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Geography @ Skinners’ Academy

Year 7/HT2 – The Hydrological cycle, rivers & flooding

The water Cycle

Understanding how the water cycle operates is key to understanding how rivers work. The water
cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle. It is called a cycle because water continuously moves
around the system. Rivers are part of this cycle. The illustration below shows how water changes
state through the cycle. It can be a liquid, a vapour or a solid.

How does the water cycle work?

 Energy from the Sun heats the surface of the Earth.

 Water is evaporated from oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.

 The warm, moist air rises because it is less dense.

 Condensation occurs when water vapour is turned back into water droplets as it cools down.
Clouds are formed.

 Precipitation occurs as water droplets get bigger and heavier they begin to fall as rain, snow
and sleet, etc.

When the precipitation reaches the surface, some falls directly into the sea but other water falls on
land:

 Some water is intercepted by vegetation. Some water may then slowly reach the ground.
Some will evaporate from the surface of leaves or be taken up by the plant roots, and some
of this water will eventually return to the air as vapour through the process of transpiration.
This slows down or prevents some water flowing back to the river.

 Some water flows across the surface of the ground - surface run-off. This happens when the
surface doesn't allow water to penetrate. Surface run-off is more likely to occur if the
ground is saturated with water or when the rock is impermeable. This water moves quickly
to the river.
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 Some water infiltrates into the soil. This through flow moves more slowly back to the river
than surface run-off.

 Some water percolates deeper into the ground and is slowly transferred back to the river or
sea.

Stores and transfers

The major stores of water are the ocean, ice caps, land and the atmosphere. The movement of water
between these stores is called transfers.
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Use the example above to inspire you to write a raindrop’s story – from Sea and back again.
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What is a river?

A river is a moving body of water that flows from its source on high ground, across land, and then
into another body of water, which could be a lake, the sea, an ocean or even another river.

A river flows along a channel with banks on both sides and a bed at the bottom. If there is lots of
rainfall, or snow or ice melting, rivers often rise over the top of their banks and begin to flow onto
the floodplains at either side.
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How are rivers formed?

Rivers usually begin in upland areas, when rain falls on high ground and begins to flow downhill.
They always flow downhill because of gravity.

They then flow across the land - meandering - or going around objects such as hills or large rocks.
They flow until they reach another body of water.

As rivers flow, they erode - or wear away - the land. Over a long period of time rivers create valleys,
or gorges and canyons if the river is strong enough to erode rock. They take the sediment - bits of
soil and rock - and carry it along with them.

Small rivers are usually known as streams, brooks or creeks. If they flow from underground they are
called springs.

River characteristics

River drainage basins

A river basin or drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. The edge of
the drainage basin is known as the watershed. This can be compared to a sink or basin, which
catches the water falling into it. The water travels towards the centre and leaves the sink through a
plug hole. In a similar way, the water flowing through the river will eventually leave the river
basin through its mouth and enter the sea or a lake.
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River processes

River processes shape the land in different ways as the river moves from its source to its mouth.
Erosion, deposition and materials rivers carry all contribute to how rivers shape surrounding land.

Erosion

Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and soil found along the river bed and banks. Erosion
also involves the breaking down of the rock particles being carried downstream by the river.

The four main forms of river erosion

 Hydraulic action - the force of the river against the banks can cause air to be trapped in
cracks and crevices. The pressure weakens the banks and gradually wears it away.

 Abrasion - rocks carried along by the river wear down the river bed and banks.

 Attrition - rocks being carried by the river smash together and break into smaller,
smoother and rounder particles.

 Solution - soluble particles are dissolved into the river.

Transport

Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow downstream.

The four different river transport processes

 Solution - minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along in solution.

 Suspension - fine light material is carried along in the water.

 Saltation - small pebbles and stones are bounced along the river bed.

 Traction - large boulders and rocks are rolled along the river bed.
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Rivers need energy to transport material, and levels of energy change as the river moves from
source to mouth.

 When energy levels are very high, large rocks and boulders can be transported. Energy
levels are usually higher near a river's source, when its course is steep and its valley
narrow. Energy levels rise even higher in times of flood.

