ELLP Years 9-13

The English Language
Learning Progressions
Y e a r s 9–13
A resource for mainstream and ESOL teachers

Acknowledgments
The Ministry of Education would like to thank:
• the principal writers, Dr Helen Nicholls (Ministry of Education) and
Jannie van Hees (Faculty of Education, The University of Auckland);
• the members of the reference groups;
• the teachers who collected the writing samples;
• the schools, teachers, and School Support Services advisers involved in
the trial of the draft document;
• Esther Kiernan;
• the project teams at Learning Media and the Ministry of Education.
Published 2008 for the Ministry of Education by

Learning Media Limited, Box 3293, Wellington, New Zealand.
www.learningmedia.co.nz
All text, illustrations, and photographs copyright © Crown 2008 except those on pages:
22–23 Going to the River, text © Feana Tu‘akoi 2000, illustrations © Kirsty Lillico 2000;
24–25 The Water Boatman, text © Joy Cowley 1994;
26–27 Purr-fect!, text © Dot Meharry 2004;
28–29 Wind Power, text © Pat Quinn 1995;
32–33 “Becoming a New Zealander”, Branching Out, Choices, 2003, text © Sharon Holt 2003,
photograph top left page 31 © Hsiu-Ying Chen 2003, all other photographs © Sharon Holt 2003;
34–35 “Moving Old Houses”, Junior Journal 28, 2003, text and photographs © Sue Gibbison 2003;
36–37 “Mussel Time”, School Journal, Part 3 Number 1, 2003, text and photographs © John Hart
2003;
38–39 Paddle Power, School Journal Story Library, 2001, text © Maggie Lilleby 2001, photographs ©
Grant Stirling 2001;
42–43 “And then I grew up …”, This Other Place, Journal of Secondary Students’ Writing 2003, text ©
Megan Roberts 2003, illustration © Megan Archer 2003;
44–45 “Righting the Wrongs – Poll Tax in New Zealand”, School Journal, Part 4 Number 2, 2003, page
23, text © Eva Wong Ng 2003, photograph © Alexander Turnbull Library.
These texts were all published by Learning Media for the Ministry of Education.
The copyrights are as listed for the texts on the following pages:
30 “The Beginning of Digestion”, English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource © Ministry
of Education 2003;
46–47 “Money Trees”, New Zealand Education Gazette © New Zealand Education Gazette 2003;
50 New Zealand Now: Asian New Zealanders © Statistics New Zealand 1995.
The illustrations on pages 24–25 are by Tim Galloway, those on pages 26–27 are by Peter Campbell,
and those on pages 28–29 are by Donna Cross.
All rights reserved. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.
Dewey number 428.0071

ISBN 978 0 7903 2603 0
Item number 32603
Contents
Introduction 2
The English Language Learning Progressions and related resources 4
Oral Language – Listening and Speaking 7

The oral language progression 9
The oral language matrix: output 11
The oral language matrix: input 12
Reading 13
The reading progression 17
The reading matrix 19
Sample texts for reading 21
Writing 52
The writing progression 53
The writing matrix 55
Samples of learners’ writing 57
Developing Independent Learners 84

Examples of learning prompts and strategies 86
Record of Progress 89
Glossary 90
References 95
Appendix: Transcript of Student’s Text 96
Introduction
This booklet describes the learning pathways that learners in years 9–13 typically follow
as they acquire an additional language (New Zealand English).
English language learners in years 9–13 are usually between thirteen and eighteen
years of age. This group will include new learners of English as well as learners who
are progressing through the later stages of the English Language Learning Progressions
(ELLP). Some learners may come from a refugee background and may have had
disrupted schooling. The English language level of learners in years 9–13 may be at any
stage of the English Language Learning Progressions, so this booklet includes examples
of oral language, texts for reading, and learners’ writing that are appropriate for this age
group at all of the stages.
It is very
important An English language learner’s level of English is usually related closely to their education
to check levels in their first language and their previous English language learning. (There are
how much also many other factors that affect a learner’s progress – see pages 6–8 of the introductory
prior formal
education newly
booklet for information about these.)
arrived students
in years 9–13 Secondary school programmes have higher academic language demands than those at
have had. earlier year levels. Year 9–13 learners who are at the early stages of the ELLP, in particular,
need systematic support from their teachers to gain the English language skills they need for
learning at their cohort (peer) level in all the curriculum areas. Teachers also need to adapt
and modify curriculum content so that these learners are better able to understand it. This
booklet can help you to decide how far to adapt the content of oral and written resources for
each learner so that you can personalise learning for your diverse learners (as recommended
in Quality Teaching for Diverse Students in Schooling: Best Evidence Synthesis).
It’s therefore vital that the language-learning needs of learners in years 9–13 are
diagnosed accurately so that they can get the kind of help they need. ESOL specialists
(and other relevant specialists) should be involved in diagnosing each learner’s
language-learning needs and in selecting, adapting, or supplementing the content of
learning resources to meet these needs.
English language learners in secondary schools need language support from subject area
teachers too, including teachers of subjects like maths and science. The language support
needs to be closely linked to curriculum content learning so that the new language
students learn is useful and relevant to them. You can look at some successful ways of
supporting English language learners in mainstream classes on the DVD series Making
Language and Learning Work 1: Integrating Language and Learning in Secondary Maths and
Science and Making Language and Learning Work 2: Integrating Language and Learning
in Secondary English and Social Science and on ESOL Online (www.tki.org.nz/r/esol/
esolonline/).
It’s also important to reinforce the value of an English language learner’s first language,1
and learners in years 9–13 generally have a more developed knowledge of their first
language than younger learners. Research shows that when a learner is encouraged to
discuss concepts and tasks in their first language, their achievement is likely to
be higher.
1
Although the term “first language” is commonly used in the singular, some learners may have more than one
2 first language.
This booklet is arranged into three sections: Oral Language, Reading, and Writing, each
relevant to teachers of learners in years 9–13. It also includes a section with learning
prompts that are appropriate for this age group. The Record of Progress form on page
89 allows teachers to record the progress of individual learners.
The English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource provides detailed models of
texts for teaching oral language, reading, and writing. These texts are relevant to a number
of curriculum areas and include descriptions of language features. The resource also
suggests teaching approaches to support English language learners.
3
The English Language Learning Progressions and related resources
n g Progressions
ea rni
g eL
a
n gu Stage 4
L8
La
L7
li s h
Stage 3
En g
L6
The
L5
Stage 2 Stage 3
Stage 2 L4
Key
Competencies L3
Stage 2
L2
Stage 1
Stage 1
Stage 1
L1
Foundation
Foundation The New Zealand Curriculum

Years 9–13 Foundation
Years 5–8
Years 1–4
4
Oral language – speaking and listening
Stage 4 Stage 4
The English Stage 3
Language Stage 2 Stage 2
Learning Stage 1
Progressions
Foundation
English Stage 3
Language Stage 2 Stage 2
Intensive
Stage 1
Programme
Level 6
Resource
Level 5
The New Zealand Level 4
Curriculum Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Reading
The English
Language
Learning
Foundation Stage, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D/2A, 2B, 2C/3A, 3B, 3C, 3D/4A, 4B, 4C, 4D
Progressions
English
Stage 3
Language
Intensive Stage 2
Programme Stage 1
Years 7–13 Foundation Level 8
Resource
Level 7
Level 6
Level 5
The New Zealand
Level 4
Curriculum
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Writing
Stage 4
The English Stage 2 Stage 3

Language
Learning Stage 2A B
1 2A 2B
Progressions
Foundation
A B
English
Language Stage 3
Intensive Stage 2
Programme Stage 1
Resource
The New Zealand 5

