Module-2

Perception

Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory (touch, sight, sound, smell,

and taste) stimuli (is a detectable change in the internal or external environment) to meaningful
information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use
it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group etc. Perception depends on
complex nervous system functions but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this
processing happens outside of conscious awareness.

Perception can be divided into six types −

• Of sound − Ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.

• Of speech − Competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language

heard.

• Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.

• Taste − Ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs

known as taste buds.

• Other senses − Approve perception through body, like balance, acceleration, pain, time,
sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.

• Of the social world − Permits people to understand other individuals and groups of their
social world.

Importance of Perception

Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our
environment.
 1. Perception is very important in understanding human behavior because every person
perceives the world and approaches life problems differently. Whatever we see or feel is
not necessarily the same as it really is. When we buy something, it is not because it is
the best, but because we take it to be the best.
2. If people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict their behavior in the
changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the environment.
One person may be viewing the facts in one way which may be different from the facts
as seen by another viewer.
3. With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined, because
people’s perception is influenced by their needs.
4. Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid making errors when
dealing with people and events in the work setting. This problem is made more
complicated by the fact that different people perceive the same situation differently. In
order to deal with the subordinates effectively, the managers must understand their
perceptions properly.
5. Perception can be important because it offers more than objective output; it ingests an
observation and manufactures an altered reality enriched with previous experiences.
6. Perception builds character (not necessarily good or bad character) that defines
different roles individuals fall into the clown, the hypocrite, the self-righteous, the
victim, etc..
7. It is vitally important if we want to get along with others to try to see things from their
perspective or walk in their shoes for a while. If we walk in their shoes we will gain a
new perspective about things and in that understand the other and also can love and
help the other more appropriately.

Thus, for understanding human behavior, it is very important to understand their perception,
that is, how they perceive the different situations.

Perceptual Process
The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us. In this overview of
perception and the perceptual process, we will learn more about how we go from detecting
stimuli in the environment to actually taking action based on that information. It can be
organized into our existing structures and patterns and then interpreted based on previous
experiences. Although perception is a largely cognitive and psychological process, how we
perceive the people and objects around us affects our communication. Actually perception
process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our perception of
a stimulus and action in response to the stimulus. In order to fully understand how the
perception process works, we have to follow each of the following steps.

Stages of Perception

3 stages of the perception process are;

1. Selection.
2. Organization.
3. Interpretation.

1. Selection

The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we might attend to, but our
brains do not have the resources to pay attention to everything. Thus, the first step of
perception is the decision of what to attend to. When we attend to one specific thing in our
environment — whether it is a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else entirely — it
becomes the attended stimulus. Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which
we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory information. In selection, we choose stimuli
that attract our attention. We focus on the ones that stand out to our senses (sight, sound,
smell, taste, and touch). We take information through all five of our senses, but our perceptual
field includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to process and make sense of it
all. So, as information comes in through our senses, various factors influence what actually
continues on through the perception process.
2. Organization

Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment, the choice sets off a series of
reactions in our brain. This neural process starts with the activation of our sensory receptors
(touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing). Organizing is the second part of the perception process,
in which we sort and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned
cognitive patterns. Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity,
and difference.

3. Interpretation

After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and organized the
information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense using our existing information about the
world Interpretation simply means that we take the information that we have sensed and
organized and turn it into something that we can categorize. By putting different stimuli into
categories, we can better understand and react to the world around us. Perception of others
involves sensing, organizing, and interpreting information about people, and what they say and
do. The sensation is a main characteristic of perception as it relates to outside input. In the
perceptual process, firstly the perceiver should select what will be perceived. Then, the
organization takes place when listeners identify the type of sound and compare it to other
sounds heard in the past. Interpretation and categorization are generally the most subjective
areas of perception, as they involve decisions about whether listeners like what they hear and
want to keep listening. We make immediate evaluations that cause automatic judgments of
positive and negative reactions toward others, which occur outside of our awareness. The
selection, organization, and interpretation of perceptions can differ among different people. On
the basis of these, the perceptual output, which means, values, attitudes, behavior, etc., of the
perceiver may differ. Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, part of their
behavior can be explained by examining their perceptual process, and how their perceptions
are leading to their responses.

Principles of Perceptual Selection

There are different principles about perceptual selection. The basic principles of perceptual
selection are as follows:

Principles of Perceptual Selection

1. Principles of Size
Size is a characteristic which may affect the perceptual selectivity by affecting the attraction of
the perceiver. Generally, bigger is the size of perceived stimulus, higher is the probability that it
attracts the attention of the perceiver and he may select it. Usually, letter of higher sizes in
newspapers or books are first selected for reading.
2. Principles of Intensity
The intensity principle of attention states that the more intense the external stimulus is, the
more likely it is to be perceived. A loud sound, strong odor, or bright light are noticed more as
compared to a soft sound, weak odor, or dim light. For example, based on the intensity
principle, commercials on televisions are slightly louder than the regular programmes.
3. Principles of Repetition
The repetition principles state that a repeated stimulus is more attention-getting than a single
one. Repetition increases people’s sensitivity or alertness to the stimulus. Advertisers use this
principle by repeating advertisement of the same product to attract people’s attention. In the
organizational context, repeated instruction, even for the routine work, is based on this
principle.
4. Principles of Novelty and Familiarity
Novelty and familiarity principle states that either a novel or a familiar external situation can
serve as attention getter. New objects or events in a familiar setting, or familiar objects or
events in new setting draw better attention. For example, in job rotation, when worker’s jobs
are changed from time, they become more attentive to their new jobs as compared to the
previous ones. Similarly, communication in familiar jargons attracts more attention.
5. Principles of Contrast
The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand against the background, or which
are not what people are expecting, receive more attention. Letter of bold types, persons
dressed differently than other; buildings of different colors in the same locality, etc. get more
attention. Contrast is a kind of uniqueness which can be used for attention getting.
6. Principles of Motion
Motion principle states that a moving object draws more attention as compared to a stationary
object. For example, workers may pay more attention to the materials moving by them on a
conveyor belt as compared to the maintenance needs of a machine lying next to
them. Advertisers use this principle in their advertising by designing signs which incorporate
moving parts, for example, commercials on televisions (moving ones) get more attention than
print media.
Errors in Perception

Perception is the process of analyzing and understanding a stimulus as it is. But it may not
always be possible to perceive the stimuli as they are. Knowingly or unknowingly, we mistake
the stimulus and perceive it wrongly. Many times the prejudices in the individual, time of
perception, unfavorable background, lack of clarity of stimulus, confusion, conflict in mind, and
other factors are responsible for errors in perception. There are some errors in perception;
Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interest, background, experience
and attitudes. Such bias can exist in the decision making field because of his/her wrong interest
or attitudes and they are following the principles of “we perceive what we like to perceive.” Our
subconscious mind scans our environment and selects what it seems easy to notice. Even then,
people not see things the way they are, they also tend to see what they expect to see, as well as
what they want to see.

Halo Effect

This is the process of evaluating an individual performance based on his / her single
characteristic. For example, most attractive people are also believed to be smarter, warm
people are rated as sociable and humorous and intelligent people are rated as better leaders.
Just on the basis of individual attribute he or she will be evaluated favorably or unfavorably.
This type of error has generally been seen at the time of employee selection and evaluating
performance of employees in our organization. Such effect distorts decision making capacity of
a manager by limiting evaluation of employees to single characteristics.