 When energy levels are low, only small particles can be transported (if any). Energy levels
are lowest when velocity drops as a river enters a lake or sea (at the mouth).

Deposition

When a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit some of the material it is carrying.

Deposition may take place when a river enters an area of shallow water or when the volume of
water decreases - for example, after a flood or during times of drought.

Deposition is common towards the end of a river's journey, at the mouth.

Deposition at the mouth of a river can form deltas - for example, the Mississippi Delta.
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River landforms

River landforms: overview

The processes of erosion and deposition create different river landforms.

River landscapes change as you go downstream from the source to the mouth. In the upper course
of a river the altitude is high and the gradient is steep. In the middle course, the
river meanders through gentle gradients. In the lower course, the river flows over flat land.

Landforms across different river courses

Upper course Middle course Lower course

V-shaped valley Meanders Braiding

Interlocking spurs Ox-bow lakes Deltas

Waterfalls and rapids Gentle gradients Estuary

Steep gradients Flat land

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Landforms in the upper course

V-shaped valley

When a river is near its source, it often develops a V-shaped valley as the river erodes down (this is
called vertical erosion). At the same time, weathering breaks up material on the valley slopes.
Weathered material from the valley sides gets deposited in the river. This material is carried by the
river and erodes the riverbed through abrasion.

Waterfalls

Waterfalls often form in the upper stages of a river where it flows over different bands of rock. It
erodes soft rock more quickly than hard rock and this may lead to the creation of a waterfall.

Formation of a waterfall:

 The soft rock erodes more quickly, undercutting the hard rock.

 The hard rock is left overhanging and because it isn’t supported, it eventually collapses.

 The fallen rocks crash into the plunge pool. They swirl around, causing more erosion.

 Over time, this process is repeated and the waterfall moves upstream.

 A steep-sided gorge is formed as the waterfall retreats.

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Add the following labels to your sketch – Hard rock, soft rock, gorge, collapsed rock, waterfall,
plunge pool.
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Landforms in the middle and lower course

Meanders and ox-bow lakes

A meander is a bend in the river. Meanders usually occur in the middle or lower course, and are
formed by erosion and deposition. As the river flows around a meander, centrifugal forces cause the
water to flow fastest around the outside of the bend. This creates erosion on the outside and
deposition on the inside of the bend, which means that the meander slowly moves.
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If the meander moves so much that the bend becomes very large, the course of the river may
change. The meander may be cut off and deposition fills the section that no longer flows. This forms
an ox-bow lake.
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Flooding

A river floods when the water normally flowing in the channel overflows its banks and spreads out
onto the surrounding land. This causes major problems for people living close to the river.

Why do rivers flood?

A variety of factors can increase the likelihood of flooding.

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For the two examples below, explain what the human and physical causes of the flooding were:
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Impact of flooding

Floods can cause damage to homes and possessions as well as disruption to communications.
However, flooding can also have positive impacts on an area.

Flooding deposits fine silt (alluvium) onto the floodplain, making it very fertile and excellent for
agriculture. People living on or near floodplains may rely upon regular flooding to help support their
farming and therefore provide food.

Less economically developed countriesLEDCs tend to be affected more than more economically
developed countriesMEDCs by the effects of flooding.

This is partly because LEDCs have more farms, and farming communities are attracted to fertile flood
plains. LEDCs often do not have the resources to prevent flooding or deal with the aftermath of
flooding.

Impacts on people and the environment

Impacts on people Impacts on the environment

Pollution: Floods will wash chemicals and sewage

Loss of life: Floods can cause death and injury.
into the water. The contaminated water will spread
People can get trapped in their houses by the quick
quickly over an area – causing public health issues
rising waters.
and killing fish.

Destruction of wildlife habitat: Floods will destroy

Property: As flood waters rise they can flow into low-
places where river animals and fish might have
lying properties. The river will be carrying huge
breeding grounds. Even slight changes to river
amounts of pollution and silt that will destroy floors,
temperature and water patterns can upset natural
walls and any electrical gear.
ecosystems.
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Impacts on people Impacts on the environment

Insurance cover: Some people who live close to river

Water recharge: Floods can bring water back to dry
courses find it difficult to get insurance whilst others
areas (e.g. along the course of the river Nile in
cannot afford the insurance premiums. The cost of
Egypt). Floods will ensure that there is water for
repairing and rebuilding damaged buildings can push
irrigation or for drinking water in dry places.
up insurance premiums.

