Hashemite University

Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment

Department of earth and environmental sciences

Economic Geology (111201491)

Chapter 2: Igneous Ore-Forming Processes
!

Dr. Faten Al-Slaty

First Semester 2015/2016
Chapter 2: Igneous Ore-Forming Processes !
Igneous rocks host a large number of different ore
deposit types. Both mafic and felsic rocks are linked to
mineral deposits, examples of which range from the
chromite ores resulting from crystal fractionation of
mafic magmas to tin deposits associated with certain
types of granites.
!

different igneous rocks host ore deposits with different

metal associations, and that this must be related
somehow to the environments in which magmas are
generated and the resulting compositional
characteristics they inherit from their various settings.
!2
for example, that many of the chalcophile and siderophile
elements (such as Ni, Co, Pt, Pd, and Au) are more likely to
be associated with mafic rock types, whereas
concentrations of many lithophile elements (such as Li, Sn,
Zr, U, and W) are typically found in association with felsic or
alkaline rock types.

!3
Crustal architecture and mineral wealth

In fact, most of the world’s economically exploitable
mineral wealth effectively lies on the surface or just
below the surface of the Earth.
!

The world’s deepest mine, the Western Deep Levels

gold mine near Johannesburg, South Africa, extends to
just over 4000 m depth
!

Nevertheless, many mineral commodities are formed

much deeper in the crust than 4 km, with some even
being derived from the mantle.
!4
Diamonds, for example, are hosted in kimberlite magmas
that have been brought to exploitable depths by a variety of
igneous or tectonic mechanisms.
!

A. The oceanic crust, which covers some two- thirds of the

Earth surface, is thin (less than 10 km) and, compared to
the continents, has a composition and structure that is
relatively simple and consistent over its entire extent.
!

The upper layer, on average only 0.4 km thick, comprises a

combination of terrigenous and pelagic sediments that are
distributed mainly by turbidity currents. They are often
highly reduced and metal charged.

!5
!6
 IGNEOUS ORE-FORMING PROCESSES CHAPTER 1 21

Mid-
ocean VMS Ocean
ridge Cu, Co, Zn Mn, Co, Ni
Pelagic sediment
Lavas ed) Oceanic lithosphere
(pillow
Plagioclase
Cumulates
Cr, Ni, Pt Pyroxene
Sheeted dykes
Olivine
Cr
Partial Tectonized dunite and harzburgite
melting

Plagioclase
lherzolite

Spinel
lherzolite

Figure 1.1 Oceanic crustal architecture showing the main types of ore deposits characteristic of this environment.
Only chromite and related deposits (Cr–Ni–Pt) are related to igneous ore-forming processes; VMS (Cu, Co, Zn) and
sediment-hosted deposits (Mn, Co, Ni) are discussed in Chapters 3 and 5 respectively.

morphosed oceanic lithosphere can be observed in and a lower, more mafic zone, with the two layers
!7
ophiolite complexes which represent segments of separated by the Conrad discontinuity (which
This is underlain by a layer, typically 1–2.5 km thick, that is
both extrusive and intrusive in character and dominantly
basaltic in composition.
!

The basalts are, in turn, underlain by the main body of

oceanic crust that is plutonic in character and formed by
crystallization and fractionation of basaltic magma.
This cumulate assemblage comprises mainly gabbro,
pyroxenite, and peridotite.
!

chromite deposits that are related to crystal fractionation of

mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), and also have potential for
Ni and Pt group element (PGE) mineralization.

!8
Accumulations of manganese in nodules on the sea
floor, metal-rich concentrations in pelagic muds, and
volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) Cu–Zn deposits
also occur in this tectonic setting, but are not directly
related to igneous processes.
!

B.The continental crust differs markedly from its

oceanic counterpart.
It is typically 35 – 40 km thick, but thins to around 20
km under rift zones and thickens to 80 km or more
beneath young mountain belts.

!9
22 PART 1 IGNEOUS PROCESSES

Cu, Mo, Pb, Zn Sn, W Diamond Cr, Cu, Ni, Sn, W, Cu, Au U, Th
Cu, REE, P PGE, V
Volcanic
arc
Rift
Oceanic crus
t Tecto
nically
Lithosphere thicke
I-type S-type ned
Asthenosphere Continental
crust Co
Kimberlite nt ine
nta
l cru
st

Figure 1.2 Continental crustal architecture showing the main types of igneous-related ore deposits characteristic
of this environment.