Stereotyping

The term stereotype means something fixed, without variations. In a psychological sense it
means a fixed way of responding to or perceiving or judging the qualities of a group of people
who shared some common characteristics. For example, if we believe that every person who is
able to communicate fluently in the English language should be very intelligent, then this is an
example of stereotyping. Now what is happening here is that certain fixed ways of perceiving
which have been learnt and acquired earlier in different contexts come to control and
determine ‘person perception’ irrespective of the particular situation and object-specific
characteristics.
Similarity

Often, people tend to seek out and rate those who are similar to themselves more positively.
This tendency to approve of similarity may cause evaluators to give better ratings to employees
who exhibit the same interests, work methods, points of view, or standards. Similarity is a
relationship that holds between two perceptual or conceptual objects. Similarity considered as
the perceptual resemblance of objects to one another. Here, the term “object” will mean any
reasonably unitary stimulus, including real objects, such as a stone or a tree, but also a patch of
light on a screen, a moving dot. Similarity depends heavily on the physical characteristics of
stimulus objects, but this dependence is complex, and in the case of similarity the details of the
physical-psychological relationship are usually unknown. Fortunately, similarities may be
specified independently of any physical measures of the stimuli involved; that is, one may
determine the similarities among a group of objects from behavioral responses to the
objects without specifying anything about them except which behavioral measures go with
which object . Similarity error is a negative tendency of the evaluator at the time of interview,
assessment and performance appraisal. Here in, the evaluator's rating is biased towards the
employees whom he or she perceives to be similar to him or her personally or professionally.
Similarity error is a negative tendency of the evaluator at the time of interview, assessment and
performance appraisal. Here in, the evaluator's rating is biased towards the employees whom
he or she perceives to be similar to him or her personally or professionally. The similarity of
personality, strengths, weaknesses and experiences leads to a bias in the rating by the
evaluator. This is a huge area for concern because this inability of the evaluator often goes
undetected and leads to an imbalanced verdict. This gap in understanding should not ideally
influence an employee's rating. In organizations wherein the evaluator's subjective discretion
plays a significant role, similarity error becomes the necessary evil. Therefore in order to escape
this - organizations must adopt an objective measurement tool that quantitatively assesses the
performance of a candidate. This way, the values of the organization play a greater role, that
those of the evaluator. Psychometric tests, online assessment tests, 360 and 720 degree
reviews, predictive analysis tests etc. hence play a crucial role here. They allow the organization
to understand the abilities quantitatively and therefore make an informed decision. For
example, an evaluator who went to the same school as that of the subject may tend to him a
better rating. This is the reason why lobbies of certain educational institutes exist in
organizations. Students of other colleges certainly face a disadvantage here. In this case it is
also important to note that the organization too suffers, as it creates a cohort of similar
employees that affects the overall diversity of the work force and employer branding.

Horn Effect

It is a type of cognitive bias, happens when you make a snap judgment about someone on the
basis of one negative trait. It is making assumptions about someone based on very little
information, or judging someone and attributing qualities to them based on one known trait.
Example- you meet your new supervisor, who’s bald, and immediately remember a bald middle
school teacher who bullied and mocked you. Angry and afraid all over again, you distrust your
boss immediately. Your bias led you to judge him by one trait — baldness — which your brain
connected to that negative past experience.

Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
attitudes, and preferences. Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due
to direct and indirect experience.

• It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and
experience.

• It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.

There are two primary elements in meaning of learning:

1. Change must be relatively permanent: This means that after “learning” our behavior must be
different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this learning
experience. For example, you “learn” to drive a car or have learned how to use a computer.
2. This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not
caused by biological maturation. For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural
biological phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or drink.
Nature of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice
or experience. There are several key points in this definition.

Learning comes change

For example, when you learn a second language, your knowledge about how to communicate
evolves, and your behavior changes when communicating with native speakers of the language.
Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting
For example, If you attempt to communicate with someone in another language by looking up
words in a dictionary that you quickly forget once the interaction is complete, learning did not
take place because there was no permanent change in your knowledge of the second language.
Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience
For example, Learning a second language requires much practice in pronunciation, word usage,
and grammar.
Characteristics of Learning
Learning is Purposeful
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique
individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the
requirements involved.

Learning is a Result of Experience

Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student
can learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart
from a person.
Learning is Multifaceted
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may
be learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-
depending on what they experience.

Learning is an Active Process

Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume
that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane
when the instructor presented the material.

Learning Process
The learning process has the following steps:
Stimuli
Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get stimuli
from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay attention to
these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.
Attention
The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention
to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented stimuli are generally
accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to learn,
motives for need fulfillment and tension reduction.
Recognition
Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement and new life styles.
Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognizing the stimuli for learning purposes. The
levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the
employees.
Translation
The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in
behavior through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes,
objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.
Reinforcement
Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention,
recognition, translation and behavior. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not
learning unless it is reinforced.
Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be positive, negative, punishment and
extinction. Learners learn as per their perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is
more effective for making permanent changes in behavior.

Behavior
Learning changes behavior through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes
permanent changes in behavior. A temporary change in behavior is not learning. Positive
behavior gives rewards to employees.
Reward
Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behavior provides a reward, it is
accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behavior into habits. Rewards
may be monetary or non-monetary.
Habits
A permanent change in behavior becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement in
behavior and performance. Employees develop the habit of self appraisal and development. It
helps to instill creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave properly
again and again.
Motives
Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction through
learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete
only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts.
Efforts
Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts are the
automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. Self-
development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop themselves are self-
motivated and effort-oriented.
 Learning organization

Learning organizations are the organizations where people continually expand their capacity to
create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured,
where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the
whole together.

Key Traits ALL Learning Organizations Share

Learning organizations give employees the power to solve problems autonomously, as well as
to benefit from the experience of their peers. They have the opportunity to share their ideas
and insights without fear of being judged, and to expand their knowledge, and work together to
achieve common goals. The organization is the primary benefactor of this creative and free-
thinking approach.

1. Collaborative Learning Culture (Systems Thinking)

A successful learning organization is supported by a collaborative learning culture. Every

individual is honored, but they also play a vital role in the overall framework. According to
Senge's system thinking principle, organizations are made up of smaller units, much like the
pieces of a puzzle. Corporate learners must understand the system as a whole, as well as each
individual component that's involved. For example, they must comprehend how compliance
and company policy foster a more efficient workplace, and ensure employee safety.
Collaborative learning cultures also thrive on differing viewpoints. Corporate learners should
respect and honor the ideas of their peers. Every voice must carry weight, and there is always
room for innovation.
2. "Lifelong Learning" Mindset (Personal Mastery)

On an individual level, learning organizations require a forward-thinking mindset. According to

Senge, this involves personal mastery. Corporate learners must develop a lifelong learning
perspective, wherein they value and understand the importance of continual growth. The focus
is on practical skills and knowledge they can apply in real-world environments. For example,
soft skills that allow employees to improve customer service tasks. Individuals must also display
commitment and dedication to personal goals, as well as company-wide learning objectives.

3. Room For Innovation (Mental Models)

This trait of learning organizations is actually two-fold. First, corporate learners must be able to
evaluate and assess their current cognitions through self-reflection. This allows them to
challenge limiting beliefs that are standing in the way of progress. Every individual is then able
to see how they fit into the big picture, and how they can serve the "greater good". Secondly,
corporate learners must be encouraged to test out new theories and approaches. Risk is all part
of the equation, as it allows people to learn from their mistakes and continually improve.
According to Senge, mental models should be acknowledged and challenged in order to move
beyond unfavorable behaviors and assumptions.

4. Forward-Thinking Leadership (Shared Vision)

The fourth way to identify a learning organization is to look for forward-thinking leaders. The
enthusiasm and dedication starts from the top. Managers, supervisors, and trainers must be
committed to the process and have a "shared vision". Leaders must challenge assumptions,
encourage self-reflection, and set an example for their team members. They should let
corporate learners make mistakes that build real-world experience. Then, they should discuss
alternative approaches so that they don't repeat the same mistakes in the future. Here are just
a few ways that organizations can promote forward-thinking leadership:
 Host Live Webinars

Webinars give leaders the opportunity to interact with their team on a more
personal basis. Likewise, the entire group gets the chance to ask questions and
address their concerns. Webinars are a great way to motivate corporate learners
and raise awareness of the organization's core objectives. Record the live webinar
for those who can't attend, and provide links to supplemental online training
materials.

 Start Corporate e-Learning Blogs And Online Discussions

Corporate eLearning blogs and online discussions open up the lines of
communication. Leaders can post important questions, ideas, and updates, while
corporate learners have the power to pose questions and stay in the loop. Provide
leaders with an outline or weekly topic schedule. Then invite them to make their
own contribution to the corporate eLearning blog, or online discussion. This is the
place where their team can gather online and share their opinions in a more private
way.

 Stay Active On Social Media. Facebook, Twitter, And Other Social Media Platforms
Encourage leaders to start a closed group where corporate learners can post helpful
links and comments. They can even use social networking sites to add more
interactivity to their webinars. For example, creating a hashtag for their next online
training event. Just make sure that leaders set some ground rules to ensure that all
opinions are respected and everyone's voice is heard.

 Schedule Regular Team Meetings

Everyone has to be on the same page in order to make a meaningful change. As
such, you should host regular meetings with your leadership team. Encourage them
to share ideas and feedback so that you can continually improve your approach.
These meetings equip leaders with the tools and resources they need to serve as
role models. Video conferencing platforms and Project Management tools are also
 great additions to your team meetings, as they streamline the online collaboration
process and make the online training experience more engaging and effective.

