Database Management System: Dr. Pawan Singh Mehra, Department of CSE

Database Management System
By Dr. Pawan Singh Mehra
Course Code: CO-202

Module 2
Dr. Pawan Singh Mehra,
Department of CSE
1
Contents of Module-2
 Integrity constraints: Keys constraint, domain
constraints, referential integrity constraint

 Relational algebra
 Relational calculus: domain and tuple calculus,
 SQL data definition queries and updates in SQL
 Assertions, triggers
2
Integrity Constraints
Constraints: It is the restriction imposed on the relation to
ensure accuracy and consistency of the data.

Integrity Constraints are set of rules which the database is not
permitted to violate.
It ensures that the changes(Insert, update, delete) made in
database by authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency.
It guards against accidental damage to the database.
3
Types of Integrity Constraints
Entity Integrity Constraint

Domain Integrity Constraint

Key Constraint
Referential Integrity Constraint
4
Entity Integrity Constraints
 It ensures that the Primary Key value should not be NULL.
A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.
Roll_No(PK) Name Aadhar_No Email_ID Roll_No Name Aadhar_No Email_ID

2K21CO01 Mohan 88213211 m@gmail.com 2K21CO01 Mohan 88213211 m@gmail.com
2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com 2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com
Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com 2K21IT01 Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com
2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com 2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com
NOT ALLOWED FOLLOWS ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
5
Domain Integrity Constraints
 It states that the domain or type for an attribute must be within
its domain.
for example, integer types, character types, date/time types
Declaring an attribute to be of a particular domain acts as a
constraint on the values that it can take.
2K21EC02 12345 28341212 r@gmail.com 2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com
Abraham ABC a@gmail.com 2K21IT01 Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com
2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com 2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com
NOT ALLOWED FOLLOWS DOMAIN INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
6
Key Constraints
 It ensures that every tuple in the relation should be unique
 It specifies that in any relation

 Primary key must not be NULL
 All the values in Primary key attribute must be unique

2K21CO01 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com 2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com
NULL Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com 2K21IT01 Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com
2K21CO01 Mohan 88213211 m@gmail.com 2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com
NOT ALLOWED FOLLOWS KEY CONSTRAINT
7
Referential Integrity Constraints
It is pertinent to Foreign Key.
It is enforced when a Foreign Key references Primary Key of

another table.
Rules for referential integrity constraints
if a Foreign Key in Table 2 refers to the Primary Key of Table 1,
then either every value of the Foreign Key in Table 2 must be
available in Primary Key value of Table 1 or it must be NULL.
Record from Table 1 can’t be deleted if it exists in Table 2
A new value in FK in Table 2 cannot be added if it doesn’t exist
in Table 1. Instead NULL value can be added.
8
Referential Integrity Constraints
Roll_No(PK) Name Aadhar_No Email_ID Branch Course_ID Course_Name Roll_No(FK)
2K21CO01 Mohan 88213211 m@gmail.com CSE CO201 COA 2K21CO01
2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com EC CO202 DBMS 2K21EC02

2K21IT03 Abraham 65762231 a@gmail.com IT CO203 OS 2K21ME03
2K21SW04 Vernika 98322212 v@gmail.com SWE CO204 DBMS NULL
Relation(Table 1): Student Relation(Table 2): Course
• 2K21ME03 does not exist in Table 1- NOT ALLOWED

• Deleting record of 2K21CO01- NOT ALLOWED
• Row 4 in Table 2 has NULL value- ALLOWED
9
Query Language
 It is language in which user requests information from the database.
 For example: SQL
 Categories of languages
 Procedural
 User tells what data to be retrieved from DB and how to
retrieve it
 Non-procedural, or declarative
 User tells what data to be retrieved from DB and but does not
tell how to retrieve it.
 “Pure” languages: form underlying basis of query languages
 Relational Algebra
 Relational Calculus (Tuple relational calculus, Domain relational
calculus 10
Relational Algebra
 Procedural language
 Six basic operators
 select: 
 project: 
 union: 
 set difference: –
 Cartesian product: x
 rename: 
 The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new
relation as a result.
11
Select Operation()
 It selects tuples(rows) that satisfy the given condition from a relation
 Notation: (CONDITION)(name of relation).
 The condition may use logic connectives like AND(˄), OR(˅) , NOT(!)
and relational operators like =, >, <, ≥, ≤, ≠ etc.
A B C D Query: select from r where A=B and D is greater than 5

