will the people of
Brazil would not want him back in the office. Though Lula Brazil prevent a once dominate-corrupt politician leader?
remains the strongest candidate on the left to make a political The people of Brazil can only be hopeful that its government
comeback. As for past politicians involved in the scheme, will look out for the best interest of their country and not fall
there remains a decision on Lula’s political run in 2022. into another dictatorship that can lead to lies and propaganda.

42
 Bibliography

Bechara, Fabio R, and Paulo C. Goldschmidt. Lessons of Operation Car Wash: A Legal, Institutional, and
Economical Analysis. Washington D.C.: Wilson Center, 2020.

Bourne, Richard. Lula of Brazil. 1st ed. Berkeley: U of California, 2008. Web.

Casas Zamora, and Project Muse. Dangerous Liaisons: Organized Crime and Political Finance in Latin
America and Beyond. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2013.

Douglas, Bruce. “The Kickback That Killed Brazil.” Foreign Policy, 15 Apr. 2015, pg. 1-2.

Felter, Claire, and Rocio Cara Labrador. “Brazil's Corruption Fallout.” Council on Foreign Relations,
Council on Foreign Relations, 7 Nov. 2018.

Fishlow, Albert. Starting Over: Brazil Since 1985.Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011.

Hunter, Wendy. The Transformation of the Workers' Party in Brazil, 1989–2009. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2010.

Kingstone, Peter R, and Power, Timothy J. Democratic Brazil Divided. Pittsburgh: The University of
Pittsburgh Press, 2017

Londoño, Ernesto, and Letícia Casado. “Brazil's Ex-President' Lula' May Run for Office Again as
Court Cases Are Tossed.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 8 Mar. 2021.

Pinheiro Machado, Roberto. Brazilian History: Culture, Society, Politics 1500-2010. Cambridge:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018.

Reiter, Bernd. Negotiating Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Exclusion. Orange County: First Forum
Press, 2009.

43
 Stephen Sloane*
Is The Canary in Our Political Coal Mine Dead or Alive?

Given the trauma of MAGA including a deadly attack -The possibility/probability of tranny of a majority obviates
on Congress, a less than adequate response to a devastating the need for equality and justice for all. -The requirement for
pandemic, a foreign policy of isolation, raging political and unity can result in the perceived need for a strong leader and
cultural disunity, two impeachments of a president, and the possibility of autocracy.
more … we need to worry about the future of our republic.
Are the fumes of Trump’s yearning for autocratic control Our Founders attempted to solve these problems with
sufficiently toxic to kill the canary in our coal mine which what was clearly and experiment in governance. The
is the promise of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness principle of self-rule was designed to replace the power
for the people. We need to follow up on Benjamin of rule by the one or the few in the following ways:
Franklyn’s long-ago speculation that we indeed did have a
Republic, if we could keep it asking what it would take to •In the Federalist Papers Madison made the point that the
indeed keep our Republic. problem of factions would be solved because representatives
in a republic would choose what is best for the nation as a
A good start would be to look at the very nature politics whole rather what is best for a narrow constituency.
and the significance of politics to the human condition. •The possibility of tyranny of the majority would-be solved
by creating a structure where states with fewer people would
Politics is a process that determines who gets what and have disproportionate power per person in the Senate and in
when and how. This is a matter of power. Politics also the Electoral College.
involves the authoritative allocation of values. This is a •The problem of a strong leader, i.e., the President, becoming
matter of principle. The tension between power and an autocrat, would be solved because the character of George
principle reveals the fundamental vulnerability of a Washington would set the example for those who followed.
democratic political system. As we process these two
conflicting characteristics of politics, we can discern the The significance of all this with respect to the yin and yang
fundamental weaknesses of democracy as a form of of the nature of politics as power vs. principle is that for our
governance. democratic republic to avoid the fate of ancient Greece and
Rome is we need:
Human existence is a political existence. Aristotle told us
that human beings are by nature social animals who live •Representatives who value the principle of national interest
together in groups that form political systems such as tribes, over the power they glean by satisfying the needs of their
cities, and nations. Living in groups means that if the chaos own factions.
of anarchy is to be avoided there has to be a process where •The maintenance and recognition of the validity of a system
someone or some group rules. Accordingly, the life that we which obviates tyranny of a majority.
political animals lead is influenced if not determined by the •AND Leadership at the top whose character is immersed in
pulls and hauls between power and principle. the principle that government for and by the people shall not
perish!!!!!
Historically…. power in the hands of the one ruler or the
few has won the day over the principle that rule should be in So…. if you want to wonder whether or not Trumpism will
the hands of the people. Our Founding Fathers were well survive Trump, if you want to wonder whether the political
aware of the fact that in ancient Greece and in ancient Rome canary in our democratic coalmine has a chance to stay
power in the hands of the people failed and the result was alive ask yourself:
that democracy was replaced with autocracy. The matter of
politics as a matter of principle had failed. •Do those who represent us in the halls of government value
the principles of national interest or the value of their own
Our Founding Founders knew that there were inherent power?
weaknesses in the principle of democracy. Benjamin •Do our political leaders value the life, liberty, and happiness
Franklyn wisely speculated that we indeed did have a of those who are in the minority by virtue of race, national
democratic republic only “…if we could keep it.” origin, or any other unique individual characteristic such as
sexual preference?
The inherent weakness of democracy (the principle of •Does our leadership at the top possess the character which
self-rule) are as follows: honors the moral value of government by the people?
-The problem of factions pushes against the need for unity.

44
*Stephen Sloane is a retired Navy Captain and Professor
Emeritus at Saint Mary’s College (CA). He was also a
lecturer at CSUDH Dept. of Political Science.

45