BLG111:

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD:
1. Transport functions include:
. Delivering o2 and nutrients (carbs, glucose, proteins, fats) to body cells
. Transporting metabolic wastes to lungs (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and kidneys (uric
acid) for elimination
. Transporting hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
2. Regulation functions include:
. Maintaining body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat (vasodilate for
distributing and vasoconstrict for absorbing)
. Maintaining normal pH (destroys proteins) (chemical buffers in blood) (7.35-7.45)
3. Protection functions include:
. Preventing blood loss: Plasma proteins and platelets in blood initiate clot formation
(hemostasis)
. Preventing infection – agents of immunity are carried in blood (Antibodies and WBCs)
THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF BLOOD- (CT- Living elements -> cell):
1. Withdraw blood and place in tube
2. Centrifuge the blood sample
3. Divides into plasma (non-living component, 55 percent of whole blood and least dense
component), buffy coat (thin and clean cells, leukocytes and platelets, more than 1
percent of whole blood)) and erythrocytes (aka formed elements also known as cells)
BLOOD PLASMA:
- About 90 percent of water
- Rest are solutes:
. Plasma proteins
. Electrolytes – cations, anions, sodium, magnesium, potassium
. Nutrients
. Gases, hormones, wastes – transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
MAJOR TYPE OF PROTEINS IN BLOOD:
- Albumin – major component of osmotic pressure (pressure that helps blood retain
water) of plasma, albumin binds to water. Transports molecule – nutrients or drugs
- Globulin – antibodies (immunoglobulin or gamma globulin) and transport proteins
(alpha globulin)
- Fibrinogens – functions in blood clotting (soluble and help blood to clot)
- Other – various roles (coagulation factors – things that help fibrinogen)
BLOOD FORMED ELEMENTS:
 - Plasma
- WBCs – has nucleus and organelles
- Platelets – fragment of cells
- RBCs- no nuclei and no organelles and can’t divide and is derived from red bone marrow
ERYTHROCYTES (RBCs)
- Biconcave disc shape
- Anucleated
- Essentially has no organelles
- Filled with hemoglobin for gas transport
- No nucleus so more hemoglobin can fit on
- Cytoplasm with large amounts of hemoglobin
- Shape gives a large surface area to pass oxygen through
HEMOGLOBIN: binds reversibly with oxygen
- Heme (red pigment) pigment and protein globin
- Globin (protein) has 4 polypeptide chains: 2 alpha and 2 beta (alpha nad gamma for
fetus)
- 1 heme per chain
WHERE DO YOU FIND RED MARROW?
- Hemapoietic tissue
. In newborns, medullary cavities and all spongy bone contain red marrow
. In adults, red marrow is located in (proximal) heads of femur and humerus, but most
active areas of hematopoiesis (formation of RBCs) are flat bones and some irregular
bones (such as hip bones)
. Stem cells(red bone marrow) will produce all formed elements (RBCs and WBCs)
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN RBCs DIE?
- Life span – 100 – 120 days (4 months)
- Old RBCs become fragile and Hb begins to disintegrate (2 million RBCs per second)
WHAT STIMULATESS PRODUCTION OF RBCs AKA ERYTHROPOEISIS:
1. Stimulus:
Hypoxia (low oxygen in blood) (inadequate O2 delivery) due to
- Decreased RBC count (high altitude)
- Decreased amount of Hb
- Decreased availability of O2
2. Kidney (and liver to a smaller extent) releases erythropoietin (chemoreceptor and
osmoreceptors)
3. Erythropoietin stimulates proximal red bone marrow for division of stem cells
 4. Enhanced erythropoiesis increases RBC count – Hb – heme – iron - binding o2
5. O2-carrying ability of blood rises.
6. Testosterone stimulates EPO (erythropoietin) protein
7. Pregnant people has less RBC – hemodilution – increase blood volume

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN RBCs DIE?