  1 7
Expression: A=B ^ D > 5 (r)
  5 7 A B C D
  12 3
  23 10
Output:   1 7
  23 10
Relation r
12
Project Operation()
 A unary operation that returns its argument relation, with certain attributes
left out.
 Notation:  A1,A2,A3 ….Ak (r)

where A1, A2, …, Ak are attribute names and r is a relation name.
 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
A B C Query: select A,C from r A C A C
 10 1
Expression:  A,C (r)
 1  1
 20 1  1
Output:
 1
 30 1  1  2
 40 2  2
Relation r This will not be the output as
duplicate rows will be removed 13
Set Operations
 There are three set operations performed in relational algebra
 Union ()
 Intersection (∩)
 Set Difference (-)
 Set operations are performed on two relations which are
compatible
 Two relations should be compatible if
 Both the relations should have same number of
attributes(columns)
 The attributes should have same domain(type)
 Duplicate tuples are removed automatically
Union Operation()
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as: r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}
 For r  s to be valid.
 r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
 The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd column of s)
A B
A B A B
 1  2 Expression:  A,B (r)   A,B (s)  1

Output:  2
 2  3
 1
 1
 3
Relation r Relation s 15
Set Difference Operation(–)
 Notation: r – s
 Defined as: r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}
 For r – s to be valid.
A B A B
A B
 1  2 Expression:  A,B (r) -  A,B (s)  1

Output:
 2  3  1
 1
Intersection Operation(∩)
 Notation: r ∩ s = r – (r – s)
 Defined as: r ∩ s = {t | t  r AND t  s}
 For r ∩ s to be valid.
A B A B A B
Expression:  A,C (r) ∩  A,C (s) Output:
 1  2  2
 2  3
 1
Cartesian Product Operation(×)
 Notation: r x s
 Defined as: r x s = r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}

 If attributes of r and s are not disjoint, then renaming must be
used
A B C D E
 1  10 a
A B C D E  1  10 a
Expression:  A,B,C,D,E (r x s)  1  20 b
 1  10 a  1  10 b
 2
 10 a Output:  2  10 a
 20 b  2  10 a
 10 b  2  20 b
18
Relation r Relation s  2  10 b
Rename Operation()
 Allows us to rename
 Relation
 Attributes
 Relation and attributes both
 Notation:  x (E) returns the expression E under the name X
 Example 1: rename the relation Student as Male Student and the
attributes of Student – RollNo, SName as (Sno, Name)
ρMaleStudent(Sno,Name)πRollNo,SName(σCondition(Student))
19
Additional Operations
 Inner Join
 Theta Join
 Equi-Join
 Natural Join
 Outer Join
 Left Outer Join
 Right Outer
 Full Outer Join
 Aggregate Functions
 Division
20
Join
 Notation:
 Join is an additional/derived operator which simplify the
queries.
 It is a combination of a Cartesian Product followed by a
selection process
Join= Cartesian Product + Selection
 A join operation pairs two tuples from different relations, if
and only if the given condition is satisfied.
 A Condition B =  condition(A x B)
21
Inner Join
 An inner join includes only those tuples that satisfy the
matching criteria, while the rest of the tuples are excluded.

 There are three types of inner joins
 Theta Join
 Equi Join
 Natural Join
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Theta Join(Ɵ)
 It combines tuples from different relations provided they
satisfy the theta(Ɵ) condition.
 It is a general case of join.

 It is used when we want to join two or more relation based
on some condition
 The join condition is denoted by the symbol Ɵ
 It uses all kinds of comparison operator like =, >, <, ≥, ≤, ≠ etc.
 Notation: A ƟB=  Ɵ(A x B)
Where Ɵ is a predicate/condition. It can use any comparison
operator like =, >, <, ≥, ≤, ≠ etc.
23
Theta Join(Ɵ)
A B C C D E
 A 4 6  a
 B 3
r R.C>S.C s
2  b
 C 5 4 Ω c
Ω D 7 8  d
r s
A B r.C s.C D E
 A 4 2  b
 B 3 2  b
 C 5 2  b
 C 5 4 Ω c
Ω D 7 6  a
Ω D 7 2  b
Ω D 7 4 Ω c
Resultant table 24
Equi Join
 When a theta join uses only equivalence(=) condition, it is called Equi-
Join
 It is a special case of theta join where condition contains equalities(=).