The upper crust, which in some continental deposit types are shown and these include dia-
sections is defined as extending to the Conrad mondiferous kimberlites, anorthosite-hosted Ti
discontinuity at some 6 km depth, is made up deposits, the Cr–V–Pt–Cu–Ni assemblage of ores
of felsic to intermediate compositions (granite to !10 in continental layered mafic suites, and the
Historically, the continental crust was thought to
comprise an upper zone made up largely of granite (and
its sedimentary derivatives) and a lower, more mafic
zone, with the two layers separated by the Conrad
discontinuity (which marks a change in seismic
velocities, and, therefore crustal density).
!

The upper crust, which in some continental sections is

defined as extending to the Conrad discontinuity at
some 6 km depth, is made up of felsic to intermediate
compositions (granite to diorite) together with the
sedimentary detritus derived from the weathering and
erosion of this material.
!11
Most of the world’s known ore deposits are, of course,
hosted in rocks of the continental crust.
deposit types are shown and these include dia-
mondiferous kimberlites, anorthosite-hosted Ti
deposits, the Cr–V–Pt–Cu–Ni assemblage of ores in
continental layered mafic suites, and the Sn–W–F–Nb–
REE–P–U family of lithophile ores related to granites
and alkaline intrusions.

!12
Magma types and metal contents
!
the outer two layers of the Earth, the more rigid lithosphere
and the ductile asthenosphere, are largely solid.
Zones within these layers that are anomalous in terms of
pressure or temperature do, however, form and can cause
localized melting of the rocks present.
The nature of the rock undergoing melting and the extent
to which it is melted are the main factors that control the
composition of the magma that is formed.
The magma composition, in turn, dictates the nature of
metal concentrations that are likely to form in the rocks
that solidify from that magma.
!13
!14
A Fundamental Magma Type – These Are
1. Basalt,
2. Andesite,
3. Rhyolite, And
4. Alkaline Magmas Including Kimberlite.

!15
!16
1. Basaltic magma

Basalt forms by partial melting of mantle material,

much of which can generally be described as
peridotitic in composition.
!

The major elements that characterize a basaltic

magma (Mg and Fe) and dictate its mineral
composition (olivine and the pyroxenes)
!

The majority of basaltic magma production takes

place along the:
!17
!18
1. Mid-ocean ridges, and in response to hot-spot
related plumes, to form oceanic crust.
2. Along island arcs and
3. Orogenic continental margins.
!

Basaltic magma may also intrude or extrude

continental crust, either along well defined
1. Fractures Or
2. Rifts Or
in response to intra- plate hot-spot activity

!19
!20
Ore deposits associated with mafic igneous rocks
typically Ni, Co, Cr, V, Cu, Pt, and Au.
!

The enhanced concentration of these metals in each

case is related to the fact that the source materials
from which the basalt formed.

!21
Table 1.2 Average abundances of selected elements in the major magma types

Basalt Andesite Rhyolite Alkaline magma Kimberlite Clarke*

Li 10 12 50 – – 20
Be 0.7 1.5 4.1 4–24 – 2.8
F 380 210 480 640 – 625
P 3200 2800 1200 1800 0.6–0.9% 1050
V 266 148 72 235 – 135
Cr 307 55 4 – – 10
Co 48 24 4.4 – – 25
Ni 134 18 6 – 1050 75
Cu 65 60 6 – 103 55
Zn 94 87 38 108 – 70
Zr 87 205 136 1800 2200 165
Mo 0.9–2.7 0.8–1.2 1 15 – 1.5
Sn 0.9 1.5 3.6 – – 2
Nb 5 4–11 28 140 240 20
Sb 0.1–1.4 0.2 0.1–0.6 – – 0.2
Ta 0.9 – 2.3 10 – 2
W 1.2 1.1 2.4 16 – 1.5
Pb 6.4 5 21 15 – 13
Bi 0.02 0.12 0.12 – – 0.17
U 0.1–0.6 0.8 5 10 – 2.7
Th 0.2 1.9 26 35 – 7.2
Ag† 100 80 37 – – 70
Au† 3.6 – 1.5 – – 4
Pt† 17–30 – 3–12 – 19 10
S 782 423 284 598 2100 260
Ge 1.1 1.2 1.0–1.3 1.3–2.1 0.5 1.5
As 0.8 1.8 3.5 – – 1.8
Cd 0.02 0.02 0.2–0.5 0.04 – 0.2
! 2
2
If no average is available, a range of values is provided. *Clarke is a term that refers to the average crustal abundance.
 Cd 0.02 0.02 0.2–0.5 0.04 – 0.2

If no average is available, a range of values is provided. *Clarke is a term that refers to the average crustal abundance.
†
Values as ppb, all other values as ppm.
Source: data from Taylor (1964), Wedepohl (1969), Krauskopf and Bird (1995).