 Rank the negative consequences of flooding

 Explain why you chose that order

Why are richer countries often less affected by flooding than poorer nations?

Are there always going to be some parts of the world that see more flooding than others? Why? Is
this fair or just nature?
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Flood management methods

Steps can be taken to manage flooding. This is known as River Management. Often these steps
involve trying to lengthen the amount of time it takes for water to reach the river channel, thereby
increasing the lag time.

Hard engineering methods tend to be more expensive and have a greater impact on the river and
the surrounding landscape. They will require more extensive alterations to the river to try to stop
flooding.

Soft engineering methods are usually more ecologically sensitive. They will attempt to manage flood
rather than prevent it.

Hard-engineering

Dams

 Built along the course of a river to control the amount of discharge. Water is held back by
the dam and released in a controlled way.

 Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to
generate hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.

 Expensive to build.

 Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form
a reservoir.
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Flood walls

 Can be used to raise the height of the river bank to a level where the river might not burst its
banks.

 Can be permanent features or incorporated into the design of an area and become invisible.

 Can also be temporary structures where flood gates or removable ‘stoplogs’ are built to
protect a stretch of river.

Levees and embankments

 Artificial levees can be built along river banks so that if the river floods, the water will not be
able to breach the wall and cause damage. Levees can be expensive and can spoil the look of
rivers.

 Flood embankments are usually used in rural areas. They can take up a lot of space and are
cheaper than flood walls but they can also cause the speed of the water in the river to be
increased which will just move any potential flooding further downstream.

Straightening and Deepening

 The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry more water. A river
channel may be straightened so that water can travel faster along the course. The channel
course of the river can also be altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.

 Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding downstream, as the water is
carried there faster.

Copy and complete the table below:

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Dams
Flood walls
Levees
Straightening/deepening
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Soft-engineering

Washlands

 These are areas of land where water can wash into during a flood. They are usually found in
the lower course of a river. Sluice gates will be opened to allow excess water to flow into the
area and flood marginal land.

 It is not always easy to find acceptable areas for this to happen – especially in areas where
there are many cities.

Land Use Zoning

 When planning for a new settlement in an area, this can be used to divide up the flood plain
into areas which experience different levels of flood risk. Red areas will be places that are
likely to experience a high degree of flood risk. Yellow areas will be places where flooding is
possible but unlikely. Green areas are places where it is very unlikely that any flooding will
take place.

 This is effective when making decisions about new building in an area but does not work in
areas that are already built up.

Afforestation

 Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower
river discharge. This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental
quality of the drainage basin.

 Afforestation cannot prevent flooding but it can help reduce its likelihood.
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Copy and complete the table below:

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Washlands
Land use zoning
Afforestation

Which methods would best suit:

 Large cities
 Poorer nations
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Case study: Sustainable river management - Yangtze River, China

Three Gorges Dam

Flooding has been a big issue in China for many years. The river Yangtze has suffered from
catastrophic floods and in 1931 over 3 million people died as a result of flooding.

The Yangtze River is the 3rd largest river in the world and drains a drainage basin area of 1.8 million
km2.

A number of measures have been used to manage flooding along the course of the Yangtze.

Hard-engineering on the Yangtze

Dams

The Three Gorges Dam was completed in 2012 at a cost of £50 billion.

Positives

Protects over 100 million people further downstream.

Controls river flooding more than any other method.

Has 32 hydro-electric generators that produce ‘green’ energy.

Improved river safety and transport through the river.

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Negatives

Most floods in recent years have been below the Three Gorges Dam area.

Geologists are concerned that the increased pressure caused by the water pressing against the walls
of the dam has also increased the incidence of earthquakes.

Building the dam flooded 140 towns and forced over 1.2 million people to be relocated. They also
lost their livelihoods as most were farmers and it was difficult for them to move to the city.

Levees and embankments

Over 3,600km of levees and embankments have been built to protect over 80 million people.