 Notation: A (equivalence condition) B =  equivalence condition (A x B)
25
Equi Join
A B C C D E
 A 4 4  a
 B 3
r R.C=S.C s
2  b
 C 5 5 Ω c
Ω D 7 7  d
7  a
r
s
A B r.C s.C D E
 A 4 4  a
 C 5 5 Ω c
Ω D 7 7  d
Ω D 7 7  a
Resultant relation
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Natural Join
 Notation: r s
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:

 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R  S, add a
tuple t to the result, where
 t has the same value as tr on r
 t has the same value as ts on s
 Example:
 R = (A, B, C, D), S = (E, B, D)
 Resultant schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
 r s is defined as :r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B  r.D = s.D (r x s)) 27
Natural Join
A B C D B D E A B C D E
 1  a 1 a   1  a 
 2  a 3 a  r s  1  a 
 4  b 1 a   1  a 
 1  a 2 b   1  a 
 2  b 3 b   2  b 
r s Resultant relation
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Outer Join
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples from one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
Uses null values:
null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
29
Left Outer Join
Relation loan Relation borrower
loan_number branch_name amount customer_name loan_number
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith L-230
L-260 Perryridge 1700 Hayes L-155
Left Outer Join

loan borrower
loan_number branch_name amount customer_name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null 30
Right Outer Join

Right Outer Join

loan borrower

L-155 null null Hayes
31
Full Outer Join

Full Outer Join

loan borrower
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes
32
Aggregate Function/Operation
Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single
value as a result.
avg: average value

min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1 ,G 2 ,,G n
F ( A ),F
1 1 2 ( A2 ,,Fn ( An )
(E )
E is any relational-algebra expression
G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
Each Fi is an aggregate function
Each Ai is an attribute name 33
Aggregate Functions/Operation
Relation r
A B C
  7 sum(c )
Expression: g sum(c) (r)
  7
27
  3
  10
34
Relation account grouped by branch-name:
branch_name account_number balance

Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700
branch_name sum(balance)
Perryridge 1300
Expression: branch_name g sum(balance) (account) Brighton 1500
Redwood 700
Relation account grouped by branch-name
35
Result of aggregation does not have a name
Can use rename operation to give it a name
For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate

operation
branch_name g sum(balance) as sum_balance (account)
36
Division Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”, “for every”, at every, at all etc.
 Division operator can be applied if and only if “Attributes of B is proper
subset of Attributes of A”
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively where
 R = (A1, …, Am , B1, …, Bn )
 S = (B1, …, Bn)
 The result of r  s is a relation on schema
 R – S = (A1, …, Am)
r  s = { t | t   R-S (r)   u  s ( tu  r ) }
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t and u to produce a single tuple
37
Division Operation Example
A B
 1
 2 B
 3 A
 1
rs
 1 1 
 1 2 
 3
 4 s
 6 Resultant relation
 1
 2
r
Division Operation Example
A B C D E D E
 a  a 1 a 1
 a  a 1 b 1
 a  b 1
 a  a 1
s A B C
 a  b 3
rs  a 
 a 
 a  a 1
 a  b 1
 a  b 1
Resultant relation
39
Query Examples
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
customer (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
account (account_number, branch_name, balance)
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

depositor (customer_name, account_number)
borrower (customer_name, loan_number)
Query: Find all loans of over $1200

Expression: amount > 1200 (loan)
Query: Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $1200
Expression: loan_number (amount > 1200 (loan))
Query: Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both, from the
bank
Expression: customer_name (borrower)  customer_name (depositor)
40
Query Examples

Query: Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch
Expression 1: customer_name (branch_name=“Perryridge”
(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan)))
Expression 2: customer_name(loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number (
(branch_name = “Perryridge” (loan)) x borrower))
Query: Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch but do not have
an account at any branch of the bank.
Expression: customer_name (branch_name = “Perryridge”
(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan))) – customer_name(depositor)
41
Relational Calculus
 It is a non procedural language/declarative language
 It tells what to do but no description about how to do
 Relation algebra describes what to do and how to do

 Relational calculus types
 Tuple Relational Calculus(TRC)
 Proposed by Codd in 1972
 It works on tuples(rows)
 Domain Relational Calculus(DRC)
 Proposed by Lacroix and Pirotte in 1977
 It works on domain of attributes(columns)
42
Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)
 It is used for selecting the tuples in a relation that satisfy the given
condition(or predicate).
 The result of the relation can have one or more tuples

 The result of query is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true
for t.
 Expression: { t| P(t) }
 Where t denotes resulting tuple and P(t) denotes
predicate(condition) used to fetch tuple t.
43
Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC) Predicates
 Set of attributes and constants
 Set of comparison operators: =, >, <, ≥, ≤, ≠
 Set of connectives: and (Ʌ), or (V), not(⌐)