400
Basalt Andesite Rhyolite

300
Abundance (ppm)

200

100

Figure 1.3 Relative abundances of

0 selected metals in basalt, andesite,
Ni Co Cr V Cu Zn Pt × 10 Au × 100
ppb ppb and rhyolite (data from Table 1.2).

!23
2. Andesitic
Andesites are rocks that crystallize from magmas of
composition intermediate between basalt and rhyolite
(typically with SiO contents between 53 and 63 wt%).
2

occur dominantly:
1. in orogenic zones,
2. along island arcs or
3. on continental margins beneath which subduction
of oceanic crust

!24
Andesite can be formed:
a. as a primary magma composition derived directly
by an appropriate degree of melting of a suitable
source rock
or
an evolved melt formed by differentiation of a more
mafic magma such as basalt.
!

b. by in situ fractionation of phases such as

hornblende and magnetite from relatively water-rich
parent magmas, or

!25
c. by contamination of an originally more mafic melt by
felsic material or melt.
!

Intermediate melt compositions are simply

characterized by intermediate trace element
abundances.
!

Andesites appear to have little or no metal specificity

and are characterized by trace element abundances that
are intermediate between those of basalt on the one
hand and either granite or alkaline rocks on the other.

!26
fractionation
!27
!28
3. Rhyolite

Felsic magmas crystallize at depth to form a

spectrum of rock compositions ranging from Na-
rich tonalite to K-rich alkali granite,
or
extrude on surface to form dacitic to rhyolitic
volcanic rocks.
!

Granitic melts can be the products of differentiation

of more mafic magmas in oceanic settings.

!29
Most felsic magmas, however, are derived from the partial
melting of predominantly crustal material along ocean–
continent island arcs and orogenic continental margins.
!

Significant quantities of felsic magma are produced in the

latter stages of continent–continent collision and also in
anorogenic continental settings where rifting and crustal
thinning has taken place. Himalayan-type continent
collision
!

Ore deposits associated with felsic igneous rocks often

comprise concentrations of the lithophile elements such as
Li, Be, F, Sn, W, U, and Th.

!30
!31
4. Alkaline magmas and kimberlite
magmas that are depleted in SiO2 but highly enriched in
the alkali elements (Na, K, and Ca) are
!

Economically important as they frequently contain

impressive concentrations of a wide range of ore-forming
metals (such as Cu, Fe, P, Zr, Nb, REE, F, U, and Th).
!

The most common alkaline mafic magma is nephelinite,

which crystallizes to give a range of rock types comprising
rather unusual minerals, such as felspathoid, calcic-
pyroxene, and carbonate assemblages.

!32
Nephelinite associated carbonatite melts (i.e.
magmas comprising essentially CaCO3 and lesser
Na2CO3
!

Kimberlitic and related ultramafic magmas crystallize

to form very rare and unusual rocks, containing
among other minerals both mica and olivine.
!

Kimberlites are rich in potassium (K2O typically 1–3 wt

%) and, although derived from deep in the mantle, are
also hydrated and carbonated.

!33
They usually occur in small (<1 km diameter) pipe-
like bodies, or dykes and sills, and commonly
extrude in highly explosive, gas-charged eruptions.
!

kimberlitic and related magma types are the main

primary source of diamonds.
!

Diamond is the stable carbon polymorph under very

reducing conditions, and at depths in excess of
about 100 km and temperatures greater than 900
°C

!34
 PARTIAL MELTING AND CRYSTAL FRACTIONATION
PARTIALAS ORE- FORMING
MELTING AND CRYSTAL
PROCESSES

FRACTIONATION AS ORE- FORMING PROCESSES

PARTIAL MELTING AND CRYSTAL FRACTIONATION AS ORE- FORMING PROCESSES

!35
Variation of magma compositions

Magmatic Differentiation: Any process that causes

magma composition to change

Among the processes are:

1. Distinct melting events from distinct sources.
2. Various degrees of partial melting from the same
source.
3. Crystal fractionation.
4. Mixing of 2 or more magmas.
5. Assimilation/contamination of magmas by crustal
rocks.
6. Liquid Immiscibility. !36
1. Distinct Melting Events

Magmas are not related except by some heating event that

caused melting. In such a case each magma might represent
melting of a different source rock at different times during
the heating event. If this were the case, we might not expect
the chemical analyses of the rocks produced to show
smooth trends on variation diagrams. But, because
variation diagrams are based on a closed set of numbers
(chemical analyses add up to 100%), if the weight% of one
component increases, then the weight percent of some
other component must decrease. Thus, even in the event
that the magmas are not related, SiO2 could increase and
MgO could decrease to produce a trend. The possibility of
distinct melting events is not !3easy
7
to prove or disprove.
2. Various Degrees of Partial Melting

When a multicomponent rock system melts, it melts over

a range of temperatures at any given pressure, and
during this melting, the liquid composition changes.