5. Knowledge Sharing (Team Learning)

Collaboration is key in learning organizations. Every member of the group must be aware of the
learning objectives and desired outcomes, and then work as a collective problem-solving team
to achieve their goals. In most cases, this calls for a knowledge-sharing infrastructure. For
example, an online training repository where corporate learners can share links and learner-
generated online training content with their peers. Everyone benefits from the expertise and
skill sets of the group. Likewise, they are able to deepen their own comprehension by sharing
information with peers, as it involves active recall and reinforcement.

Effective learning organizations share these 5 common traits. They foster lifelong learning and
ongoing collaboration, which fuels the success of the entire group. Everyone has the chance to
make mistakes and learn from them, which leads to new groundbreaking ideas and profit-
building opportunities. As such, learning organizations have the power to improve online
training ROI and employee satisfaction.

Personality

The word "personality" stems from the Latin word "persona", which refers to a theatrical mask
worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities. Personality describes the unique
patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a person from others. Personality
means the constitution of mental as well as the physical health of an individual. Eg-: She is
generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist .
Personality is a sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with
others. It is individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and
behaving. It is the supreme realization of the innate habit of a living being.

Characteristics of Personaliity

The nature of every individual is attributed to his personality. Generally, an individual asserts
through his behavioral characteristics. Matured persons with their longstanding experience,
take an objective attitude towards themselves and others. They also introspect, so as to help
improve upon their nature and behavior.

i. Self-Conscious:
There is a vast difference between human being and other species. The special feature of his
nature is ‘self-consciousness’, which makes him aware of his surroundings and self-identity.
ii. Adaptability to Environment:
Personality, off and on, does make adjustments according to the changes desired. Resistance to
change means a conflict with tension and unpleasantness. Normally, people adapt to the
changed situations and challenges. Adaptation to new situations often follows a modification in
behavioral pattern leading to a smooth working condition and a conducive environment.
iii. Goal Oriented:
Persons strive for achievement of goal. Individuals do have the drive to achieve goals. Wants
and needs lead to motive. The desire of an individual directs the behavior for the fulfillment of
the same. Both the physiological and social motives make behavioral changes.
iv. Integration of Personality:
Personality works in consistency by integrating various activities (of mental and also
experiences of the individual) together. Personality differs in the form of its integration. Persons
with developed personalities are highly integrated with values and experiences. This depends
on the standards of behavior, which they have acquired right from the childhood.
Determinants of Personality
Different theories propose different factors that determine an individual personality. The
most popular research work done by Freud deals with the identification of self-concept. Self-
concept include things (factor) got by nature like gene, i.e., heredity and the biological
formations and by nurture, i.e., through the social and environmental factors. The major
determinants of personality are heredity, environment and situation.
1. Heredity:
Heredity refers to those factors, which predisposes to certain physical, mental and emotional
states. It sets the outer parameters of an individual. It also limits the range of development of
characters. The arrangement and structure of genes that are located in the chromosomes is
passed around 20% to 50% from one generation to another. The studies reveal that twins
though brought up in different places exhibit similar characters.
Thus, heredity is the transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendent through, a
mechanism lying primarily in the genes. There are very many achievers in their own field like
Sachin Tendulkar, U.R. Rao, N.R. Narayana Murthy, Former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao,
who gave a new turn to Indian economy and many such others, who are unique in their own,
way. These achievers’ performance is directed by hereditary factor to certain extent.
2. Environment:
Environment refers to the surroundings in which the individuals are brought up. The
environmental factors relating to the formation of personality includes culture, family, society
upbringing and experiences. Experiences relate to the confrontation with that of family
members, relatives, and friends and to the social groups, which they belong. Culture helps to
find the similarity and difference in behavior.
Family environment refers to the individual’s upbringing, the social and economic status the
family holds and the size of the family. The society makes an individual to play different roles
thus shaping his/her their personality. Environment tends to strengthen or weaken hereditary
traits. For example, when an individual interacts with the environment through speech, his
speech organs guarantee that he/she is learning to speak.
3. Situation:
Situation has an effect both on environment and heredity. Situation demands certain behavior.
Various psychologists have discovered what personality trait matters to an individual in his or
her career. Being successful or unsuccessful depends upon how the individuals control their
behavior in various situations. For example, a candidate attending an interview may exhibit
limited traits. The other trait or behavior is concealed or not exhibited.

Personality Attributes

i. Locus of Control:
It may be defined as the degree to which people believe that they are the master of their own
fate. In simple term, it can be described as the extent to which he believes that he knows
everything.
There are two types of locus of control:
a. Internal locus of control which implies that the degree to which an individual controls
himself without other’s assistance. In this case individual believes that he controls his destinies.
Here the individual believe that his behavior determines many of the events in his life. For
example – individual with moderately strong internal locus of control is successful in his job
career and lives. He performs his job better, copes better in stressful situation and is satisfied
with challenging job and performance based rewards.
For example, a person who loses a sports game may feel depressed or anxious if they have a
strong internal locus of control. If this person thinks, "I'm bad at sports and I don't try hard
enough," they might allow the loss to affect their self-image and feel stressed in future games.
b. External locus of control may be defined as the degree to which an individual is
controlled by the help of other people. In this case individual believes that his life is controlled
by outside forces. Here he believes that his behavior determines chance, luck and fate. What
happens to him is due to his luck or fate. For example – the individual with moderately strong
external locus of control may not be successful in his jobs, career and lives.
For example, a person who loses a sports game will probably feel more relaxed and less
stressed if they have a strong external locus of control. However, if this person takes an
external focus during such situations said "We were unlucky to get matched with such a strong
team," or "The sun was in my eyes!".

ii. Machiavellianism:
This is another attribute influencing OB. It refers to the extent to which an individual maintains
emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means. This type of attribute is named
after Niccolo Machiavellian who found out how people gain and manipulate power. This type of
attribute is earmarked under two i.e. High Machiavellianism and Low Machiavellianism. The
individual with High Machiavellianism manipulates more & win more. This type of trait is
exhibited in order to flourish more outcomes. Machiavellianism in psychology refers to a
personality trait that sees a person so focused on their own interests they will manipulate,
deceive, and exploit others to achieve their goals.
Signs Of Machiavellianism
 Someone with the trait of Machiavellianism will tend to have many of the following
tendencies:
 Only focused on their own ambition and interests
 Prioritize money and power over relationships
 Come across as charming and confident
 Exploit and manipulate others to get ahead
 lie and deceive when required
 Use flattery often
 Lacking in principles and values
 Can come across as aloof or hard to really get to know
 Cynical of goodness and morality
 Capable of causing others harm to achieve their means
 Low levels of empathy
  Often avoid commitment and emotional attachments
 Can be very patient due to calculating nature
 Rarely reveal their true intentions
 Can be good at reading social situations and others
 Lack of warmth in social interactions
 Not always aware of the consequences of their actions
 Might struggle to identify their own emotions.
Cognitive dissonance is a mental conflict that occurs when your beliefs don't line up with your
actions. It's an uncomfortable state of mind when someone has contradictory values, attitudes,
or perspectives about the same thing. cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory
information, and the mental toll of it. Relevant items of information include a person's actions,
feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment.

Examples : Smoking: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health.
The magnitude of the dissonance will be higher in people who highly value their health.

Iceberg Model Of Personality

The iceberg model of personality is a model that suggests that there are parts of our
personality that we are aware of (the tip of the iceberg) and parts that we are not aware of
(the rest of the iceberg). The parts of our personality that we are not aware of may have a
bigger impact on our behavior than the parts that we are aware of. The iceberg model of
personality can help us to understand why we do the things that we do and why we behave
in certain ways.
The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were
derived from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that
operate at three different levels of awareness: the preconscious, conscious,
and unconscious.1 He believed that each of these parts of the mind plays an important role
in influencing behavior. In order to understand Freud's theory, it is essential to first
understand what he believed each part of personality did, how it operated, and how these
 three elements interact to contribute to the human experience. Each level of awareness has
a role to play in shaping human behavior and thought.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

Freud delineated the mind in the distinct levels, each with their own roles and functions.

 The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind.
 The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of
which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing
that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not
always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness.
 The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

Freud likened the three levels of mind to an iceberg. The top of the iceberg that you can see
above the water represents the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is submerged
below the water, but is still visible, is the preconscious. The bulk of the iceberg that lies unseen
beneath the waterline represents the unconscious.