 Implication: x →y, if x is true, then y is true x →y ≡ ⌐x v y
 Quantifiers:
 Ǝt ϵ r(Q(t)) ≡ “There exists” a tuple in t in relation r such that predicate
Q(t) is true
 Ɐt ϵ r(Q(t)) ≡ Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r
 A variable is Free variable unless it is quantified by a Ǝ and Ɐ otherwise it

is called Bound variable
44

Query: Find the loan-number, branch-name and amount for all loans of over >
$2000.
Sol: {t | t ϵ loan  t[amount]>2000 }
Query: Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than 2000
Sol: {t | Ǝs ϵ loan (t[loan-number]=s[loan-number] s[amount]>2000) }
45

Query: Find the names of all customers who are having a loan at the
PERRYRIDGE branch.
Sol: {t |Ǝs ϵ borrower (t[customer-name]=s[customer-name]
 Ǝu ϵ loan (u[loan-number]=s[loan-number]
 u[branch-name]=“Perryridge”) )}
Query: Find the names of all customers having a loan, an account or both at
the bank.
Sol: {t | Ǝs ϵ borrower (t[customer-name]=s[customer-name])
˅ Ǝu ϵ depositor (t[customer-name]=u[customer-name] )} 46

Query: Find the names of all customers having a loan and an account at the
bank.
Sol: {t | Ǝs ϵ borrower (t[customer-name]=s[customer-name])
 Ǝu ϵ depositor (t[customer-name]=u[customer-name] )}
47
TRC-Safety of Expression
 It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate
infinite relations.
 For example, { t |  t r } results in an infinite relation if the

domain of any attribute of relation r is infinite
 To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable
expressions to safe expressions.
 An expression {t | P (t )} in the tuple relational calculus is safe
if every component of t appears in one of the relations, tuples,
or constants that appear in P
48
Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)
 It is nonprocedural query language
 It is equivalent in power to the tuple relational calculus

 The records are filtered on the basis of domains.
 It differs from TRC by selecting the attributes rather than selecting
whole tuples.
Expression:
{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P (x1, x2, …, xn)}
• x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables
• P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus
49

Query: Find the loan-number, branch-name and amount for all loans of over >
$2000.
Sol: { l, b, a  |  l, b, a   loan  a > 1200}
Query: Find the names of all customers who have a loan of over $1200
Sol: { c  |  l, b, a ( c, l   borrower   l, b, a   loan  a > 1200)}
50

Query: Find the names of all customers who have a loan from the Perryridge
branch and find the loan amount.
Sol:
{ c, a  |  l ( c, l   borrower  b ( l, b, a   loan  b = “Perryridge”))}
or
{ c, a  |  l ( c, l   borrower   l, “Perryridge”, a   loan)}
51

Query: Find the names of all customers having a loan, an account, or both at
the Perryridge branch.
Sol: { c  |  l (  c, l   borrower
  b,a ( l, b, a   loan  b = “Perryridge”))
  a ( c, a   depositor
  b,n ( a, b, n   account  b = “Perryridge”))}
52
DRC-Safety of Expression
 It is possible to write domain relational calculus expressions that generate
infinite relations.
 For example, { <l,b,a> |  (<l,b,a>) r } result is unsafe as it allows values

in the result that are not in the domain of the expression.
 A DRC expression is safe if all of the following hold:
1. All values that appear in tuples of the expression are values from
dom(P).
2. For every “there exists” subformula of the form x (P1(x)), the
subformula is true if and only if there is a value x in dom(P1) such that
P1(x) is true.
3. For every “for all” subformula of the form x (P1(x)), the subformula is
true if and only if P1(x) is true for all values x from dom(P1). 53
Structured Query Language (SQL)
 It is standard language for RDBMS which is declarative.
 It allows users to communicate with Relational Databases and
insert/update/retrieve data from the database.

 IBM implemented the SQL language which was originally called
SEQUEL(Structured English Query Language) as a part of System R
project in early 1970s.
 It became a standard of ANSI in 1986 and ISO in 1987.
 Most of the commercial systems like Oracle, SQL Server, MS ACCESS
etc. offer most of the major features along with other varying features
as extension.
 SQL is based on Tuple Relational Calculus which is based on Relational
Algebra.
54
Types of SQL Commands
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Commands used to define the schema of the database
 Create: to create a new database or table

 Alter: to alter the structure of the table
 Drop: to permanently delete a table from database
 Truncate: to delete all records from the table
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Commands are used for accessing and manipulating the data stored in
the data
 Select: to retrieve data from the database
 Insert: to insert a new record/tuple/row into a table
 Update: to update existing row in a table
 Delete: to delete rows from a table
55
Types of SQL Commands
 Data Control Language (DCL)
 Commands to control the access of the data stored in the database
 Grant: grant permission to user for database access.