Thus, a wide variety of liquid compositions could be

made by various degrees of partial melting of the same
source rock

Trace Elements as Clues to Suites Produced by Various

Degrees of Melting
!38
Trace elements are elements that occur in low
concentrations in rocks, usually less than 0.1 % (usually
reported in units of parts per million, ppm).

When considering the rocks in the mantle, trace

elements can be divided into

incompatible elements, those that do not easily fit into

the crystal structure of minerals in the mantle, and

compatible elements, those that do fit easily into the

crystal structure of minerals in the mantle.
!39
Incompatible elements - these are elements like K, Rb, Cs,
Ta, Nb, U, Th, Y, Hf, Zr, and the Rare Earth Elements (REE)-
La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, & Lu.
!

Most have a large ionic radius.

Mantle minerals like olivine, pyroxene, spinel, & garnet do
not have crystallographic sites for large ions.
!

Compatible elements - these are elements like Ni, Cr, Co,

V, and Sc, which have smaller ionic radii and fit more easily
into crystallographic sites that normally accommodate
Mg, and Fe.
!40
!41
!42
When a mantle rock begins to melt, the incompatible
elements will be ejected preferentially from the solid and
enter the liquid.
!

Thus, a low degree melt of a mantle rock will have high

concentrations of incompatible elements.
!
As melting proceeds the concentration of these
incompatible elements will decrease because (1) there will
be less of them to enter the melt, and (2) their
concentrations will become more and more diluted as other
elements enter the melt. Thus, incompatible element
concentrations will decrease with increasing % melting.

!43
3. Crystal Fractionation

crystallization results in a change in the composition

of the liquid, and if the crystals are removed by some
process, then different magma compositions can be
generated from the initial parent liquid.
!

If minerals that later react to form a new mineral or

solid solution minerals are removed, then crystal
fractionation can produce liquid compositions that
would not otherwise have been attained by normal
crystallization of the parent liquid.
!45
n suggested that the common minerals that crystallize from magmas could be div
inuous reaction series and a discontinuous
!46 reaction series.
We would expect that with increasing SiO oxides like
2
MgO, and CaO should decrease with higher degrees of
crystal fractionation because they enter early
crystallizing phases, like olivines and pyroxenes.
Oxides like H2O, K2O and Na2O should increase with
increasing crystal fractionation because they do not
enter early crystallizing phases.
Furthermore, we would expect incompatible trace
element concentrations to increase with fractionation,
and compatible trace element concentrations to
decrease.
This is generally what is observed in igneous rock suites.

!47
with lower MgO and higher, SiO2, so it will
!48
Note that the REE patterns produced by higher
percentages of crystal fractionation show higher
concentrations, yet the patterns remain nearly parallel
to one another.

!49
Mechanisms of Crystal Fractionation

Several mechanisms could operate in nature.

1. Crystal Settling/Floating - In general, crystals
forming from a magma will have different densities than
the liquid.
!

If the crystals have a higher density than the liquid, they

will tend to sink or settle to the floor of the magma
body. The first layer that settles will still be in contact
with the magma, but will later become buried by later
settling crystals so that they are effectively removed
from the liquid.

!50
 ing - In general, crystals forming from a
erent densities than the liquid.
If the crystals have a lower
havedensity
a higherindensity
the magma,
than thethey willthey
liquid,
k ortend
settle to float
to the floororof rise upward
the magma
layer that settles will still
through the magma. Again the be in contact
a, but will later become buried by later
first layer that accumulates at
s so that they are effectively removed
. the top of the magma body will
initially be in contact with the
haveliquid,
a lower but
density as inmore
the magma, they
crystals
at orfloat
rise upward through the
to the top and accumulate, magma.
layer that accumulates at the top of the
the earlier formed layers will
will initially be in contact with the liquid, be
ystalseffectively
float to the topremoved
and accumulate,fromthe
contact
layers will bewith the liquid.
effectively removed from
e liquid.
!51
2. Inward Crystallization - Because a magma body is hot
and the country rock which surrounds it is expected to be
much cooler, heat will move outward away from the
magma. Thus, the walls of the magma body will be coolest,
and crystallization would be expected to take place first in
this cooler portion of the magma near the walls.
!