- Life span: 100–120 days
- RBCs are anucleate, so ………
- Old RBCs become fragile, and Hb begins to degenerate
- Can get trapped in smaller circulatory channels, especially in spleen (filters blood in immune
system)
- Macrophages (cell eating- phagocytes) in spleen engulf and breakdown dying RBC

LIFE CYCLE OF RBC: FATE OF GLOBIN:

- Aged and damaged red blood cells are engulfed by macrophages of spleen, liver and bone
marrow, the hemoglobin is broken down – body will recycle components of RBCs
- Iron is bound to transferrin (transport protein) and released to blood from liver as needed for
erythropoiesis)

LIFE CYCLE OF RBC FATE OF HEME IS DEGRADED:

- Bilirubin is secreted into intestine in bile where it is metabolized to stercobilin (pigment that is
brown) by bacteria)
- Babies: immature livers- increase in bilirubin, jaundice – brain damage
- Bilirubin becomes urobilin from kidneys which is yellow

LIFE CYCLE OF RED BLOOD CELLS FATE OF HEME (red pigment and inside of that is iron): IRON IS
RELEASED

- Ferritin (storage protein) is a protein that stores iron and releases iron when the body needs it

ERYTHROCYTE DISORDER:

- Most erythrocyte disorders are classified as either

1. anemia

2. polycythemia

1. Anemia is caused by

- A. too much blood loss

- B. not enough RBCs produced

- C. too many destroyed (aka hemolytic anemia)

• Anemic Blood has abnormally low O2-carrying capacity that is too low to support normal
metabolism (cuz not enough RBCs)
• Sign of problem rather than disease itself

• Symptoms: fatigue, pallor, dyspnea, and chill

TYPES OF ANEMIA:

A. Too much blood loss

1. Hemorrhagic anemia

• Rapid blood loss (example: severe wound)

• Treated by blood replacement – Whole blood

Subtype: Chronic hemorrhagic anemia

- Slight but persistent blood loss

. Example: hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcer

- Primary problem must be treated to stop blood loss

B. NOT ENOUGH RBCs PRODUCED:

1. Iron-deficiency anemia

- Caused by low iron intake (meats, chicken liver, beef, sardines, beans, lentils, spinach) or impaired
absorption

- RBCs produced are Small, pale in color (called microcytes)

- Cannot synthesize enough hemoglobin because there is a lack of iron

- Treatment: iron supplements

2. Pernicious (harmful in a slow way) anemia

- Autoimmune disease that destroys GI (gastrointestinal) mucosa, Can’t absorb B12 (helps in pre
RBC absorption)

- Without B12 RBCs enlarge but cannot divide, resulting in large macrocytes (dont hold as much
hemoglobin)

- Can also be caused by low dietary intake of B12

-Treatment: B12 injections

3. Renal anemia

- Caused by lack of EPO

- Often accompanies renal disease so Kidneys cannot produce enough EPO

- Treatment: synthetic EPO injections

4. Aplastic (organ not working well) anemia

 - Destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow by drugs, chemicals, radiation, or viruses (decrease
in RBCs and decrease in WBCs so decrease in immune system)

. But Usually cause is unknown

- Treatment: short-term with transfusions, long-term with transplanted stem cells

C. too many RBCs destroyed:

1. Thalassemia (genetic)

- Typically found in people of Mediterranean ancestry

- One globin chain is absent or faulty

- RBCs are thin, delicate, and deficient in hemoglobin

- Treatment: transfusion (giving someone somebody else’s RBC)

2. Sickle cell anemia

- mutated hemoglobin causes RBCs to become crescent shaped (less bendy)

- Misshaped RBCs rupture easily and block small vessels

- Results in poor O2 delivery and pain (sickle cell crisis) – decrease circulation hence decreases oxygen

- A blood and bone marrow transplant is currently the only cure for some patients who have sickle cell
disease

