2.

0 Introduction
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents literature related to water supply and demand. It looked into trends,
concepts and approaches of water management. It also looked at the trends of industrial and
commercial water development as regards efficient water management. Below are the focuses of
the review.

2.1Trends and Concepts of Water Management

Today, water crisis is already a reality in many countries, threatening their economic growth and
the livelihoods of their peoples. We all fear that the problems will only accelerate. Multiple
thumbscrews are operating on these finite and vulnerable fresh water resources. The driving
forces are strong: population growth and urbanization; tourism and industrialization;
globalization; and climate variability and change – decreasing precipitation and increasing the
frequency of droughts. (GWP, 2011)
Driven by these challenges and consistent with a worldwide movement towards more integrated
water resources management, countries have embarked on reforming their water sector. A
change in thinking and action in water management is slowly taking place. The experience
suggests that meeting the challenge of water scarcity requires both a supply management
strategy, involving highly selective development and exploitation of new water supplies
(conventional and non-conventional) coupled with a vigorous demand management involving
comprehensive reforms and actions to optimize the use of existing supplies.(UNEP,2012) The
appropriate mix of supply and demand management may vary depending on the level of
development, the governance structure and the degree of water scarcity in each country.
However, as economies grow and the value of water increases, the benefits from and necessity
for efficient demand management increase significantly. (GWP, 2011).

2.2 Approaches of Water Management

2.2.1 Water Supply Development
This is achieved by investing in water infrastructure, developing interregional and international
transfers, increased 'mining' of non-renewable groundwater reserves, or using non-conventional
water resources. But these supply-oriented policies are reaching their physical, social, economic,
and environmental limits and as such they pose grave long-term risks. These include
overexploitation of certain fossil and renewable water resources, the destruction of coastal
aquifers by seawater intrusion, degradation of water quality and the eco-system services
provided by the aquatic systems, loss of investment and jobs, and increased risks of social and
political instability.(GWP,2011)

2.2.2 Water Demand Management

Water Demand Management (WDM) seeks to encourage better use of existing water supplies
through economical and efficient management before further increasing the supply. WDM
comprises a set of interventions and organisational systems intended to increase technical, social,
economic, environmental, and institutional efficiencies in the various uses of water. (GWP, 2011).
The traditional approach of hydrologists and water resources engineers has been to focus on the
supply side and the assessment of available water resources. It is increasingly being recognised
that supply and demand can only be balanced if water resources and water supply engineers
address both sides of the balance. Water demand management is a key component of integrated
water resources planning, which is in turn the pre-requisite for sustainable water management.
The 4th guiding principle of the 1992 Dublin states that “Water has an economic value in all its
competing uses and should be recognised as an economic good.”The Dublin Statement goes on
to say that the role of water as an economic and life sustaining good should be reflected in
demand management policies, implemented through water conservation, efficient use, recycling
and reuse, resource assessment and financial instruments.
There are several reasons for analyzing industrial water demand in developing countries. First,
although current industrial withdrawal of water in developing countries is quite low in
comparison to developed countries, this is expected to increase in comparison to other sectors of
the economy as well as in absolute terms since these countries is expected to have higher growth
(Goldar and Pandey, 2001). There is also a greater appreciation for demand-side management,
rather than increasing supply by building new infrastructure (UNEP, 2006)
Demand management aims to change the way industries and commercial enterprises use water
in order to improve efficiency and reduce the need for expensive infrastructure development. It
has been identified as an alternative or complement to the conventional approach of increasing
supply by expanding infrastructure (UNEP, 2006). It thus reduces loss and misuse, optimizes
water use, adds more value per unit of water mobilized, facilitates major financial and
infrastructure savings and helps ease the pressure on water resources.

2.2.3 Integrated Water Resources Management

IWRM is an empirical concept which was built up from the on-the-ground experience of
practitioners. Although many parts of the concept have been around for several decades - in fact
since the first global water conference in Mar del Plata in 1977 - it was not until after Agenda 21
and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 1992 in Rio that the concept was made
the object of extensive discussions as to what it means in practice. The Global Water
Partnership's definition of IWRM is widely accepted. It states: 'IWRM is a process which promotes
the co-ordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to
maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without
compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.'(GWP, 2011)
Integrated Water Resources Management is a cross-sectoral policy approach, designed to replace
the traditional, fragmented sectoral approach to water resources and management that has led
to poor services and unsustainable resource use. IWRM is based on the understanding that water
resources are an integral component of the ecosystem, a natural resource, and a social and
economic good.