The magma would then be expected to crystallize from the

walls inward. Just like in the example above, the first layer
of crystals precipitated will still be in contact with the
liquid, but will eventually become buried by later crystals
and effectively be removed from contact with the liquid.

!52
is hot and
o be much
agma.
st, and
rst in this
magma
alls
ayer of
he liquid,
ls and
uid.

!53
3. Filter pressing - this mechanism has been proposed
as a way to separate a liquid from a crystal-liquid mush.
In such a situation where there is a high concentration
of crystals the liquid could be forced out of the spaces
between crystals by some kind of tectonic squeezing
that moves the liquid into a fracture or other free space,
leaving the crystals behind.
!

It would be kind of like squeezing the water out of a

sponge.

!54
4. Magma Mixing

If two or more magmas with different chemical

compositions come in contact with one another beneath
the surface of the Earth, then it is possible that they could
mix with each other to produce compositions intermediate
!

There are several factors that would tend to inhibit mixing:

1. Temperature contrast - basaltic and rhyolitic magmas
have very different temperatures. If they come in contact
with one another the basaltic magma would tend to cool or
even crystallize and the rhyolitic magma would tend to
heat up and begin to dissolve any crystals that it had
precipitated.

!55
2. Density Contrast- basaltic magmas have densities on
the order of 2600 to 2700 kg/m3,
whereas rhyolitic magmas have densities of 2300 to 2500
kg/m3. This contrast in density would mean that the
lighter rhyolitic magmas would tend to float on the
heavier basaltic magma and inhibit mixing.
!

3. Viscosity Contrast- basaltic magmas and rhyolitic

magmas would have very different viscosities. Thus,
some kind of vigorous stirring would be necessary to get
the magmas to mix.

!56
 completely dissolve
surface and aorthin
react. Thisismight
section leave disequilibrium
cut through the crystal this trapped liquid will be revealed as
For example, if a basaltic
glass inclusions in magma Evidence
containing
the crystal. for Mixing

Mg-rich olivine
magma containing quartz, and the magma was erupted before the
d be redissolved or made over into another mineral, then we would
oning mineral
Sincethat
theare outinclusions
glass of equilibrium.
should represent the
composition of the magma that precipitated the
crystal, chemical analysis of glass inclusions give
d
Minerals. us the composition
When a mineral is of the liquid
placed in an in which the different than
environment
crystal formed.
iginally formed, Thetogroundmass
it will tend react to retainmayequilibrium.
also Instead
tely contain glass
e or remaking representing
their entire the composition
composition, of theminerals
solid solution
tating a newliquid in which the
composition thatcrystal resided
is stable in theat new
eruption. If
chemical
the composition
new temperature. of glass
This can resultinclusions is different
in zoned crystals that show
d.g trends. from glass in the groundmass, and if the
For Example:
groundmass composition is not what is expected
"marble cake" appearance, with dark colored
from normal crystallization of the minerals
mafic rock intermingled with lighter colored
present, this provides evidence of magma mixing.
rhyolitic rock.

glass inclusions in the crystal

rring progresses
minerals normally zonebeyond the
if the Chemical
do Fe-rich crystals Evidence.in
present
rims. If a Fe-rich If the
onemixing
of process
proceeds
s mixed into to the point where other evidence is
a Mg-rich
erased,olivine
tating Mg-rich evidenceor for mixing will still be
cipitate the more Mg-rich
ms of zoned
the addedcrystals that show
such crystals
reversals would reveal a
of the zoning
trends
milarly, if a
Na-rich
crystallizing from a
e mixed into a basaltic !57
5. Crustal Assimilation/Contamination
If the magma absorbs part of the rock through which it
passes we say that the magma has become contaminated by
the crust.
Either of these process would produce a change in the
chemical composition of the magma unless the material
being added has the same chemical composition as the
magma.
!

a mixing, various stages of this process may be preserved in

the magma and rock that results. Xenoliths (meaning
foreign rock) are pieces of rock sometimes found as
inclusions in other rocks.

!58
Perhaps the best evidence of assimilation/contamination
comes from studies of radiogenic isotopes.
!

5. Liquid Immiscibility
where liquids do not mix with each other
like in the alkali feldspar system, immiscibility is temperature
dependent.
!

6. Combined Processes
magmas could mix and crystallize at the same time resulting
in a combination of magma mixing and crystal
fractionation.

!59
 Magmatic Ore Deposits

Mode of formation of magmatic ores:

• fractional crystallization from melt
• liquid immiscibility between a sulfide liquid and
the silicate melt.
• liquid immiscibility between an oxide liquid and
the silicate melt
• liquid immiscibility between a carbonate liquid
and the silicate melt

!60
 Magmatic Ore Deposits
• Dissemination involves simple crystallization
whereby early formed crystals are found
disseminated throughout the host- rock.
• End stages of magmatic crystallization.
!

Elements concentrated by magmatic processes:

• PGM, Ni, Cu, Ti, V, Cr, diamonds, minor Fe
• REE, Nb, Zr, Li, Be, B, U, W, Sn, and Ta.

!61
The most important magmatic deposits are restricted to
mafic and ultramafic rocks which represent the
crystallization products of basaltic or ultramafic liquids.
!
Association of Rocks and ore deposits:
1.Chromite peridotites, anorthosites and similar mafic
rocks.
2.Platinum Group Metals (PGM) norite, peridotite or
their alteration products.
3.Cu-Ni sulfides associated with norite
4.Fe-Ti oxides found with gabbros and anorthosites.
5.Diamond in kimberlites
6.REE, and Zr in carbonatites
7.Pegmatites with granitic rocks.
!62
1. Chromite Deposits

The processes involved in the formation of

chromite layers are fractional crystallization and
gravity settling.
Chromite crystallizes into mineral grains within
the silicate liquid and, because they are heavier
than the liquid, they sink to form a cummulate
layer at the base of the intrusive.
There are two main types of chromite
deposits:
1. Stratiform and
2. Podiform.
!63
a.Stratiform chromite deposits consist of laterally
persistent chromite-rich layers (a few mm to several m
thick) alternating with silicate layers.
!

* The silicate layers include ultramafic and mafic rocks

such as dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite and a variety of
others, less commonly gabbroic rocks.
!

* They are found in Archean age such as the Bushveld

Complex in South Africa.

!64
!65
!66
b.Podiform chromite deposits irregularly shaped
massive chromite bodies and they are
predominantly found within dunitic (olivine-rich)
portions of ophiolite complexes.
!

* The rocks associated with podiform chromites are

generally referred to as "Alpine-type" peridotites
and they are usually found along major fault zones
within mountain belts.
!67
!68
2. Ni-Cu Deposits
* Ni-Cu Deposits are the end of a magmatic process
known as "liquid immiscibility''.
This process involves the separation from the
parental magma of a sulphur-rich liquid containing
Fe-Ni-Cu.
!

* Upon cooling, the sulphur-rich liquid produces an

immiscible sulphide phase (droplets of sulphide
liquid in silicate liquid, like oil in water) from which
minerals such as pyrrhotite (FeS), pentlandite
(Fe,Ni)9S8, and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) crystalize.
!69
* Typical magmatic Ni-Cu deposits tend to occur at
or near the base of their intrusive hosts.
because
a. immiscible sulphide liquids are heavier than
silicate liquids and therefore sink to the bottom of
the magma chamber and
b. without the presence of sulphur, metals such as
Ni become incorporated into silicate crystal
structures, such as pyroxene.
!

* The largest deposits are of Archean and

Proterozoic age.
!70
Uses of Chromite:
1. Steel industry
2. Refractory
3. Chemical industries

!71
3.Platinum Group Metals PGM
The six platinum-group metals are ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum.
!

They occur at or near the base of complexely

differentiated gabbro-dolerite intrusions (50 to 350
m thick) as a residual liquid injection.
!

Emplaced during late Permian to Triassic time

during rifting of the Siberian platform.
!

The mineralogy of the ores include pyrrhotite,

chalcopyrite, pentlandite and a great variety of PGM
minerals. !72
The metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld
Complex played a significant role as high-grade
platinum producers during the early days of
platinum mining in South Africa.
!

Appreciable PGM values are characterized by:

1.Pegmatitic texture

2.The presence of hydrous minerals within

otherwise anhydrous layered successions.

!73
!74
 Hydrothermal Ore deposits
Any concentration of metallic minerals formed by the
precipitation of solids from hot mineral water
(hydrothermal solution).

Hot water or “hydrothermal fluids” pass through a

nearby igneous rocks fractures or porous spaces
within the rock, altering the chemical composition.

This chemical alteration can be the result of “adding,

removing, or the redistribution of the chemical
components”.

!75
Conditions necessary for the formation of
hydrothermal mineral deposits include:

(1) presence of hot water to dissolve and transport

minerals, heated by a.nearby magma or by b.energy
released by radioactive decay or by c.faulting of the
Earth’s crust.

(2) presence of interconnected openings in the rock

to allow the solutions to move,

(3) availability of sites for the deposits, and

(4) chemical reaction that will result in deposition.

!76
An example of a hydrothermal system and its circulation. From “The Blue Planet” by Brian J. Skinner (1995). Also
taken from Williams, Curtis “Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineral Deposits.” (2002).