Treatment - none

2. POLYCYTHEMIA:

• Abnormal excess of RBCs;

- Causes
- Polycythemia vera: Bone marrow cancer leading to excess RBCs
- Secondary polycythemia: increased EPO production Problem: increases blood viscosity, causing
sluggish blood flow:
- Too many RBCS lead to less plasma and blood moves slower, decreases oxygen
- Treatment – increase fluid take, tame RBC out, cancer treatment, aspirin

BLOOD FORMED ELEMENTS: LEUKOCYTES:

Leukocytes, or WBCs: • are only formed element that is complete cell with nuclei and organelles •
Function in defense against disease • two major categories: Granulocytes: contain visible cytoplasmic
granules(neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) Agranulocytes: do not contain visible cytoplasmic granules
(lymphocytes, monocytes)

Mnemonic to remember decreasing abundance in blood: Never let monkeys eat bananas (neutrophils,
lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils)
WEEK 3 – LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND LYMPHOID ORGANS AND TISSUE
1. Lymphatic system:
• returns fluids leaked from blood vessels back to blood;
• consists of three parts
A. Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
B. Lymph: fluid in vessels
C. Lymph nodes: cleanse lymph

- Lymphatic capillaries (bacteria, debris and cancer cells get picked up by lymphatic capillaries reabsorb
extra fluid (water, plasma proteins that escape the blood capillaries)

- lymphatic capillaries are everywhere except bone and teeth

- A. endothelial cell – one cell layer, squamous

B. Flap like minivalve – has a flap and cells overlap. If pressure is high in IF, the flap opens and takes in
fluid, proteins, cell debris, pathogens, cancer cells, if pressure is higher in lymphatic capillary than IF, it
closes

c. collagen filaments anchor minivalve to CT

- the right lymphatic duct drains lymph from right upper limb, right side of head and rde side of thorax
and empties into right subclavian vein which flows into SVC

- the thoracic duct drains lymph from rest of the body and empties into the left subclavian vein, then
SVC

fibroblast in loose CT

- Lymphatic capillaries – collecting lymphatic vessels - lymphatic trunks (4 pairs and 1 unpaired
trunk - lymphatic ducts

COLLECTING VESSELS, TRUNK AND DUCTS:

- have layers similar to veins, except they have thinner walls, with more internal valves, exact
distribution is different for everyone

- heart does not pump lymph so need same mechanisms that promote venous blood return –
milking by skeletal muscle, respiratory pump (pressure changes in abdominal and thoracic cavities),
valves to prevent backflow

2. Lymphoid organs and lymphoid tissues

• provide structural basis of immune system by housing phagocytic cells and lymphocytes

• Structures include red bone marrow, spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, other lymphoid tissues

Lymphoid organs are divided into

- Primary – make and store lymphocytes

 - Secondary – activate lymphocytes

PRIMARY:

- Thymus – t cells (t lymphocytes) mature

- Red bone marrow – where T cells and B cells are made, where B cells mature

SECONDARY:

- Mature lymphocytes encounter antigen, become activated

- Lymph goes in (afferent)
- Lymph goes out (efferent)
- Lymph nodes – most of them are deep, superficial – axillary, cervical neck and inguinal
- . Clean lymph – macrophages – in lymph node
. B and T lymphocytes become activated
- Tonsils – gather and remove pathogens entering from food or air, activate lymphocytes –
pharyngeal tonsil, palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil
. Peyer’s patches – small intestine, gather and remove pathogens entering from food activate
lymphocytes
. Appendix – large intestine, gather and remove pathogens entering from food, activate
lymphocytes
- Spleen – wraps around anterior portion of stomach on left of abdominal cavity
. Provides site for lymphocyte proliferation
. Removes old and damaged RBCs, recycles their breakdown products
. Macrophages in spleen remove debris and foreign matter from blood
. Stores blood platelets and monocytes (WBCs) for release into blood when needed

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM: