Module 1 The Nature of Research

Overview

The world is filled with a lot of wonders which man has produced for the improvement of people’s lives.
That was possible because of the enormous promise that research provides. This module takes you into a
review of the basic concepts of research and how research is essential to human beings, particularly you,
educators, in improving the lives of your main stakeholders, the students.

Learning Outcomes

After learning the module, you are expected to:

1. determine the different sources of knowledge;

2. relate the scientific method to research;
3. define research;
4. discuss the purposes of research;
5. explain the characteristics of research;
6. differentiate the kinds of research;
7. reflect on the characteristics of a good researcher;
8. explore the steps of the research process;
9. differentiate the approaches used in research

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Lesson 1.1 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Superstition. Gaining knowledge via superstition means acquiring knowledge that is based on
subjective feelings, interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing in magical events.

2. Intuition. Gaining knowledge via intuition means that we have knowledge of something without being
consciously aware of where the knowledge came from.

3. Authority. When we accept what a respected or famous person tells us, we are gaining knowledge
via authority. Historically, authority figures have been a primary means of information.

4. Tenacity. Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often that you
begin to believe it is true, and then, despite evidence to the contrary, you cling stubbornly to the belief.
This method is often used in political campaigns advertisements.

5. Rationalism. Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning. With this approach, ideas
are precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a logically sound conclusion. Rational
ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism. For example: All humans are mortal; I am a
human; Therefore, I am mortal. This conclusion is logically derived from the major and minor premises
in the syllogism.

6. Empiricism. Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through objective observation and
the experiences of your senses. An individual who says “I believe nothing until I see it with my own
eyes” is an empiricist. The empiricist gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and
touching. This method dates back to the age of Aristotle.

7. Science. Gaining knowledge via science, then, involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism.
Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess
them using rationalism).

Figure 1 shows a summary of the description and the corresponding advantages and disadvantages of
the different sources of knowledge mentioned above.

Modules in Methods of Research 1 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 Figure 1. Sources of knowledge, description, and advantages/disadvantages

Concept Identify the source of knowledge in each of the following examples:

Check 1.1 ________ 1. A celebrity is endorsing a new diet program, noting that she
lost weight on the program and so will you.
________ 2. Based on several observations that Pam has made, she
feels sure that cell phone use does not adversely affect driving ability.
________ 3. A friend tells you that she is not sure why but, because she
has a feeling of dread, she thinks that you should not take the plane trip
you were planning for next week.
________ 4. The Philippines has a young population according to the
latest census of population.
________ 5. According to a research, professionals are likely to have
smaller sizes of families than non-professionals.

Lesson 1.2 RESEARCH AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

If the most distinctive feature of science is its empirical nature, the next most important characteristic
is its set of procedures which show not only how findings have been arrived at, but are sufficiently clear for
scientists to repeat them, i.e. to check them out with the same or other materials and thereby test the results.
As Cuff and Payne (1979) say: ‘A scientific approach necessarily involves standards and procedures for
demonstrating the “empirical warrant” of its findings, showing the match or fit between its statements and
what is happening or has happened in the world’ (Cuff and Payne, 1979, p. 4). For convenience, these
standards and procedures ‘the scientific method’, though this can be somewhat misleading, as the
combi nation of the definite article, adjective and singular noun risks conjuring up a single invariant approach
to problem solving. Yet there is much more to it than this. The term in fact cloaks a number of methods which
vary in their degree of sophistication depending on their function and the particular stage of development a
science has reached. The scientific method initially involves systematic observation, moving to
interconnecting ideas coherently and without internal contradictions (creating a scientific model), which is

Modules in Methods of Research 2 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

then tested by further observations (Capra and
Luisi, 2014). Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) Box 1. AN EIGHT-STAGE MODEL OF THE
suggest an eight-stage model of the scientific SCIENTIFIC METHOD (Cohen, et al., 2018)
method.
Stage 1: Hypotheses, hunches and guesses
Thus, the scientific method encourages a Stage 2: Experiment designed; samples taken;
rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure variables isolated
dictated by the demands of logic and objective
Stage 3: Correlations observed; patterns identified
procedure. Accordingly, scientific method
implies an objective, logical and systematic Stage 4: Hypotheses formed to explain regularities
method, i.e., a method free from personal bias Stage 5: Explanations and predictions tested;
or prejudice, a method to ascertain falsifiability
demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon Stage 6: Laws developed or disconfirmation
capable of being verified, a method wherein the (hypothesis rejected)
researcher is guided by the rules of logical Stage 7: Generalizations made
reasoning, a method wherein the investigation
Stage 8: New theories
proceeds in an orderly manner and a method
that implies internal consistency.

Concept Give at least three (3) reasons why research is related to the scientific
method.
Check 1.2

Lesson 1.3 MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of
scientific investigation. Other definitions of research are as follows:

1. Systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical proposition about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger)
2. Careful, diligent, and exhaustive investigation of a specific matter, having as its aim the
advancement of mankind’s knowledge (Manhein)
3. A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge
(The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English)
4. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge (Redman and Mory)
5. A movement from the known to the unknown, actually a voyage of discovery
6. The method which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown
7. Comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis (Clifford
Woody)
8. The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct
or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art. (D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research)
9. An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement
10. The pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
11. The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem
12. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory
13. Refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.
14. An investigation of a phenomena which involves accurate gathering, recording, analyzing, and
interpreting of all facts about a phenomena
Modules in Methods of Research 3 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado
 15. A systematic and refined techniques of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and
procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem.

Concept Look at the various definitions of research. What ideas about research
are recurring in the various definitions? Create your own description of
Check 1.3 research in an acronym using the letters of the word RESEARCH.

Lesson 1.4 PURPOSES OF RESEARCH

The ultimate goal of research is the improvement of the quality of life. Any research leads to the
attainment of this end. For more specific purposes, research is conducted to:

1. Discover new facts of known phenomena

2. Bridge gaps to knowledge
3. Find solution to problems that are only partially solved
4. Improve or develop new products
5. Discover unrecognized substances or elements
6. Validate generalization into systematic order
7. Serve as basis for decision-making in any undertaking
8. Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity
9. Acquire better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon to another
10. Verify existing knowledge
11. Improve educational practices by raising the quality of school products
12. Promote health and prolong life
13. Enhance man’s basic life
14. Pave the way to development and progress

Concept Browse again on the different purposes of research. What could be the
top three reasons in conducting research as far as your being a teacher
Check 1.4 is concerned?

Lesson 1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Systematic. Research follows an orderly and sequential procedure.
3. Objective. Findings of research are unbiased.
4. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles. Logical examination of the
procedure enables the researcher to draw valid conclusions.
5. Cyclical. Research starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
6. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental, or any alternative research methods.
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive
at valid and conclusive reports. Similarities and differences of replicated researches can be
compared to arrive at more valid and conclusive results.
8. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence must be
established. The researcher must be confident in rejecting or accepting the hypothesis.

Modules in Methods of Research 4 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 Concept Identify the characteristic of research described in the following
situations.
Check 1.5
__________ 1. Findings of research are based on facts, and not just
hearsay.
__________ 2. The findings of research could lead to more questions for
future research studies.
__________ 3. The more that a finding results from similar researches,
the finding becomes more valid.
__________ 4. The research process consists of breaking ideas to parts
to understand a phenomenon.
__________ 5. Observation is one of the methods that are essential to a
research process.

Lesson 1.6 KINDS OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified according to:

1. Purpose
1.1 Predictive or prognostic. Research determines the future operation of the variables under
investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better.
1.2 Directive. Research determines what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy
an unsatisfactory condition, if there is any.
1.3 Illuminative. Research is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being
investigated.

2. Goal
2.1 Basic or Pure. Research is done for the development of theories and principles.
2.2 Applied. Research is on the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the
efficiency of theories and principles.

3. Level of Investigation
3.1 Exploratory. Research studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
3.2 Descriptive. Research studies the relationships of the variables.
3.3 Experimental. The research studies the effects of the variables on each other.

4. Type of Analysis
4.1 Analytic approach. Research attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research
situation.
4.2 Holistic approach. Research begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first
and on its internal relationships.

5. Time Allotment
5.1 Historical. Research describes what was.
5.2 Descriptive. Research describes what is.
5.3 Experimental. Research describes what will be.

6. Choice of answers to problems

6.1 Evaluation. These are all possible courses of action, which are specified and identified in which
researchers try to find out the most advantageous.
6.2 Developmental. This focuses on the findings or developing a more suitable instrument or
process that have been available.

7. Statistical content
Modules in Methods of Research 5 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado
 7.1 Quantitative or Statistical. Research in which inferential statistics, such as correlation or
analysis of variance, are utilized to determine the results of the study to test the hypothesis.
7.2 Qualitative. Research where descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.
7.3 Mixed methods research. Research which blends the processes involved in quantitative and
qualitative research.

8. Scope
8.1 Action research. This involves the steps of the scientific method. It attempts to improve current
practices.

9. Area or Field of Activity

9.1 Proprietary Research. Research is conducted for a specific audience and is not shared beyond
that evidence.
9.2 Scholarly Research. Research promotes public access to knowledge.
9.3 Behavioral Research. Research is based on the belief that objective knowledge is obtained
through careful and systematic observation and measurement of what people do.
9.4 Phenomenological Research. Research is based on the belief that what people do depends on
what they perceive as what goes on their minds.
9.5 Communication Research. Research investigates the five communication elements where
possibly some research problems may be analyzed.

Concept Differentiate the following types of research.

Check 1.6 1. Proprietary and Scholarly Research

2. Quantitative and Qualitative Research
3. Historical and Descriptive Research
4. Basic and Applied Research
5. Descriptive and Experimental Research

Lesson 1.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCHER

A good research is conducted by someone who has outstanding characteristics as a researcher.

Some of these qualities are as follows:

1. Accuracy. A researcher must ensure that his research work is

accurate. He should ensure that the facts and figures which he is
presenting are true and verifiable. There should be no room for
conjecture or guesses. He should exhibit due diligence in
presenting his work so as not to present a false and misleading
research as the accuracy of the research determines the credibility
to be attached to the researcher.

2. Open mindedness. To explain how powerful the mind is, Albert Einstein once said that the measure
of intelligence is the ability to change the mind. It is one of the most important
characteristics of a good researcher because researching has to do with
finding new fact which may sometimes require that the researchers alter
previously valid facts. He has to be someone who is able to see things in
different lights. He must understand that nothing is actually static and things
change over time. Thus, a researcher who is not open-minded during
researching is limited to a lot of knowledge.

3. Motivation. A researcher must have the ability to motivate himself to work. He should not be easily
discouraged. In the course of his research, he might come across some hostile respondents. This

Modules in Methods of Research 6 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 should not deter him from carrying on his research. A researcher therefore, must have the ability to
encourage and motivate himself to push on until he actualizes his aim.

4. Patience. One of the sterling attributes of a good researcher is patience.

This quality is a follow-up attribute to being motivated. A researcher must
exhibit a high degree of patience, both with his respondents and in the
course of his research when the much-needed result is not forthcoming, in
addition to his being consistent with the effort he puts in.

5. Prudence. The quality of being prudent has to do with his ability to manage the resources at his
disposal. Research is a capital-intensive project and there are possibilities that one might not be well
funded to carry out such project. The managerial skill and ability of the researcher becomes handy
for a successful execution of the project. Therefore, a researcher must be able to effectively manage
the resources at his disposal for optimum output.

6. Expertise. Though the aim of research is to add knowledge to already

existing knowledge (as one ventures into new areas not yet explored),
the researcher must have reasonable amount of knowledge in the field
he intends carrying out his research. A researcher must therefore be an
expert in the field of his research or must possess at least, reasonable
amount of knowledge in the field he professes to carry out his research.

7. Unbiased. At the beginning of his research, a researcher must not have a preconceived notion or idea
about the subject of his research. This is because the research may likely not be accurate as his
leanings will mostly be towards his bias. If there exists such bias, the researcher should be liberal
enough to accept findings that are against his held beliefs. This will aid him to present an accurate
and unbiased research work.

8. Interest. A researcher must show sufficient interest in the work he is doing. He should not be
distracted. His interest should be focused on the work. This is quite different from being motivated.
This is because it is the interest one has in a task that keeps him motivated. If one is not interested in
a research work, he cannot be motivated, even if all necessary things are in place to drive the project.
A researcher has to build interest from within, in the field of his research to see him through the
research work.

9. Amiable Personality. A researcher must have a friendly disposition. He should be easily approachable
and should also have the ability to communicate with people in a friendly and coherent manner. A
researcher that is unfriendly, gloomy and unapproachable may find it difficult extracting information
from his respondents. A researcher should also exhibit friendliness to whoever works with him (if he
is in a team with other researchers). This act of friendliness reduces friction within the team and the
team is most likely to finish up their task in record time.

10. Ability to work under pressure. A researcher must be able to work under
pressure and unfavorable situations. The ability to carry out a task within
little time frame and also work in conditions that are less favorable is a
quality which the researcher should have to enable him carry out his task.
Limited time may be allocated to accomplish a research project such that
if the researcher is unable to manage his time, the work will not be done.
It is therefore a needed quality of the researcher to be able to persevere and work in unfriendly
situations if he must accomplish his task on time.

11. Analytical. A researcher should be analytical and should also be able to

exhibit sound judgment. Proper analysis of issues is key to having a good
research work. His ability to reason rationally and give sound judgment
affects the quality of the research work. Therefore, a researcher must have
the natural ability to discern what is right between two factors brought before
him.

Modules in Methods of Research 7 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 Concept Reflect on the characteristics of a good researcher. Identify two (2)
characteristics which are your strength and two (2) which are your
Check 1.7 weaknesses. How will you enhance these strengths and how will you
overcome the weaknesses?

Lesson 1.8 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process consists of several steps which would ensure that all the activities in the research
will be carried out as planned. Figure 2 indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely
related activities, as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a
strictly prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken.
If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties may arise
which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the various steps involved
in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct. They do not necessarily
follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in
the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps.

However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding
the research process:

1. Formulating the research problem

2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation, and
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.

Figure 2. Research process in flowchart

Modules in Methods of Research 8 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 Concept Why was it said that activities in the research process overlap
continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence? Give
Check 1.8 three examples as a proof.

Lesson 1.9 APPROACHES IN RESEARCH

There are five major approaches to research. In actuality, there may be overlaps between these
approaches.

1. Quantitative research is characterized by deductive approaches to the research process aimed at

proving, disproving, or lending credence to existing theories. This type of research involves measuring
variables and testing relationships between variables in order to reveal patterns, correlations, or
causal relationships. The values underlying quantitative research include neutrality, objectivity, and
the acquisition of a sizeable scope of knowledge (e.g., a statistical overview from a large sample).
This approach is generally appropriate when your primary purpose is to explain or evaluate.

2. Qualitative research is generally characterized by inductive approaches to knowledge building aimed

at generating meaning (Leavy, 2014). Researchers use this approach to explore; to robustly
investigate and learn about social phenomenon; to unpack the meanings people ascribe to activities,
situations, events, or artifacts; or to build a depth of understanding about some dimension of social
life (Leavy, 2014). The values underlying qualitative research include the importance of people’s
subjective experiences and meaning-making processes and acquiring a depth of understanding (i.e.,
detailed information from a small sample). Qualitative research is generally appropriate when your
primary purpose is to explore, describe, or explain.

3. Mixed methods research (MMR) involves collecting, analyzing, and in some way integrating both
quantitative and qualitative data in a single project. The phases of a research project are integrated
or synergistic, with the quantitative phase influencing the qualitative phase, or vice versa (Hesse-
Biber, 2010; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). MMR may result in a comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation because of the integration of quantitative and qualitative data. MMR
is generally appropriate when your purpose is to describe, explain, or evaluate.

4. Arts-based research (ABR) involves adapting the tenets of the creative arts in a social research
project. Researchers aim to address social research questions in holistic and engaged ways in which
theory and practice are intertwined. Arts-based practices draw on literary writing, music, dance,
performance, visual art, film, and other artistic mediums. ABR is a generative approach whose
researchers place the inquiry process at the center and value aesthetic understanding, evocation,
and provocation. ABR is generally appropriate when your purpose is to explore, describe, or evoke,
provoke, or unsettle.

5. Community-based participatory research (CBPR) involves collaborative partnerships between

researchers and nonacademic stakeholders (e.g., community members). CBPR is an attempt by
researchers to actively involve the communities they aim to serve in every aspect of the research
process, from the identification of a problem to the distribution of research findings. This is a highly
collaborative and problem-centered approach to research that requires the sharing of power. CBPR
is generally appropriate when your purpose is to promote community change or action.

Each general approach—quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, community-based

participatory—is an umbrella term comprising numerous strategies for conducting research. These
approaches are all characterized by different philosophical belief systems and rely on different
methodological practices.

Modules in Methods of Research 9 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado

 Concept Answer the questions.

Check 1.9 1. Deductive approaches to the research process characterize which of

the five approaches to research? __________ This approach is
appropriate when your primary purpose is to
_____________________________.

2. Inductive approaches to the research process characterize which of the

five approaches to research? __________ This approach is
appropriate when your primary purpose is to
_____________________________.

3. A researcher is interested in challenging people’s stereotypes about

gender and profession. He/she uses an installation of visual images of
women in traditionally male jobs, such as construction worker,
electrician, and pilot, to provoke viewers into questioning their
assumptions. What approach to research is the researcher using?

SUMMARY

In this module, the nature of research in general was explored. The sources of knowledge were
enumerated and research was related as a process employing the scientific method. Research was defined
in various ways but pointing out to a systematic process of conducting an inquiry in the ultimate end of
improving human lives. The purposes and kinds of research as well as the qualities that a researcher should
possess were also discussed in this module. The research process was illustrated and the different
approaches to research were discussed in the last part of the module.

REFERENCES

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morisson, K. (2018) Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge
Jackson, S.L. (2009) Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach, 3rd Edition. USA:
Cengage Learning
Kothari, C.R. (2004) Research Methodology (Methods and Techniques). India: New Age International
Publishers
Leavy, P. (2017) Research Design. New York: The Guilford Press
Librero, F, et al. DevC204 (Modules in Communication Research and Evaluation). University of the
Philippines – Open University
Qualities of A Good Researcher: 11 Most Essential. Retrieved from https://bscholarly.com/qualities-of-a-
good-researcher/
Zulueta, F.M. & Costales, N.E.B. (2005) Methods of Research, Thesis Writing and Applied Statistics.
Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore, Inc.

Modules in Methods of Research 10 Dr. Ronato S. Ballado