Accessing Unconscious Thoughts

According to Freud, thoughts and emotions outside of our awareness continue to exert an
influence on our behaviors, even though we are unaware (unconscious) of these underlying
influences.

The unconscious can include repressed feelings, hidden memories, habits, thoughts, desires,
and reactions. Memories and emotions that are too painful, embarrassing, shameful, or
distressing to consciously face are stored in the enormous reservoir that makes up the
unconscious mind.

Role of the Preconscious Mind

The contents of the conscious mind include all of the things that you are actively aware of. The
closely related preconscious mind contains all of the things that you could potentially pull into
conscious awareness. The preconscious also acts as something of a guard, controlling the
information that is allowed to enter into conscious awareness.

Freud's Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche (personality) has
more than one aspect. Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three
parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical. According to Freud's
psychoanalytic theory, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains
sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-ego operates as a moral
conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the
super-ego. Although each part of the personality comprises unique features, they interact to
form a whole, and each part makes a relative contribution to an individual's behavior.

What is the id?

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. The id is a part of the
unconscious that contains all the urges and impulses, including what is called the libido, a kind
of generalized sexual energy that is used for everything from survival instincts to appreciation
of art. The id is also kind of stubborn, for it responds only to what Freud called the pleasure
principle (if it feels good, do it), and nothing else. It consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological)
components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which
contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.

The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly and
immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires. The personality of the newborn child is all id
and only later does it develop an ego and super-ego. The id remains infantile in its function
throughout a person's life and does not change with time or experience, as it is not in touch
with the external world. The id is not affected by reality, logic or the everyday world, as it
operates within the unconscious part of the mind.
The id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves
its demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension.
The id engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy
oriented. This form of process thinking has no comprehension of objective reality, and is selfish
and wishful in nature.

What is the Ego?

The ego is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external
world.' The ego is the only part of the conscious personality. It's what the person is aware of
when they think about themselves, and is what they usually try to project toward others. The
ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the
decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id is
chaotic and unreasonable. The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out
realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to
avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette
and rules in deciding how to behave.
Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id,
the ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no
concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without
causing harm to itself or the id. Often the ego is weak relative to the headstrong id, and the
best the ego can do is stay on, pointing the id in the right direction and claiming some credit at
the end as if the action were its own. If the ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle,
and anxiety is experienced, unconscious defense mechanisms are employed, to help ward off
unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual. The ego
engages in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards
problem-solving. If a plan of action does not work, then it is thought through again until a
solution is found. This is known as reality testing and enables the person to control their
impulses and demonstrate self-control, via mastery of the ego.

An important feature of clinical and social work is to enhance ego functioning and help the
client test reality through assisting the client to think through their options. According to the
Freudians, some types of abnormal upbringing (particularly if there is a cold, rejecting
‘schizogenic’ mother) can result in a weak and fragile ego, whose ability to contain the id’s
desires is limited. This can lead to the ego being ‘broken apart’ by its attempt to contain the id,
leaving the id in overall control of the psyche.

What is the superego?

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's
parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during the phallic stage
of psychosexual development. The superego is seen as the purveyor or rewards (feelings of
pride and satisfaction) and punishments (feelings of shame and guilt) depending on which part
(the ego-deal or conscious) is activated.

The superego is a part of the unconscious that is the voice of conscience (doing what is right)
and the source of self-criticism. It reflects society's moral values to some degree, and a person
is sometimes aware of their own morality and ethics, but the superego contains a vast number
of codes, or prohibitions, that are issued mostly unconsciously in the form of commands or
"don't" statements. The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those
which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego
to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.

The superego consists of two systems: The conscience and the ideal self. The conscience is our
'inner voice' that tells us when we have done something wrong. The conscience can punish the
ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the
superego may make the person feel bad through guilt.

The superego is also somewhat tricky, in that it will try to portray what it wants the person to
do in grandiose, glowing terms, what Freud called the ego-ideal, which arises out of the
person's first great love attachment (usually a parent). The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an
imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other
people, and how to behave as a member of society.
The assumption is that children raised by parents experience love conditionally (when they do
something right), and the child internalizes these experiences as a series of real or imagined
judgmental statements.

Behavior which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the superego through guilt. The
super-ego can also reward us through the ideal self when we behave ‘properly’ by making us
feel proud.

Guilt is a very common problem because of all the urges and drives coming from the id and all
the prohibitions and codes in the superego. There are a variety of ways an individual handles
guilt, and these are called defense mechanisms.

If a person’s ideal self is too high a standard, then whatever the person does will represent
failure. The ideal self and conscience are largely determined in childhood from parental values
and how you were brought up.

Types of Personality

What is a Type A personality?

A Type A personality likes to be in control of their environment and their lives. They're normally
not very detail-oriented, choosing to delegate details to others. They're usually very goal-
oriented and practical in their solutions. They arrive at solutions and goals with a no-nonsense,
bottom-line approach.

Type A personality characteristics

While some Type A personality traits vary from person to person, certain traits are common.
The best example of a Type A personality is someone who is:

 Take-charge and highly competitive

 Fast-paced and impatient
 Entrepreneurial, workaholic
 Embraces change
 Ambitious
 Works well independently
 Passionate but short-fused
 Demands maximum freedom
 Dominant and stubborn
 Multitasking

Type A personality at work

When it comes to work personality types, employees with Type A personalities can typically be
identified by the following traits:

 Goal-oriented
 Risk-taking
 Good under stress
 Works well independently
 Direct management style
 Good delegation skills
 Good administrative skills
  Workaholic

Type A personalities don't like a lot of restraints or restrictions placed on them. Instead, they
prefer to work independently and set their own schedules. Since they tend to be workaholics,
it's not unusual to see them put in whatever time and effort it takes to accomplish their goals.
They may seem impatient at times, especially if they believe someone is spending too much
time going over details with them or impeding their stride.

What is a Type B personality?

The Type B personality is a very outgoing, energetic and fast-paced individual who likes to be
around people and enjoys being the center of attention. They're good relationship-builders and
most people like them right away. Their driving need is for approval, so they try to like
everyone in hopes everyone will like them, too. Compliments, acknowledgement of their
achievements, words of admiration, and even applause from these groups are the most
important thing you can do for them.

Type B personality traits

Like Type A personalities, Type B personality characteristics can also vary by individual. The best
example of Type B personality is someone who is:

 Enthusiastic and fun-loving

  Persuasive
 Friendly
 Charismatic and confident
 Idea person, dreamer
 Short attention span
 Motivator
 Spontaneous and impulsive
 Procrastinator

Type B personality at work

Employees with Type B personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

 Relationship-oriented
 Outgoing
 Enthusiastic
 Doesn't finish what was started
 May try to do too much at once
 Easily bored
 Easily liked by most people

Type B personalities love to talk about themselves. Some may view that as self-centered, but a
Type B's real motivation is to be liked. For an extreme example, Bette Midler in the
movie Beaches invited an old friend up to see her lavish apartment and told her about her great
success. She said to the friend: "Enough about me. Let's talk about you. So, what do you think
of me?"

The Type B personality's biggest fear is being humiliated in public, since that might make many
people disapprove of them. It could be traumatic for them. The B personality doesn't want to
appear unattractive or unsuccessful either, so they'll hide any weakness.

What is a Type C personality?

The Type C personality is a very detail-oriented individual who likes to be involved in things that
are controlled and stable. They're interested in accuracy, rationality, and logic. People who
can't seem to control their emotions will bother them because Type C personalities believe
being emotional makes objectivity difficult. They also dislike being around people who are full
of hype, since they desire facts, accuracy and logic. Other people's emotions may not be a
priority for them, as they tend to strive for the facts and let the chips fall where they may.

Type C personality characteristics

Type C personalities come with considerable variations, however, the best example of a Type C
personality is someone who is:

 Accuracy and detail-oriented

 Creative
 Dependable
 Skeptical
 Independent and can appear anti-social
 Lawful
 Organized
 Analytical and critical
 Worried about progress
 Detached and disengaged
Type C personality at work
People with Type C personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

 Detail-oriented
 Logical
 Prepared
 Likes to do things their own way
 Worry about progress
 May never have personal expectations met
 Quality control

Type C personalities tend to be quite controlling, both of themselves and others. They don't like
things to get out of hand and may appear stoic because they don't really want themselves to
display a lot of emotion. They're very outcome-driven and will be sticklers for following
protocol.