Positives

Less environmental impact. Levees can ‘blend in’ to the natural landscape.

Designed to withstand a 10 to 30-year frequency flood.

Animal habitats are rarely destroyed.

Negatives

Many of the levees were used along the area where the Three Gorges Dam now exists

The levees are only 15m high

In 1998 the Yangtze flooded over the top of the levees and killed 3,000 people and left over 30
million people homeless

Soft-engineering on the Yangtze

Washlands

The most important area is called the ‘Jingjiang basin’ which is an area of 2,000km2 where 5.4 billion
m3 of water can be stored.

Positives

Easy to construct as they only require sluice gates.

The land can be used for other things such as farming and as residential property. Water is only
allowed into the washlands when a major flood is imminent.

Floods are easily managed and controlled – there is less need to build further hard engineering
methods along the course of the river.

Negatives

Some areas have become silted up due to their use as farmland. Unless the washlands are
maintained properly they might become unsuitable for use.

Some people live within the washlands and would need to be evacuated in the event of a major
flood.
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Land use zoning and flood warning systems

Land use zoning has been used to help plan areas where people can live. Modern flood warning
systems are used to help evacuate people during floods.

Positives

180 flood control monitoring stations warn people about potential flooding. The system uses
satellite and mobile phone technology to warn people to get to higher land.

The system cost £9 million and will hopefully help to save lives during flood events.

There is relatively little building or modification of the river required.

Negatives

Only prevents people from being killed in floods. It does not protect property or the environment.

Many people who live close to the river are poor farmers and might not have access to modern
technology.

 Has flood management on the Yangtze River been a success?

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Case study: Boscastle

Flooding can cause problems in both developed and developing countries.

Boscastle is a small coastal settlement in the south west of England. It flooded in August 2004,
washing cars and buildings into the sea and putting peoples' lives in danger.

Causes of flooding in Boscastle

 Heavy localised rainfall - 89 mm of rain fell in an hour.

 Saturated ground from previous rainfall.

 Topography of the land. The landscape upstream of Boscastle, a steep-sided valley, acted as
a funnel directing vast volumes of water into the village.

 Narrow river channels in the village itself.

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Effects

 Homes, businesses and cars were swept away, affecting more than 1,000 people.

 Income from tourism was lost. This had an impact on livelihoods and the local economy.

 There were vast numbers of subsequent insurance claims.

 No lives were lost, partly due to the rapid response of the emergency services.

Once the water had receded, the extent of the damage became clear. More than 70 vehicles were
washed downstream by the flash-flood in Boscastle.

What has Boscastle done to prevent flooding in the future?

 £4.5 million has been spent on a flood defence scheme.

 The scheme stretches along the valley, incorporating drainage, sewerage systems and land
re-grading.

 Boscastle car park has been raised in height, which will stop the river from bursting its banks
so easily.

 New drains allow water to run into the lower section of the river quickly.

 The river channel has been made deeper and wider so that it can accommodate more water.

Was the Boscastle flood caused by people or nature?

What were the social and economic effects of the flood?

What has been done in Boscastle to avoid such a flood happening again?
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Case study: Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a developing country in Asia and it is frequently affected by flooding. For example, in
2007 flooding made 9 million people homeless and approximately 1,000 people died from drowning
and from waterborne diseases.

Causes of flooding in Bangladesh

 Cyclones cause coastal flooding.

 Lots of low-lying land.

 Melt water from the Himalayas.

 Heavy deforestation.

 Heavy monsoon rains.

 Increasing urban areas.

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What has Bangladesh done to cope with flooding?

Bangladesh is a very poor country and so has less money to spend on flood defences than richer
countries. Most people in Bangladesh do not earn enough to pay for insurance against flooding, so
when there are floods they risk losing everything.

Short-term responses to flooding

 Food aid from the Government and other countries.

 Water purification tablets.

 People repaired embankments and helped to rescue people.

 Free seed given to farmers.

Long-term responses

 Building embankments.

 Building raised flood shelters.

 Introducing flood warning systems.

 Emergency planning.

 Dams planned.

 Reducing deforestation.

Unfortunately, many of these long-term responses are difficult to pay for and maintain. They are not
always successful and don't always help enough people.
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