 Revoke: take back granted permission from user.
 Transaction Control Language(TCL)
 Commands which are used to manage the changes made by the DML
statements.
 Commit: to permanently save the transaction
 Rollback: to undo the transaction under process
 Savepoint: to temporarily save a transaction so that user can rollback
to that point whenever necessary.
56
Commonly used Domain Types in SQL
 char(n) : Fixed length character string, with user-specified length
n.
 varchar(n): Variable length character strings, with user-specified

maximum length n.
 int: Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-
dependent).
 date: used for storing dates.
 numeric(p,d): Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of
p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal point.
 real, double precision: Floating point and double-precision
floating point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
 float(n): Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at
least n digits.
57
DDL- CREATE COMMAND
Description: It is used to create a new database or table
Syntax for creating DB: CREATE DATABASE <database name>;
Example:
CREATE DATABASE Test;
58
DDL- CREATE COMMAND
Syntax for creating table:
CREATE TABLE <TABLE_NAME>
(
column_name1 datatype1,
column_name4 datatype4
);
Example:
CREATE TABLE branch
(
branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer
); 59
DDL- CREATE COMMAND
Example
CREATE TABLE customer
( customer_id NUMBER (4),

customer_name VARCHAR2(30),
customer_dob DATE,
customer_income NUMBER(8,2),
customer_type VARCHAR2(15)
);
Example with integrity constraints:
CREATE TABLE sales
( sales_id NUMBER (8) PRIMARY KEY,
sales_date DATE,
sales_type VARCHAR2(15),
customer_id NUMBER(4),
FOREIGN KEY customer_id REFERENCES customer (customer_id)
); 60
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Description:
alter command is used for altering the table structure, such as,
 to add a column to existing table

 to rename any existing column
 to change datatype of any column or to modify its size.
 to drop a column from the table.
61
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Syntax to Alter a Table (Adding Columns):
ALTER TABLE <table name>
ADD
(
{<column name> <data type> [(<size>)]
[DEFAULT <value>]
{[[CONSTRAINT <constraint name>] <constraint definition>]} [ … ]
}
[ , …]
[ , <table level constraints> ] [ … ]
);
62
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Example to Alter a Table (Adding Columns):
ALTER TABLE customer
ADD
( customer_phone VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,
customer_email VARCHAR2(30) UNIQUE
);
63
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Syntax to Alter a Table (Modifying Columns):
MODIFY
(
{<column name> <data type> [(<size>)]
[DEFAULT <value>]
{[[CONSTRAINT <constraint name>] <constraint definition>]} [ … ]
}
[ , …]
);
64
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Example to Alter a Table (Modifying Columns):
MODIFY
( customer_name VARCHAR2(40) NOT NULL,
customer_email VARCHAR2(50)
);
65
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Syntax to Alter a Table (Dropping Columns):
DROP COLUMN <column name>;
Example:
DROP COLUMN customer_email;
66
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Syntax to Alter a Table (Renaming table):
RENAME TO < new_table _name >;
Example:
RENAME TO customer_info;
67
DDL- ALTER COMMAND
Syntax to Alter a Table (Renaming Columns):
RENAME COLUMN
<old_column_name> TO < new_column_name >;
Example:
RENAME COLUMN
customer_income TO cust_income;
68
DDL- DROP COMMAND
Description: DROP command completely removes a table from
the database. This command will also destroy the table structure
and the data stored in it.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE <table name>;
Example:
DROP TABLE customer;
69
DDL- TRUNCATE COMMAND
Description: It removes all the records from a table. But this
command will not destroy the table's structure. When we use
TRUNCATE command on a table its (auto-increment) primary key

is also initialized.
Syntax :
TRUNCATE TABLE <table name> ;
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE customer;
70
DML-INSERT COMMAND
Description: It used to insert data into a table.
Syntax to Insert Record:

INSERT INTO <table name> [(<column list>)]
{ VALUES (<value list>) | <query> };
Example:
INSERT INTO customer VALUES (1, ‘Mr. Ashok’, ‘01-Jan-1970’, 10000, ‘P’);
INSERT INTO customer (customer_id, customer_name) VALUES (2, ‘Mr.

Ramesh’);
Note: The columns which are not mentioned in Insert command will get
NULL values by default.
71
DML-SELECT COMMAND
Description: It is used to fetch the data from a database table which
returns this data in the form of a result table. These result tables are called
result-sets.
Syntax :
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT * FROM customer;
SELECT customer_id, customer_name FROM customer;

72
DML-WHERE CLAUSE
Description: It is used to filter records. It is used to extract only those
records that fulfill a specified condition.
Syntax :
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
Example:
SELECT customer_id, customer_name FROM customer WHERE
customer_id=1;
Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statements, it is also
used in UPDATE, DELETE, etc.! 73
DML-UPDATE COMMAND
Description: it is used to update any record of data in a table.
Syntax to Update Record:
UPDATE <table name>

SET { <column name> = { <value> | <query> }
[,…]
[ WHERE <filter condition> ];
74
DML-UPDATE COMMAND
Example:
UPDATE customer SET customer_income = 15000;
UPDATE customer SET customer_income = 15000 WHERE customer_id = 1;
UPDATE customer
SET customer_income = customer_income * 1.1, customer_type = ‘P’
WHERE customer_id = 1;
UPDATE customer
SET customer_income = (SELECT customer_income * 1.1
FROM customer
WHERE customer_id = 1)
WHERE customer_id = 1;
75
DML-DELETE COMMAND
Description: It deletes rows in a table without deleting the table. This
means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact.
Syntax to Delete Record:

DELETE [FROM] <table name>
[ WHERE <filter condition> ];
Example:
DELETE FROM customer;
DELETE customer;
DELETE FROM customer WHERE customer_id = 1;

76
DCL-GRANT COMMAND
Description: It used to provide access or privileges on the database
objects to the users.
Syntax :
GRANT privilege_name
ON object_name
TO {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name}
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
Example:
GRANT SELECT ON employee TO user1;
77
DCL-REVOKE COMMAND
Description: It removes user access rights or privileges to the database
objects
Syntax :
REVOKE privilege_name
ON object_name
FROM {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name};
Example:
REVOKE SELECT ON employee FROM user1;
78
TCL-COMMIT COMMAND
Description: It is used to save the changes permanently into the database
Syntax :
COMMIT;
Example:
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE AGE = 30;
COMMIT;
79
TCL-SAVEPOINT COMMAND
Description: It is is a point in a transaction when you can roll the
transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire
transaction.
Syntax :
SAVEPOINT Savepoint_name;
Example:
INSERT INTO Teachers VALUES (4, 'CYPRESS', 'MICHEAL');
SAVEPOINT s;
80
TCL-ROLLBACK COMMAND
Description: It is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the
database. This command can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT
or ROLLBACK command was issued
Syntax :
ROLLBACK ;
or
ROLLBACK TO <savepoint_name>
Example:
INSERT INTO teachers VALUES (4, 'CYPRESS', 'MICHEAL');
SAVEPOINT s;
INSERT INTO teachers VALUES (5, 'PYTHON', 'STEVE');
INSERT INTO teachers VALUES (6, 'PYTEST', 'ARNOLD');
ROLLBACK TO s; 81
SQL- Distinct
Description: It is used with SELECT Command. Inside a table, a
column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes
you only want to list the different (distinct) values.
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;
82
SQL- Group By
Description: is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to arrange
identical data into groups. This GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE clause
in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause(if order by is to

be used)
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2[optional]
Example:
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
83
SQL- Order by
Description: It is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending
order. It sorts the records in ascending order by default.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;
Example:
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country DESC;
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;
84
SQL- Having
Description: It enables you to specify conditions that filter which group results
appear in the results .
 The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the
HAVING clause places conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.
 The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must
also precede the ORDER BY clause if used.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table1, table2
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING [ conditions ]
ORDER BY column1, column2
85
SQL- Having
Example:
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
86
Aggregate Functions in SQL
These functions performs a calculation on integer values in a

column of multiple rows and return a single value

 avg: average value
 min: minimum value
 max: maximum value
 sum: sum of values
 count: number of values
87
Aggregate Functions- avg()
Description: It returns the average value of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;
88
Aggregate Functions- count()
Description: It returns the number of rows in a column or columns
that matches a specified criterion.
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT (column_name) FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT COUNT(*)FROM Products;
SELECT COUNT(ProductID) FROM Products;
89
Aggregate Functions- sum ()
Description: It returns the total sum of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT SUM (column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
90
Aggregate Functions- min ()
Description: It returns the smallest value of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;;
Example:
SELECT MIN(Price) FROM Products;
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products
91
Aggregate Functions- max ()
Description: It returns the maximum value of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT MAX(Price) FROM Products;
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;
92
Set Operations in SQL
 Set operators are used to join the results of two (or more)
SELECT statements. It removes duplicates from the

results(except UNION ALL).
 UNION ALL
 UNION
 INTERSECT
 MINUS
93
Set Operations – UNION ALL
Description: It gives the result set without removing duplication and
sorting the data.
Syntax:
SELECT expression_1, expression_2, ... , expression_n FROM table_1
UNION ALL
Example:
SELECT * FROM comp1_employees
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM comp2_employees;
94
Set Operations – UNION
Description: It combines the results of two or more SELECT statements.
The number of columns and the data type must be the same in both tables.
The duplicate rows will be eliminated from the results.