They're careful, resourceful, and, above all, excellent thinkers who will look at all aspects of an
issue before taking a stand. Once they take a stand on an issue, though, they'll have the facts to
back it up, so anyone who challenges them better be prepared. If you have a Type C personality
on your job candidate shortlist, you'll want to prepare some thoughtful interview questions if
you don't want a carefully rehearsed response.

What is a Type D personality?

A Type D personality takes a slower, easier pace toward their work and life in general. They
seek security and longevity on the job and are very happy doing a repetitive task day in and day
out. The repetition allows them to become very skilled. Likewise, they won't like it if the rules
change a lot. That's contrary to their desire to minimize change and stick with what they know
works. For the Type D personality, even though the current way may be unpleasant, they worry
that the unknown may be even worse.

Type D personality traits

As with the previous personalities, you'll find plenty of variation with Type D people. The best
example of a Type D personality is someone who is:

 Shy, low-key and observant

 Caring
 Sincere
 Consistent, dependable
 Calm and stable
 Fair and equitable
 Looks approachable
 Avoiding confrontation
 Resistant to change
 Self-confident

Type D personality at work

People with Type D personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

 Task-oriented
 Stabilizing
 Cautious
 Going along when they don't agree
 Easily used by others
 Uncomfortable with constant change
  Good at routines or repetitive tasks

They seek the respect, sincere admiration, and acceptance of others. The Type D personality
will gladly work hard to please the people they work for as long as they feel appreciated and
receive plenty of reassurance that they're needed. They need that sense of security. Type D
personalities often think the Type A personality is crazy for taking so many risks and not
showing much concern for security and longevity.

Introvert Personality

An introvert is a person with qualities of a personality type known as introversion, which means
that they feel more comfortable focusing on their inner thoughts and ideas, rather than what’s
happening externally. They enjoy spending time with just one or two people, rather than large

groups or crowds. In general, introverts are:

 Need quiet to concentrate

 Are reflective
 Are self-aware
 Take time making decisions
 Feel comfortable being alone
 Don't like group work
 Prefer to write rather than talk
 Feel tired after being in a crowd
 Have few friendships, but are very close with these friends
 Daydream or use their imaginations to work out a problem
 Retreat into their own mind to rest

Extrovert Personality
The term extrovert describes one aspect of a personality dimension that is characterized by
an outgoing and expressive pattern of behavior and social interaction. Extroverts tend to be
gregarious, assertive, warm, active, excitement-seeking, and positive. Extroverts are often
described as talkative, sociable, action-oriented, enthusiastic, friendly, and out-going. On the
negative side, they are sometimes described as attention-seeking, easily distracted, and unable
to spend time alone. Extroverts are also more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors, including
risky health behaviors.

Some of the general characteristics associated with extroversion include:

 Enjoys being at the center of attention

 Enjoys group work
 Feels isolated by too much time spent alone
 Likes to communicate by talking
 Likes to talk about thoughts and feelings
 Looks to others and outside sources for ideas and inspiration
 Numerous, broad interests
 Tends to act first before thinking

Myers & Briggs' Personality Theory

The most popular and well-known system of personality typing was developed by Isabel Briggs
Myers and her mother, Katharine Briggs, in the 1960's. Myers and Briggs built on the
personality theories of Swiss psychiatrist Dr. Carl Jung as outlined in his book, Psychological
Types, and developed one of the world's most popular personality assessments, the Myers
Briggs Type Indicator®, or MBTI®.

From early in her life, Katharine Cook Briggs was captivated by Jung’s theory of psychological
types. However, she recognized that the theory as Jung explained it was too diffuse and
complex for use by regular people. She therefore set out to convey Jung’s ideas in a simple way
so that anyone would be able to recognize personality types in action in everyday life. She felt
passionately that through understanding personality types, people would be better able to use
their own strengths and appreciate the diverse gifts of others.

Katharine's work was picked up by her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, who became interested in
the theory as a way to help with the war effort during WWII. Isabel clarified the theory her
mother had developed and used it as the basis of the Myers Briggs Type Indicator®, a
psychological assessment designed to sort people into one of sixteen personality types. She
created detailed descriptions of each of the 16 types, and explored applications of her theory in
academics, business, and personal development.

The Basics Of Myers & Briggs' Personality Theory

The Myers-Briggs system describes a person’s personality through four opposing personality
functions, variously known as dichotomies, preferences or scales. The first three preferences
are based on the writings of Jung; Katherine Cook Briggs added the final preference, Judging
versus Perceiving, based on her own observations.

 Extraversion vs. Introversion: How do you gain energy? Extraverts like to be with others
and gain energy from people and the environment. Introverts gain energy from alone-
time and need periods of quiet reflection throughout the day.

 Sensing vs. Intuition: How do you collect information? Sensors gather facts from their
immediate environment and rely on the things they can see, feel and hear. Intuitives
look more at the overall context and think about patterns, meaning, and connections.

 Thinking vs. Feeling: How do you make decisions? Thinkers look for the logically correct
solution, whereas Feelers make decisions based on their emotions, values, and the
needs of others.

 Judging vs. Perceiving: How do you organize your environment? Judgers prefer
structure and like things to be clearly regulated, whereas Perceivers like things to be
open and flexible and are reluctant to commit themselves.
Myers and Briggs outlined 16 personality types based on the four personality preferences.
Each personality type is designated with a four-letter code, with each letter signifying one of
the personality preferences.

Isabel Briggs Myers stressed that each personality type was more than the sum of its parts,
and her descriptions of each type were intended to explain how all four of the personality
preferences came together to interact, synergize, and form a cohesive type. This gives Myers
and Briggs' personality type descriptions the advantage of showing us how to conceptualize
various combinations of personality traits—for instance, the difference between someone who
is extraverted, kind and compassionate, and a similarly extraverted person who is more logical
and emotionally detached. Other personality systems, such as the Big Five, typically talk about
personality traits in isolation, which is often less helpful when trying to conceptualize a person
as a whole.

16 Personality Traits
ISTJ

Quiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and dependability. Practical, matter-of-fact,

realistic, and responsible. Decide logically what should be done and work toward it steadily,
regardless of distractions. Take pleasure in making everything orderly and organized - their
work, their home, their life. Value traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ

Quiet, friendly, responsible, and conscientious. Committed and steady in meeting their
obligations. Thorough, painstaking, and accurate. Loyal, considerate, notice and remember
specifics about people who are important to them, concerned with how others feel. Strive to
create an orderly and harmonious environment at work and at home.
INFJ

Seek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. Want to
understand what motivates people and are insightful about others. Conscientious and
committed to their firm values. Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the common
good. Organized and decisive in implementing their vision.

INTJ

Have original minds and great drive for implementing their ideas and achieving their goals.
Quickly see patterns in external events and develop long-range explanatory perspectives. When
committed, organize a job and carry it through. Skeptical and independent, have high standards
of competence and performance - for themselves and others.

ISTP

Tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem appears, then act quickly to find workable
solutions. Analyze what makes things work and readily get through large amounts of data to
isolate the core of practical problems. Interested in cause and effect, organize facts using logical
principles, value efficiency.

ISFP

Quiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present moment, what's going on around them.
Like to have their own space and to work within their own time frame. Loyal and committed to
their values and to people who are important to them. Dislike disagreements and conflicts; do
not force their opinions or values on others.

INFP

Idealistic, loyal to their values and to people who are important to them. Want an external life
that is congruent with their values. Curious, quick to see possibilities, can be catalysts for
implementing ideas. Seek to understand people and to help them fulfill their potential.
Adaptable, flexible, and accepting unless a value is threatened.

INTP

Seek to develop logical explanations for everything that interests them. Theoretical and
abstract, interested more in ideas than in social interaction. Quiet, contained, flexible, and
adaptable. Have unusual ability to focus in depth to solve problems in their area of interest.
Skeptical, sometimes critical, always analytical.

ESTP

Flexible and tolerant, they take a pragmatic approach focused on immediate results. Theories
and conceptual explanations bore them - they want to act energetically to solve the problem.
Focus on the here-and-now, spontaneous, enjoy each moment that they can be active with
others. Enjoy material comforts and style. Learn best through doing.

ESFP

Outgoing, friendly, and accepting. Exuberant lovers of life, people, and material comforts. Enjoy
working with others to make things happen. Bring common sense and a realistic approach to
their work, and make work fun. Flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and
environments. Learn best by trying a new skill with other people.