Typically, these “hydrothermal fluids” or “aqueous solutions” carry many metals in

addition to “silicates and other non-metallic!77materials” (Jones and Hutton). The
Typically, these “hydrothermal fluids” or “aqueous
solutions” carry many metals in addition to “silicates
and other non-metallic materials”.

When the water that is heated will alters the nearby

igneous rocks, the hydrothermal solution then
becomes mineral rich.

This mineral-rich solution rises, meandering its way

through fractures or cracks in the rock as it moves
and dissolving other minerals on its path.

once this solution has cooled in the fracture of the

rock- creating veins.

!78
 Evidence for the existence of modern hydrothermal
fluids include

(1) geysers and hot springs, and

(2) hot fluids sampled in deep drill holes.

(3) fluid inclusions in minerals (i.e. microscopic droplets

of fluid enclosed by growing crystals;

(4) rock fabrics that indicate high-temperature chemical

reactions between fluid and minerals

!80
Hydrothermal solutions have a wide variety of chemical
compositions:
Solvent H2O

Major anions Cl-, HCO3-, HS- or SO42-

Major cations Na+, Ca2+, K+, Fe2+, Mg2+

Neutral species CO2, CH4, H2S, N2, H4SiO4
pH strongly acid (pH ≈ 2) to strongly basic (pH ≈ 12)
Redox state oxidising (e.g. hematite stable) or
reducing (e.g. native Cu)
Total dissolved chemical species: up to 60-70 mass%

!84
Main factors for development of hydrothermal ore
deposition include:
• water source, heated up to 900 ̊C under high
pressure (up to many thousands of bars)

• source of ore components, and
• transport of ore constituents, flow paths may be tens
of km long, both vertically and horizontally.

• permeability, cause, and
• ore deposition.
!

Each of these factors strongly influences the

hydrothermal process.
!85
The main sources of water include:
• “surface water,
• groundwater,
• meteoric waters,
• sea water,
• connate water or water enclosed in the rocks at the
time of formation,
• metamorphic water; and,
• magmatic water.

!86
Meteoric waters can be collected from precipitation
factors such as snow, rain, etc;
!

Formation water that has been trapped with a specific

area; such as pores of sediments.
!

This water will eventually become highly concentrated

with minerals and metals that it dissolves as it moves
through the igneous rocks.

!87
The energy behind the hydrothermal alteration
process is the “geothermal cell”.

A “geothermal cell” is the place in which the water is

heated.

Typically, the hydrothermal solutions have a high

saline content; therefore the movements of these
fluids alter the rock.

With the minerals varying conditions: temperature,

pressure, pH and Eh if the conditions change a
condition will therefore change. This may then cause
the rock to react with nearby materials.
!88
The temperatures at which the minerals are formed
range from 50 to 650°C.” These highly varying
temperatures create for a highly conducive altering
agent.

“The movement of these hydrothermal fluids in the

crust of the Earth is known as “hydrothermal
convection.

!89
Hydrothermal Ore Formation

The formation of hydrothermal ores is attributed to

the hydrothermal solution or fluids that filter metals
and minerals from the rock.

These metals are then deposited into fracture and

cracks within the rock called: veins.

Fractures are a result of things such as;

a.water freezing and expanding.

b.seismic activity, when the ground shifts fractures

and fissures are left in the bedrock and other
components that make up the crust.
!90
The hydrothermal fluids, easily carry the highly
concentrated metals these metallic ions are typically
transported is through “complex ions”
!

These complex ions prevent deposition of the metal

during the move. In contrast, the simple ions easily
loose the metal during the transport.
!

Permeability plays a key role in the movement of the

hydrothermal solutions.

!91
Deposition of the ore minerals is usually due to
(1) temperature decrease- cooling,
(2) decrease in pressure,
(3) change in composition of hydrothermal solutions
by reaction with the wall rock along their flow paths
(e.g. acid neutrlisation).
!

These 3 processes super-saturate the fluids with

respect to the dissolved minerals, and hence cause
mineral precipitation (according to their relative
solubilities)

!92
Deposition of the ore can be sub aerial, seafloor, found
in a fracture, or a rock.
!

Mineral zoning patterns often times develop near ore

deposits as a result of changes in temperature, the
chemical composition of the fluid, and gas content.
!

Many economically important mineral deposits (i.e. ore

deposits) are of hydrothermal origin, e.g. sulphides
of Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Mo; oxides of Fe, Sn, W, U; native
Au, Ag; magnesite, siderite, barite, talc ...