2.3 Trends in Industrial and Commercial Development

2.3.1 Relationship Between Water, Industry and Economic Development
Reliable and sufficient water supplies are critical for industrial and commercial development as
well as reducing investment risk. Industrial facilities use water for a variety of purposes such as
cooling and transportation, producing steam or electricity, sanitation and as a critical component
of a firm’s output (such as paper products). For example, it takes 230,000 litres of water to
produce one tonne of steel in the US.
Over the years there has been an increased shift in adding impetus to the streamlining of
business operations with a view of making them more sustainable in their utilization of key
natural resources such as water. As a result many businesses in different regions are now
increasingly aware of the need for improved water demand management and that reliable water
access implies business opportunities. According to PricewaterhouseCoopers (2001) the
Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA) which is the government’s principal agency
for promoting and coordinating industrial development successfully marketed reliable access to
water as one key advantage of investing in the Malaysian economy.

2.4. Population Forecasting

2.4.1.Location And Size
It is located between latitudes 6o 20”N and 6o 55”N and longitudes 0o 12‟E and 0o 53‟E. The
Municipality shares its boundaries with Adaklu and Agortime-Ziope Districts to the South, Ho
West District to the North and West and the Republic of Togo to the East. Consisting of 772
communities and a Land Size of 2660 sq. km

2.4.2.Population structure
The Municipality had a total population of 177,281 in 2010. Males represent 83,819 (47.28%) and
females represent 93,462 (52. 82%). The projected population for 2021 is 229,615 with 112,990
males representing 49.21% and 116,625 females representing 50.79%.

2.4.3.Household Size
Household is made up of both nuclear and extended families and provides important information
to policy makers and planners with regard to provision of social services such as shelter, health
and education. In all there are 49,826 households in Ho Municipal representing 10 percent of the
Region total households. The rural – urban distribution of households is such that 62.7 percent of
households are in urban communities while 37.3 percent of households are in rural communities.
Regarding average household size, the rural and urban localities all have about four persons per
household just as the Municipality average.

2.5.Water Coverage
The water coverage in the Municipality have been divided into two types thus the rural and
urban settlements. The urban population is mainly served by the Ghana water company and the
rest classified as rural have mainly mechanized boreholes as their main source of water supply.
26 percent of urban households with access to safe drinking water (Ghana Water Company
Limited , Volta Regional Headquarters, 2018) while 74 percent of the rural population have access
to safe drinking water (Municipal WASH Engineer, 2019).

2.6. Water Demand Analysis

2.6.1.Water demand assessment
Water demand forecasting is component based and the demand is broken down into different
components and a baseline demand in every component is assessed from a base year to a
particular date in the future (Sutherland and Fenn, 2000). Water demand assessment is the
amount of water needed to supply population, i,e. the assessment requires data collection on
existing water consumption patterns, number and types of facilities and levels of service in use,
potential demand for future upgrading, operation and maintenance arrangements(Parry and
Morris,1999; Van Rooijen et al., 2005; Allan et al., 2001). This approach depends on current water
consumption, projected population growth, service delivery mode or customer types and
demand types. Water demand assessment needs planning the changes with respect to levels and
trends in the past and current water consumption.

2.6.2.Water consumption
Wide differences exist between water consumption levels in industrialized and developing
countries. Average per capita daily water consumption (l/c/d) for Switzerland, the least among
industrialized countries, is 110 l/c/d, USA (668 l/c/d) and Japan (342 l/c/d) (World Bank, 1997b as
cited by Rosen and Vincent, 1999). In comparison, although at the village level, an average of
11.1 l/c/d is observed for a village in Mozambique with a centrally located standpipe 300 metres
away
(Caincross and Cliff, 1987 as cited by Rosen and Vincent, 1999). Consumption averaged only 4.1
l/c/d (ibid, 1987) in another village in the same country with similar water source located 4 km
away from home. Acharya and Barbier (2002) report an average of 232 litres per day per
household or 24 l/c/d for two wetland communities in northern Nigeria. In Madagascar, a survey
of 180 households in 8 villages reveals that on the average households consume 31 litres of water
daily in the dry season (Minten et al., 2002). No such documented information exists for rural
communities in Ghana. What is available is a survey conducted by London Economics (1999) on
behalf of the Ministry of Works and Housing (MWH) in major urban areas to justify the
introduction of Private Sector Participation (PSP) in urban water sector. They report an average of
105.1 l/c/d for households with tap connections, 68.5 l/c/d for those with yard tap and 33.2 l/c/d
for those using other means, with an average domestic water demand estimated at 52 l/c/d for
urban sector.
To further enhance water security, multiple water sources are utilised depending on the season
and geographic location. Ariyabandu (2001) report that between 2 and 6 sources of water have
been used among the rainwater harvesting community in rural Sri Lanka. The burden of domestic
water provision by women and children (usually girls) in developing countries is well known
(Curtis, 1986 as cited by Sullivan, 2002; Rosen and Vincent, 1999).
Mehretu and Mutambirwa (1992) observe that in the Chiduku communal area in Zimbabwe,
approximately 91% of total time devoted to water collection is carried out by women and girls
whilst in Arusha, Tanzania, they account for 75% of this time (Makule, 1997). In 8 rural
communities in Madagascar, Minten et al., (2002) indicate that women constitute 87% of water
carriers and spend an average of 12 minutes (one-way) undertaking this daily activity. Bevan,
Collier, and Gunning (1989) give more insight by indicating that in the Central and
Nyanza Provinces in Kenya, younger women generally spend less time than older women in
fetching water from the same distance: in the Central Province, women aged 20-29 spend 56
minutes daily; age 30-49 (69 minutes); over 50 years (77 minutes). In a village in Mozambique,
Cairncross and Cliff (1987) indicate that about 5 hours is devoted to water collection (return trip)
from a public standpipe located 4 kilometres (average of 131 minutes per carrier per day) whilst a
similar source located 300 metres takes an average of 25 minutes per carrier per day. Women in
Oyo State, Nigeria spend about 58 minutes daily collecting water at an average distance of 537
metres (Sangodoyin, 1992).
Locating improved water supplies within reasonable distances to households saves time and
possibly increases total water consumption. Although the World Health Organisation (WHO)
considers 200 metres as a convenient distance, Sharma et al., (1996) as cited by Rosen and
Vincent (1999) points out that when rural households’ perceptions of accessibility is considered,
the percentage of households with safe water supply access could substantially reduce and may
approach zero in some cases. Huttly et al. (1990) find that improving accessibility by constructing
boreholes in villages in Nigeria reduced daily water fetching times from 360 minutes to 45
minutes.

2.6.3.Commercial and institutional water demand

The water demand of towns include the needs of such commercial and institutional consumers as
public schools, clinics, hospitals, offices, shops, bars, restaurants, and hotels. This type of water
demand is usually linked directly to population size. For small- and medium-sized towns,
population of 30,000 to 80,000, it was estimated at 5% of the domestic water demand, and for
larger towns, the estimate was 10% (MoWR, 2002). Since the study Town has a small-sized
population, commercial and institutional demand was estimated as 5% of the domestic water
demand.

2.6.4.Livestock water demand

The production of livestock is an integral part of a community because livestock are valued
assets. Livestock production places demand on water. It is estimated that livestock industries
consume 8% of the global water supply, with most of that water being used for intensive, feed-
based production (Schlink et al., 2010).Water intake of a livestock depends upon the size, feed,
location; and one tropical livestock unit which weighs 250 Kg (live weigh) requires less than
50litres/ day derived from drinking water and moisture in animal feeds (Pedin et al., 2002). Dairy
cows and beef cattle daily water consumption is in the range of 45-55 liters per day per animal
(Waterhouse, 1982). In this study livestock water demand was adopted to be 45 liters per
livestock per day.

2.6.5.Average daily demand

Urban average daily demand is considered to be the combined total of demand from domestic,
commercial and institutional, industrial, livestock and system losses per day (MoWR, 2002).

2.6.6. Industrial water use

About 20 per cent of the world-wide water withdrawn is used in the commercial and industrial
sector. The differences between different countries are considerable; the share of the industrial
sector at the total water use is almost 60% in the developed countries whereby the role of the
agricultural sector as water consumer plays a comparatively minor role in these countries.
According to different scenarios, an increase of the industrial water demand up to 1,170 km3 per
annum till the year 2025 is expected on the global level, this would correspond to a share of this
sector at the total water use of about 24 per cent. The largest part of this projected increase in
industrial water use will be realized in those developing countries with high economic growth
rates, and especially by those which heavily rely on resource – intensive industries. Water
demand projections show a rise in water use for electricity generation especially in the African,
Asian and Latin American countries.
In the European countries water use in the industry is currently around 10% in average, not
taking into account the water withdrawn for cooling purposes in the electricity generation
process. If the water quantities needed for cooling purposes or used in hydroelectric power
stations are included, then the share of the industrial sector at the total water withdrawals is up
to 32% (see Table 2.2-2).
During the 1980s and the 1990s, the industrial water use considerably decreased in the most
developed countries. This development is to a great extent caused by new production
technologies with lower water input and in a broader sense a decoupling of economic growth
and resource consumption. This can impressively be illustrated by the following examples: Before
World War II the water quantity needed for the production of one ton of steel was about 60 to
100 tons, today with improved technologies the water use has been reduced to less than 6 tons
of water per one ton of steel. A further reduction of water use in this branch is due to a
substitution of steel through aluminum for example in the automobile production (WOLF &
GLEICK 2002, p 23; EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCY 1999).
This development is expressed in the literature by different ratios. The concept of »water
productivity« is for example a useful instrument to describe changes in the industrial water use.

2.6.7.Per capita demand and projection

The number of people who use each service will change over time. Taking the above conditions into
account, it is possible to estimate the current and future percentages of people served by each demand
category. This projection showed how public taps could be given to the traditional source users.