ENFP

Warmly enthusiastic and imaginative. See life as full of possibilities. Make connections between
events and information very quickly, and confidently proceed based on the patterns they see.
Want a lot of affirmation from others, and readily give appreciation and support. Spontaneous
and flexible, often rely on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP
Quick, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and challenging
problems. Adept at generating conceptual possibilities and then analyzing them strategically.
Good at reading other people. Bored by routine, will seldom do the same thing the same way,
apt to turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ

Practical, realistic, matter-of-fact. Decisive, quickly move to implement decisions. Organize

projects and people to get things done, focus on getting results in the most efficient way
possible. Take care of routine details. Have a clear set of logical standards, systematically follow
them and want others to also. Forceful in implementing their plans.

ESFJ

Warmhearted, conscientious, and cooperative. Want harmony in their environment; work with
determination to establish it. Like to work with others to complete tasks accurately and on
time. Loyal, follow through even in small matters. Notice what others need in their day-by-day
lives and try to provide it. Want to be appreciated for who they are and for what they
contribute.

ENFJ

Warm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible. Highly attuned to the emotions, needs, and
motivations of others. Find potential in everyone; want to help others fulfill their potential. May
act as catalysts for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to praise and criticism.
Sociable, facilitate others in a group, and provide inspiring leadership.

ENTJ

Frank, decisive, assumes leadership readily. Quickly see illogical and inefficient procedures and
policies, develop and implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational problems.
Enjoy long-term planning and goal setting. Usually well informed, well read; enjoy expanding
their knowledge and passing it on to others. Forceful in presenting their ideas.
 Benefits of MBTI:

 Companies can learn how to better support employees, assess management skills, and
facilitate teamwork
 Coaches can utilize the information to help understand their preferred coaching
approach
 Teachers can assess student learning style
 Teens and young adults can better understand their learning, communication, and social
interaction styles
 Teens can determine what occupational field they might be best suited for
 Individuals can gain insight into their behavior
 Partners can better understand themselves and their spouses, allowing for more
cohesive teamwork and greater productivity

Criticisms of MBTI:

The MBTI has been criticized as a pseudoscience and does not tend to be widely endorsed by
psychologists or other researchers in the field. Some of these critiques include:

 There is little scientific evidence for the dichotomies as psychometric assessment

research fails to support the concept of a type, but rather shows that most people lie
near the middle of a continuous curve.
 The scales show relatively weak validity as the psychological types created by Carl Jung
were not based on any controlled studies and many of the studies that endorse MBTI
are methodologically weak or unscientific.
 There is high likelihood for bias as individuals might be motivated to fake their
responses to attain a socially desirable personality type.
 Test-retest reliability is low (ie: test takers who retake the test often test as a different
type)
 The terminology of the MBTI is incomprehensive and vague, allowing any kind of
behavior to fit any personality type.
 Big 5 Personality Traits
The Big Five Model, also known as the Five-Factor Model, is the most widely accepted personality theory
held by psychologists today. The theory states that personality can be boiled down to five core factors,
known by the acronym OCEAN:

Unlike other trait theories that sort individuals into binary categories (i.e. introvert or extrovert), the Big
Five Model asserts that each personality trait is a spectrum. Therefore, individuals are ranked on a scale
between the two extreme ends of five broad dimensions:

For instance, when measuring Extraversion, one would not be classified as purely extroverted or
introverted, but placed on a scale determining their level of extraversion. By ranking individuals on each
of these traits, it is possible to effectively measure individual differences in personality.

The Big Five Personality Traits

Play

Therefore, the Big Five while not completely exhaustive, cover virtually all personality-related terms.
 Figure 1. The Big Five Personality Traits
Another important aspect of the Big Five Model is its approach to measuring personality. It focuses on
conceptualizing traits as a spectrum rather than black-and-white categories (see Figure 1). It recognizes
that most individuals are not on the polar ends of the spectrum but rather somewhere in between.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness describes a person’s ability to regulate their impulse control in order to

engage in goal-directed behaviors (Grohol, 2019). It measures elements such as control,
inhibition, and persistency of behavior.

Facets of conscientiousness include the following (John & Srivastava, 1999):

High Low
 Incompetent
 Competence
 Disorganized
 Organized
 Careless
 Dutifulness
 Procrastinates
 Achievement striving
 Indiscipline
 Self-disciplined
 Impulsive
 Deliberation
 Conscientiousness vs. Lack of Direction

Those who score high on conscientiousness can be described as organized, disciplined, detail-oriented,
thoughtful, and careful. They also have good impulse control, which allows them to complete tasks and
achieve goals. Those who score low on conscientiousness may struggle with impulse control, leading to
difficulty in completing tasks and fulfilling goals. They tend to be more disorganized and may dislike too
much structure. They may also engage in more impulsive and careless behavior.

Agreeableness

Agreeableness refers to how people tend to treat relationships with others. Unlike extraversion which
consists of the pursuit of relationships, agreeableness focuses on people’s orientation and interactions
with others (Ackerman, 2017). Facets of agreeableness include the following (John & Srivastava, 1999):
 High
Low
 Trust (forgiving)
 Sceptical

 Demanding
Straightforwardness
 Insults and belittles
 Altruism (enjoys
others
helping)
 Stubborn
 Compliance
 Show-off
 Modesty
 Unsympathetic
 Sympathetic
 Doesn't care about
 Empathy
how other people
feel

Agreeableness vs. Antagonism

Those high in agreeableness can be described as soft-hearted, trusting, and well-liked. They are sensitive
to the needs of others and are helpful and cooperative. People regard them as trustworthy and
altruistic. Those low in agreeableness may be perceived as suspicious, manipulative, and uncooperative.
They may be antagonistic when interacting with others, making them less likely to be well-liked and
trusted.

Extraversion
Extraversion reflects the tendency and intensity to which someone seeks interaction with their
environment, particularly socially. It encompasses the comfort and assertiveness levels of people in
social situations. Additionally, it also reflects the sources from which someone draws energy.

Low
High  Prefers solitude
 Sociable  Fatigued by too much social
 Energized by social interaction
interaction  Reflective
 Excitement-seeking  Dislikes being the center of
 Enjoys being the center attention
of attention  Reserved
 Outgoing

Extraversion vs. Introversion

Those high on extraversion are generally assertive, sociable, fun-loving, and outgoing. They thrive in
social situations and feel comfortable voicing their opinions. They tend to gain energy and become
excited from being around others. Those who score low in extraversion are often referred to
as introverts. These people tend to be more reserved and quieter. They prefer listening to others rather
than needing to be heard. Introverts often need periods of solitude in order to regain energy as
attending social events can be very tiring for them. Of importance to note is that introverts do not
necessarily dislike social events, but instead find them tiring.

Openness to Experience

Openness to experience refers to one’s willingness to try new things as well as engage in imaginative
and intellectual activities. It includes the ability to “think outside of the box.”
 High Low
 Curious  Predictable

 Imaginative  Not very imaginative

 Creative  Dislikes change

 Open to trying new  Prefer routine

things
 Traditional

Openness vs. Closedness to Experience

Those who score high on openness to experience are perceived as creative and artistic. They prefer
variety and value independence. They are curious about their surroundings and enjoy traveling and
learning new things. People who score low on openness to experience prefer routine. They are
uncomfortable with change and trying new things so they prefer the familiar over the unknown. As they
are practical people, they often find it difficult to think creatively or abstractly.

Neuroticism

Neuroticism describes the overall emotional stability of an individual through how they perceive the
world. It takes into account how likely a person is to interpret events as threatening or difficult.

Motivation

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’. The word ‘motive’ as a noun means an
objective, as a verb this word means moving into action. Therefore, motives are forces which induce
people to act in a way, so as to ensure the fulfillment of a particular human need at a time. Behind every
human action there is a motive. Therefore, management must provide motives to people to make them
work for the organization. Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which
stimulates people to work to the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are
based on their unfulfilled needs.

In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behavior can be -

 desire for money

  success
 recognition
 job-satisfaction
 team work, etc

One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the employees to
perform in the best of their abilities. Therefore the role of a leader is to arouse interest in performance
of employees in their jobs. The process of motivation consists of three stages:-

1. A felt need or drive.

2. A stimulus in which needs have to be aroused.
3. When needs are satisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals.

Therefore, we can say that motivation is a psychological phenomenon which means needs and wants of
the individuals have to be tackled by framing an incentive plan.

Features of Motivation

1. Motivation is a personal and internal feeling

2. Motivation is need based:

If there are no needs of an individual, the process of motivation fails. It is a behavioral concept that
directs human behavior towards certain goals.