Syntax:
UNION
Example:
UNION
95
Set Operations – INTERSECT
Description: It allows us to find the results that exist in both queries.
Syntax:
INTERSECT
Example:
INTERSECT
96
Set Operations – MINUS/EXCEPT
Description: It returns all the rows of the first SELECT statement which
are not common to the rows of the second SELECT statement.

Syntax:
MINUS/EXCEPT
Example:
MINUS/EXCEPT
97
LIKE Operator
Description: It is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified
pattern in a column.
LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that start with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that end with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%' Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 2
characters in length
WHERE CustomerName LIKE ‘a_ _%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 3
characters in length
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that start with "a" and ends with "o"
98
LIKE Operator
Example:
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%’;
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a’;
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%’;
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%’;
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE ’a_ _%’;
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o';.

99
IN Operation
Description: The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values
in a WHERE clause. It is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);
100
IN Operation
Example :
SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK’);
SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM Suppliers);
101
ANY Operation
Description: It returns a boolean value as a result. It returns TRUE if ANY
of the subquery values meet the condition.

It means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of
the values in the range.
Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
102
ANY Operation
Example:
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);
103
ALL Operation
Description: It returns a boolean value as a result. It returns TRUE if ALL
of the subquery values meet the condition.

It means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for ALL of
the values in the range.
Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name OPERATOR ALL
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
104
ALL Operation
Example:
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ALL
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);
105
EXISTS Operation
Description: It is used to test for the existence of any record in a
subquery. It returns TRUE if the subquery returns one or more

records.
Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
106
EXISTS Operation
Example:
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE
Products.SupplierID = Suppliers.supplierID AND Price < 20);
NOTE: While using EXISTS we need to provide a sub-query whereas in IN

Operator, we can directly provide values for comparison
107
BETWEEN Operation
Description: It selects values within a given range. The values can be
numbers, text, or dates. This operator is inclusive: begin and end

values are included.
Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Example:
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
108
BETWEEN Operation
Example:
SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/01/1996# AND #07/31/1996#;
Example of NOT BEWEEN:

WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
Example of NOT BEWEEN with IN:

WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20
AND CategoryID NOT IN (1,2,3); 109
ALIASES Operation
Description: It is used to give a table, or a column in a table, a
temporary name. It only exists for the duration of that query.
Syntax for Aliasing Column:

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
Syntax for Aliasing Table :

FROM table_name AS alias_name;
110
ALIASES Operation
Example of Aliasing Column:
SELECT CustomerID AS ID, CustomerName AS Customer

FROM Customers;
SELECT CustomerName, (Address || ', ' || PostalCode || ' ' || City || ', ' ||
Country) AS Address
FROM Customers;
Example of Aliasing Table :

SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND
c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID; 111
SQL JOIN-Inner Join
Description: It is the simplest and most common type of join. It is also known
as simple join. It returns all rows from multiple tables where the join condition
is met.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column COMPARISON OPERATOR table2.column;
Example:
SELECT suppliers.supplier_id, suppliers.supplier_name, order.order_number
FROM suppliers INNER JOIN order
ON suppliers.supplier_id = order.supplier_id;
112
SQL JOIN-Left Outer Join
Description: It returns all rows from the left (first) table specified in the ON
condition and only those rows from the right (second) table where the join
condition is met
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
Example:
FROM suppliers LEFT OUTER JOIN order
113
SQL JOIN-Right Outer Join
Description: It returns all rows from the right-hand table specified in the ON
condition and only those rows from the other table where the join condition
is met.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
Example:
FROM suppliers RIGHT OUTER JOIN order
114
SQL JOIN-Full Outer Join
Description: It returns all rows from the left hand table and right hand table. It
places NULL where the join condition is not met.
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
Example:
FROM suppliers FULL OUTER JOIN order
115
SQL JOIN-Equi Join
Description: It returns the matching column values of the associated tables. It
uses equal(=) comparison operator in the WHERE clause to refer equality.
Syntax:
SELECT column_list
FROM table1, table2....
WHERE table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Example:
SELECT agents.agent_city,customer.last_name,customer.first_name
FROM agents, customer
WHERE agents.agent_id=customer.customer_id;
116
SQL JOIN-Self Join
Description: In Self Join, a table is joined with itself (Unary relationship). A
self join simply specifies that each rows of a table is combined with itself
and every other row of the table.
Syntax:
SELECT a.column_name, b.column_name
FROM table1 as a, table1 as b
WHERE a.common_filed = b.common_field;
Example:
SELECT a.name, b.age, a.SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS as a, CUSTOMERS as b
WHERE a.SALARY < b.SALARY;
117
SQL JOIN-Cross Join
Description: It specifies that all rows from first table join with all of the
rows of second table. If there are "x" rows in table1 and "y" rows in table2
then the cross join result set have x*y rows. It normally happens when no
matching join columns are specified.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2;
SELECT * FROM table1, table2
Example:
SELECT * FROM customer, supplier
118
NULL Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for
some of their attributes