!93
Hydrothermal Rocks
Rocks which form by
(1) mineral precipitation from hydrothermal fluids or by
(2)fluid-mineral interactions are called hydrothermal
rocks:
Forms of deposition

1. hydrothermal vein rocks: hydrothermal minerals may

precipitate in open cavities with sequential crystallization
fabrics.
• most common hydrothermal minerals precipitated in veins
are those with high aqueous solubilities
• Common hydrothermal vein minerals are: quartz,
carbonates, sulphides, fluorite, sulphates.
!94
2. Hydrothermal minerals may precipitate via reactions
that replace pre-existing minerals in older magmatic,
sedimentary or metamorphic wall rocks
!

Replacement minerals often contain some elements from

the original wall rock and some elements from the
hydrothermal solution, e.g.:
Magmatic feldspar in granite + Acid in hydrothermal fluid
⇓
Hydrothermal muscovite + Cation dissolved in hyd. fluid +
hyd. Quartz

3KAlSiO + 2H+ " KAl (AlSiO )(OH) + 2K+ + 6SiO 38 (aq)

!95
• Often the original crystal habits of the replaced
minerals are copied by finegrained aggregates of
the new hydrothermal minerals
!

• Common replacements minerals are: clays, micas,

chlorite, pyrite, carbonate

• Older rocks modified by reaction with hydrothermal

fluids are said to be hydrothermally altered (e.g.
"hydrothermally altered basalt")

!96
!
Mississippi Valley-Type Lead-Zinc Deposits (MVt)

• MVT deposits are sulphide bodies, composed

predominantly of zinc and lead, bound in sphalerite
and galena.
• The deposits are hosted in carbonate rocks, usually
dolostone and less frequently limestone. The
dolostone consists of medium to coarse-grained
white sparry dolomite that has replaced a fine-
grained dolostone host, which itself has replaced a
limestone host.
• Sulphide textures are mostly related to open-space
filling of breccias, fractures, and vugs
!97
 Most MVT deposits show features of hydrothermal
brecciation, recrystallization, dissolution,
dolomitization and silicification.

Deposits formed from hot to warm, saline, aqueous

solutions (similar to oil-field brines) that migrated out
of sedimentary basins, through aquifers, to the basin
periphery and into the platform carbonate sequences.

!98
hydrothermal breccia
!99
!100
 Seafloor Hydrothermal Deposits

Mid-oceanic ridges (MOR) are sites where new

oceanic crust forms by crystallization of basaltic
(gabbroic) magmas fed by upwelling asthenosphere.
!

MOR are also sites of vigorous hydrothermal activity:

• Deep fractures form in new oceanic crust due to
shrinkage of lavas and movement of transform
faults. Seawater penetrates these interconnected
fractures to depths of 2 - 4 km, due to the hydralic
gradient imposed by the overlying ocean

!101
 • Magmatic activity imposes strong thermal
gradients perpendicular to the spreading ridges
(high T at MOR, low T further away from MOR).
These gradients cause seawater convection
through the fractures (i.e. multi-pass fluid flow).
The H
EAFLOOR amount of convectedDseawater
YDROTHERMAL EPOSITSworld-wide
(1) ≈
1014 kg / year.
ges (MOR) are sites where
st forms by crystallization
roic) magmas fed by
nosphere. MOR are also
hydrothermal activity:

!102
ed with the hydrothermal solution cooling at some point. The metals found in the
ns are typically found in the crust and maybe the source of the metals.

ein and disseminated chalcopyrite in quartzite” figure!1taken

03 from www.zambia-mining.com/ gold%20vein.jpg
 2-
• Descending, cold, oxidising, SO4 -rich seawater is
heated by the nearby magmatic rocks as it flows
towards the high-temperature site.
!

• The hot seawater racts with the magmatic rocks,

causing:
2-
- reduction of the fluid, e.g. SO4 (aq) → H2S(aq)
- hydration of magmatic minerals
- exchange of chemical components, e.g. fluid donates
Mg and Na to basalt; basalt donates Ca and Si to fluid)
- dissolution of dispersed metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Pb,
Au) in magmatic rocks
!104
 • When the metal-bearing hydrothermal fluid
ascends to the seafloor it is cooled and oxidized by
mixing with cold seawater:

-Rapid cooling causes concentrated precipitation of

the transported metals as sulphide minerals in
"black smokers" → ore deposits (exploited where
oceanic crust is exposed on land)

- Subsequent oxidation of the hydrothermal fluid

causes precipitation of sulphates (barite,
anhydrite) in "white smokers", plus hematitic chert
and Fe- and Mn-hydroxides
!105
H
y
!107