3. Motivation is a continuous process

Because human wants are unlimited, therefore motivation is an ongoing process.

4. Motivation may be positive or negative

A positive motivation promotes incentives to people while a negative motivation threatens the
enforcement of disincentives.

5. Motivation is a planned process

People differ in their approach, to respond to the process of motivation; as no two individuals could be
motivated in an exactly similar manner. Accordingly, motivation is a psychological concept and a
complex process.

6. Motivation is different from job satisfaction

Importance of Motivation
1. High Efficiency:
A good motivational system releases the immense untapped reservoirs of physical and mental
capabilities. A number of studies have shown that motivation plays a crucial role in determining the level
of performance. “Poorly motivated people can nullify the soundest organization.” said Allen. By
satisfying human needs motivation helps in increasing productivity. Better utilization of resources lowers
cost of operations. Motivation is always goal directed. Therefore, higher the level of motivation, greater
is the degree of goal accomplishment.

2. Better Image:
A firm that provides opportunities for financial and personal advancement has a better image in the
employment market. People prefer to work for an enterprise because of opportunity for development,
and sympathetic outlook. This helps in attracting qualified personnel and simplifies the staffing function.

3. Facilitates Change:
Effective motivation helps to overcome resistance to change and negative attitude on the part of
employees like restriction of output. Satisfied workers take interest in new organizational goals and are
more receptive to changes that management wants to introduce in order to improve efficiency of
operations.

4. Human Relations:
Effective motivation creates job satisfaction which results in cordial relations between employer and
employees. Industrial disputes, labor absenteeism and turnover are reduced with consequent benefits.
Motivation helps to solve the central problem of management, i.e., effective use of human resources.
Without motivation the workers may not put their best efforts and may seek satisfaction of their needs
outside the organization.

The success of any organization depends upon the optimum utilization of resources. The utilization of
physical resources depends upon the ability to work and the willingness to work of the employees. In
practice, ability is not the problem but necessary will to work is lacking. Motivation is the main tool for
building such a will. It is for this reason that Rensis Likert said, “Motivation is the core of management.”
It is the key to management in action.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow is well renowned for proposing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in 1943. This theory is a
classical depiction of human motivation. This theory is based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy
of five needs within each individual. The urgency of these needs varies. These five needs are as follows-

1. Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In other
words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
2. Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and protection.
For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from animals, family security, health
security, etc.
3. Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and friendship.
4. Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect, confidence,
competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs (recognition, power, status,
attention and admiration).
5. Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of becoming / what
you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and self-contentment. It also
includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity and being aesthetic. The self-
actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual grows psychologically, opportunities
keep cropping up to continue growing.
According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is significantly
satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the five needs into two categories
- Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs. The physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-
order needs. These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally. The social, esteem, and self-
actualization needs constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfied
internally, i.e., within an individual. Thus, we can conclude that during boom period, the employees lower-
order needs are significantly met.

Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees appropriate
salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating opportunities should be given to
employees.

As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees job security,
safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to retain them.

As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork and organize
social events.

As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward employees on
accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give the deserved employee higher
job rank / position in the organization.

As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees challenging
jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized. Moreover, growth
opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.

The managers must identify the need level at which the employee is existing and then those needs can
be utilized as push for motivation.
 Limitations of Maslow’s Theory

 It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by same set of needs. Different
individuals may be driven by different needs at same point of time. It is always the most
powerful unsatisfied need that motivates an individual.
 The theory is not empirically supported.
 The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artist’s basic needs are not
satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and achievement.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-
hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while there
are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is
“No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

FIGURE: Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when
adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These
factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfies or maintenance
factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job
 environment/scenario. The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the
individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
 Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal
and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
 Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should not be too
rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code,
breaks, vacation, etc.
 Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim),
benefits for the family members, employee help programs, etc.
 Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.
 Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
 Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors
and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or
humiliation element present.
 Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.
b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to
work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are
called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors
intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived
as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:
 Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
 Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This
depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
 Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement
opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
 Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The
managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but
retain accountability.
  Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and
challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters may spoil
the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job acceptable
despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of employees
when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work. They will blame
dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer
relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at
work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers.

Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of the
hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the work is
stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform harder and better.
This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees. The job must utilize the
employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve
work-quality.

Theory X and Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human
behavior at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees):
 1. one of which is negative, called as Theory X and
2. the other is positive, so called as Theory Y

According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various
assumptions.

Assumptions of Theory X

 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible.
 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned with
punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required on part of
managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style.
 Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition.
 Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
 Employees resist change.
 An average employee needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

 Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical and
mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
 Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they can use
self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the organizational
objectives.
 If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and commitment to
organization.
 An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can even
learn to obtain responsibility.
 The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully utilized. In
other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the employees can be
utilized to solve organizational problems.

Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and behaviour at work,
while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and behaviour at work. If correlate
it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that the employees
emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based on the assumption
that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs dominate the employees.

McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he encouraged cordial
team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in decision-making process.

Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

 Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight control and
supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus, it does not
encourage innovation.
 Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers should
create and encourage a work environment which provides opportunities to employees to take
initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities to contribute to
organizational well-being.

Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork and participative decision making

in an organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in which an employee can make
significant contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and matches employees’ needs and
aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale School of Management in 1964. Vroom
stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg. The theory states
that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular manner is dependent on the intensity of an
expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal of the
outcome to the individual.

The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of:

1. how much an individual wants a reward (Valence),

2. the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected performance
(Expectancy) and
3. the belief that the performance will lead to reward (Instrumentality).
 1. In short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome. It
is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to receive after
achieving the goals.
2. Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. Expectancy is
influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability
of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required support for
completing the job.
3. Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there.
Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives
what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of
relationship between performance and outcomes.

Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on the following three relationships:

 Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individual’s effort be

recognized in his performance appraisal?
 Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes that
getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards.
 Rewards-personal goals relationship : It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the potential
reward to the individual.

Vroom was of view that employees consciously decide whether to perform or not at the job. This
decision solely depended on the employee’s motivation level which in turn depends on three factors of
expectancy, valence and instrumentality.

Advantages of the Expectancy Theory

 It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who wants
to minimize dissatisfaction.
 This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is immaterial.
 It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.
 It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective of individual is to attain maximum
pleasure and least pain.
 Limitations of the Expectancy Theory

 The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high
degree correlation between performance and rewards.
 The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated with performance in
many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as position, effort, responsibility,
education, etc.

Implications of the Expectancy Theory

 The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels.
 The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.
 The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.
 The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.
 Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.
 The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various techniques
such as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.

Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive theory of motivation, combining the
various aspects. Porter and Lawler's model is a more complete model of motivation. This model has
been practically applied also in their study of managers. This is a multivariate model which explains the
relationship that exists between job attitudes and job performance. This model is based on four basic
assumptions about human behavior :

(i) As mentioned above, it is a multivariate model. According to this model, individual behavior is
determined by a combination of factors in the individual and in the environment.

(ii) Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make conscious decisions about their
behavior in the organizations.

(iii) Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.

(iv) On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between alternative behaviors and such
decided behavior will read to a desired outcome.

The various elements of this model are explained in the Fig. below.

In fact, Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. They say that
motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model suggested by them encounters some
of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and
performance. They proposed a multivariate model to explain the complex relationship that exists
between satisfaction and performance. What is the main point in Porter and Lawler's model is that
effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance. It is, in fact, medicated by abilities and traits
and by role perceptions. Ultimately, performance leads to satisfaction. The same is depicted in Fig. 5.11.

Fig.: Porter and Lawler Motivation Model.

 The Various Elements of Porter and Lawler Model

1. Effort,

2. Performance and

3. Satisfaction.

Let us briefly discuss the main elements of the model :

Effort : Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much effort an
employee will put in a task is determined by two factors: (i) value of reward and (ii) perception of effort-
reward probability.

Performance : One's effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be. However,
the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and role perception
of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability and/or makes wrong role perception,
his/her performance may be low in spite of his great efforts.

Satisfaction : Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the amount of
rewards achieved. If the amount of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the
employee will feel satisfied. On the contrary, if actual rewards fall short of perceived ones, he/she will
be dissatisfied.