null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any
other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same (as in
SQL)
119
NULL Values
Comparisons with null values return the special truth value:
unknown
Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to
unknown 120
Trigger
Description: It is a database object which fires when an event occurs in a
database.
Syntax for Creating Trigger:

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
ON table_name
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
[trigger_body];
Syntax for Dropping Trigger:
DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;
121
Trigger
Example for Creating Trigger:
CREATE TRIGGER student_name
AFTER
INSERT
ON
student
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
UPDATE student, set full_name = first_name || ' ' || last_name;
END;
Example for Dropping Trigger:

DROP TRIGGER student_name; 122
Assertion
Description: It is a statement that ensures that certain conditions are
always enforced in the database no matter what. Same as domain or other
constraints, assertions differ in the way that they are defined separately
from table definitions. It is a named statement that defines a condition
that must be true for the data in the database. If the condition is not met,
the assertion will fail and the database will generate an error.
Syntax for Creating Assertion:

CREATE ASSERTION [ assertion_name ]
CHECK ( [ condition ] );
Syntax for Dropping Assertion:

DROP ASSERTION assertion_name;
123
Assertion
Example for Creating Assertion:
CREATE ASSERTION salary_assertion

CHECK (salary <= 100000);
CREATE ASSERTION nomanager

CHECK( NOT EXISTS
( SELECT * FROM MANAGER
WHERE Department_id is NULL));
Example for Creating Assertion:

DROP ASSERTION salary_assertion;
DROP ASSERTION nomanager;
124

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Database Management System

By Dr. Pawan Singh Mehra

Course Code: CO-202

constraints, referential integrity constraint

ensure accuracy and consistency of the data.

Entity Integrity Constraint

Domain Integrity Constraint

Roll_No(PK) Name Aadhar_No Email_ID Roll_No Name Aadhar_No Email_ID

NOT ALLOWED FOLLOWS ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT

 It specifies that in any relation

Roll_No(PK) Name Aadhar_No Email_ID Roll_No Name Aadhar_No Email_ID

It is enforced when a Foreign Key references Primary Key of

2K21EC02 Rohan 28341212 r@gmail.com EC CO202 DBMS 2K21EC02

Relation(Table 1): Student Relation(Table 2): Course

• 2K21ME03 does not exist in Table 1- NOT ALLOWED

A B C D Query: select from r where A=B and D is greater than 5

 Notation:  A1,A2,A3 ….Ak (r)

 1  2 Expression:  A,B (r)   A,B (s)  1

 1  2 Expression:  A,B (r) -  A,B (s)  1

 Defined as: r x s = r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}

matching criteria, while the rest of the tuples are excluded.

 It is a general case of join.

 It is a special case of theta join where condition contains equalities(=).

Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

Left Outer Join

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

Right Outer Join

loan_number branch_name amount customer_name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones L-170

Full Outer Join

avg: average value

branch_name account_number balance

For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

Query: Find all loans of over $1200

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

 Relation algebra describes what to do and how to do

 The result of the relation can have one or more tuples

 Set of connectives: and (Ʌ), or (V), not(⌐)

 A variable is Free variable unless it is quantified by a Ǝ and Ɐ otherwise it

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

 For example, { t |  t r } results in an infinite relation if the

 It is equivalent in power to the tuple relational calculus

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

 For example, { <l,b,a> |  (<l,b,a>) r } result is unsafe as it allows values

insert/update/retrieve data from the database.

 Create: to create a new database or table

 Grant: grant permission to user for database access.

 varchar(n): Variable length character strings, with user-specified

Syntax for creating DB: CREATE DATABASE <database name>;

( customer_id NUMBER (4),

 to add a column to existing table

DROP COLUMN <column name>;