The theory proposed two types of reward:

1. Intrinsic Rewards: Intrinsic rewards are given to an individual by himself for good performance.
They include feelings of accomplishment and satisfaction of higher-level needs as defined by
Maslow. Intrinsic reward are directly related to good performance only if the job structure is
varied and challenging so an individual can reward himself if he feels he has performed well
2. Extrinsic Rewards: Extrinsic rewards are given by the organization and satisfy mainly lower-level
needs. They include such things as pay, promotion, status, and job security. extrinsic rewards
are weekly connection to performance
In the model, rewards are linked indirectly to satisfaction through perceived equitable rewards. This
variable refers to the amount of rewards an individual feels he should receive as a result of his
performance. This variable can also be expanded to include the amount of rewards an individual feels
should be attached to a particular position within the organization. Therefore, Porter and Lawler view
satisfaction as deficiency measure. Satisfaction is determined by the difference between actual rewards
and perceived equitable rewards. If actual reward exceeds perceived rewards, then it results in
satisfaction. If opposite occurs, it results in dissatisfaction. The degree to which a person is either
satisfied or dissatisfied depends on the size of the difference between the actual and perceived
equitable rewards.

Fig. 5.12: Porter and Lawler Motivation Model (Adapted from L.W. Porter and E.E. Lawler Managerial
Attitude and Performance, Richard D. Irwin, Homowoxi III, 1968, p. 195).

There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter and Lawler is quite
complex than other models of motivation. In fact, motivation itself is not a simple cause effect
relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon. Porter and Lawler have attempted to measure variables
such as the values of possible rewards, the perception of effort-rewards probabilities and role
perceptions in deriving satisfaction. They recommended that the managers should carefully reassess
their reward system and structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should be made integral
to the entire system of managing men in organizations.
 Equity Theory of Motivation

The core of the equity theory is the principle of balance or equity. As per this motivation theory, an
individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of equity, fairness and justice practiced by
the management. Higher is individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice
versa. While evaluating fairness, employee compares the job input (in terms of contribution) to outcome
(in terms of compensation) and also compares the same with that of another peer of equal
cadre/category. D/I ratio (output-input ratio) is used to make such a comparison.

EQUITY THEORY

Ratio Comparison Perception

O/I a < O/I b Under-rewarded(Equity

Tension)

O/I a = O/I b Equity

O/I a > O/I b Over-rewarded (Equity Tension)

Negative Tension state: Equity is perceived when this ratio is equal. While if this ratio is unequal, it leads
to “equity tension”. J. Stacy Adams called this a negative tension state which motivates him to do
something right to relieve this tension. A comparison has been made between 2 workers A and B to
understand this point.

Referents: The four comparisons an employee can make have been termed as “referents” according to
Goodman. The referent chosen is a significant variable in equity theory. These referents are as follows:

Self-inside: An employee’s experience in a different position inside his present organization.

Self-outside: An employee’s experience in a situation outside the present organization.

Other-inside: Another employee or group of employees inside the employee’s present organization.
 Other-outside: Another employee or employees outside the employee’s present organization.

An employee might compare himself with his peer within the present job in the current organization or
with his friend/peer working in some other organization or with the past jobs held by him with others.
An employee’s choice of the referent will be influenced by the appeal of the referent and the
employee’s knowledge about the referent.

Moderating Variables: The gender, salary, education and the experience level are moderating variables.
Individuals with greater and higher education are more informed. Thus, they are likely to compare
themselves with the outsiders. Males and females prefer same sex comparison. It has been observed
that females are paid typically less than males in comparable jobs and have less salary expectations than
male for the same work. Thus, a women employee that uses another women employee as a referent
tends to lead to a lower comparative standard. Employees with greater experience know their
organization very well and compare themselves with their own colleagues, while employees with less
experience rely on their personal experiences and knowledge for making comparisons.

Choices: The employees who perceive inequity and are under negative tension can make the following
choices:

Change in input (e.g. Don’t overexert)

Change their outcome (Produce quantity output and increasing earning by sacrificing quality when
piece rate incentive system exist)

Choose a different referent

Quit the job

Change self perception (For instance - I know that I’ve performed better and harder than everyone
else.)

Change perception of others (For instance - Jack’s job is not as desirable as I earlier thought it was.)

Assumptions of the Equity Theory

  The theory demonstrates that the individuals are concerned both with their own rewards and
also with what others get in their comparison.
 Employees expect a fair and equitable return for their contribution to their jobs.
 Employees decide what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and
outcomes with those of their colleagues.
 Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable scenario will attempt to reduce
the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes psychologically, by directly altering
inputs and/or outputs, or by quitting the organization.

Elements of Motivation

The three key elements in motivation are intensity, direction, and persistence:

1. Intensity: It describes how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on
when we talk about motivation.
2. Direction: High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job-performance outcomes
unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore,
the quality of effort as well as its intensity matters. Effort directed toward, and
consistent with, the organization’s goals is the kind of effort once should be seeking.
3. Persistence: It measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals
stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

Process of Motivation

Motivation concerns those processes which produces goal-directed behavior. The basic
elements of the process of motivation are:

1. Behavior: All behaviour is a series of activities. Behaviour is generally motivated by a

desire to achieve a goal. In order to predict and control behaviour managers must
understand the motives of people.
2. Motives: Motives prompt people to action. They are the primary energizers of
behaviour. They are the ‘ways’ of behaviour and mainsprings of action. They are largely
 subjective and represent the mental feelings of human beings. They are cognitive
variables. They cause behaviour in many ways. They arise continuously and determine
the general direction of an individual’s behavior.
3. Goals: Motives are directed toward goals. Motives generally create a state of
disequilibrium, physiological or psychological imbalance, within the individuals.
Attaining a goal will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance. Goals are the
ends which provide satisfaction of human wants. They are outside an individual; they
are hoped for incentives toward which needs are directed. One person may satisfy his
need for power by kicking subordinates and another by becoming the president of a
company. Thus, a need can be satisfied by several alternate goals.

Types of Motivation

Motivation may be classified on following bases:

1. Positive or negative
2. Extrinsic and intrinsic
3. Financial or non-financial

Positive and Negative Motivation

 Positive motivation: It is the process of attempting to influence the employees’

behavior through recognition & appreciation of employees’ efforts and contribution
towards achievement of organisational goal. Examples of positive motivators are –
 taking interest in subordinate’s benefits, appreciation and credit for work done,
delegating the authority and responsibility of subordinates etc.
 Negative motivation: It is based upon fear i.e. demotion, lay off etc. The fear of
punishment affects the behaviour towards changes. Though punishment has resulted in
controlling the misbehaviour and contributed towards positive performance but it may
also lead to poor performance & lower productivity

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

 Extrinsic Motivation: It arises away from the job. It do not occur on the job. These
factors include wages, fringe benefits, medical reimbursement, etc. Thus, they are
generally associated with financial incentives
 Intrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation occurs on the job and provides satisfaction
during the performance of work itself. Intrinsic or internal motivators include
recognition, status, authority, participation etc

Financial and Non-Financial Motivation

 Financial Motivation: It is associated with money. It includes wages and salaries, fringe
benefits, bonus, retirement benefits etc
 Non-financial Motivation: This type of motivation is not associated with monetary
rewards. It includes intangible incentives like ego satisfaction, self-actualization and
responsibility

Money as a Motivator: Can Money Motivate Employees?

Money can never be overlooked as a motivator. Money is often more than monetary value; it
can also mean status, power, or other things. It is said to be the ultimate motivator. I could
agree more on this matter for the following reasons;
First, money, like money, is likely to be more important to people. Money is an urgent means of
achieving a minimum standard of living, although this minimum has a way of getting higher as
people become more affluent.

Second, it is probably quite true that in most businesses and other enterprises, money is used
to keep an organization adequately staffed and not primarily as a motivator. Enterprises usually
make wages and salaries competitive within their industry and geographic area to attract and
hold people.

Third, money as a motivator tends to be dulled somewhat by the practice of making the salaries
of the Various-managers in a company reasonably similar, In other words, organizations often
take great care to ensure that people on comparable levels are given the same or nearly the
same compensation. This is understandable since people usually evaluate their compensation
based on what their equals receive.

Fourth, if money is to be an effective motivator, people in various positions must be given

salaries and bonuses that reflect their performance, even at a similar level. Even if a company is
committed to comparable wages and salaries, a well-managed need is never bound to the same
practice for bonuses.

Unless bonuses for managers are based to a major extent on individual performance, an
enterprise is not buying much motivation from them. The way to ensure that money has to
mean as a reward for accomplishing and as a means of giving people pleasure from
accomplishment is to base compensation as much as possible on performance.