Curriculum 4
Exemplars: 3
English
2
(Written
Language) 1i 1ii 1iii levels 6, 7, 8
Level 5
Level 4
The New Zealand Level 3
Curriculum
Level 2
Level 1
5
Relating the English Language Learning Progressions to other
frameworks and resources
The oral language, reading, and writing progression diagrams on page 5 show the relationships
between the stages of the English Language Learning Progressions (ELLP), the New Zealand
Curriculum, and the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (ELIP). For writing,
the stages of the New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars for English (Written Language) are
also shown.
The oral language progression diagram shows the relationship between the stages of the ELLP, the
New Zealand Curriculum, and ELIP. The foundation stages of the ELLP and the ELIP begin at an
earlier point than the levels of the New Zealand Curriculum. This reflects the difference between a
native speaker of English who already has an oral language base in English before they start school
and an English language learner who is just beginning to learn English.
The reading progression diagram shows the relationship between the stages of text development in
the ELLP, the language outcomes of the ELIP, and the eight levels of the New Zealand Curriculum.
The writing progression diagram shows the relationship between the stages of writing development in
the ELLP, the ELIP, and the New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars for English (Written Language),
and the eight levels of the New Zealand Curriculum.
In the oral language, reading, and writing progression diagrams, there is no clearly defined
beginning or end to any of the stages. A learner’s performance varies in different contexts and
always depends on what they bring to the task, their age, the demands of the task, their level of
first-language literacy, and the quality and extent of the teacher’s scaffolding. The progressions
are not restricted to the English curriculum area: oral language, reading, and writing need to be
developed in all the learning areas.
6
Oral Language – Listening and
nd Sp
Spe
Speaking
eak
eaki
ak ngg
Oral language is sometimes assumed to be less complex than written language. Spoken
language that occurs in face-to-face contexts and is about things that the learner can see
is often easier to comprehend than written language that refers to abstract concepts or
unfamiliar ideas. However, oral language can also involve abstract concepts and ideas that
are new to the learner, and (unlike written language) it can’t usually be reviewed by the
listener. Oral language is often as complex as written language and is sometimes more
difficult to process. It challenges the learner in different ways from written language.
Children learn to speak their first language before they learn to read and write it, and it’s What’s different
widely known that they will learn to read and write more easily if they have first developed about speaking
and listening in an
a rich bank of oral language. However, unlike a native speaker of English, an English
additional language?
language learner hasn’t necessarily established an oral language base in English as part of
their development before they start school. An English language learner may, therefore, not
have an existing basis in oral language on which to build English literacy skills.
There are many interrelated factors that may influence an English language learner’s
proficiency in oral language, including:
• the content of their previous English language instruction (if any);
• the teaching approaches used in previous English language instruction (if any);
• the age at which they begin (or began) learning English;
• their level of confidence in speaking English.
English language learners in New Zealand are learning English in a context where it’s the
everyday language of the majority of the community. All new English language learners face
significant challenges when speaking and listening to New Zealand English. At the same
time as they are learning the vocabulary and grammatical structures of the new language,
they’re also working to gain control over other features of oral language. They need to learn
the sounds of English words, the subtle meanings conveyed by changes in tone and speed,
and the differences in meaning that a change in stress can make. (For example, “refuse”,
with the stress on the first syllable, is a noun that means “rubbish”, but “refuse”, with the
stress on the second syllable, is a verb that means “to say no to something”.) These are
called the prosodic features2 of a language. Prosodic features combine with non-verbal
language features, such as facial expressions, to create and convey meaning, and both are
culturally determined dimensions of the language. It takes time to learn the significance of
the prosodic features of a new language.
Some learners will need to adjust their prior learning of one variety of English (such as
American English) in order to learn New Zealand English, which has its own distinct features
of pronunciation and vocabulary. For example, New Zealand English includes some words
from te reo Màori.
Some learners who can already read and write in their first language may learn to do the Why can some
same in the new language before they are able to comprehend it orally. This is especially learners read and
write in English
likely if they first learned English at school in a context where: before they learn
• English was not the language of the community; to speak it?
• teachers focused more on written English than on oral English;

• there were few opportunities to listen to or speak with native speakers of English.
2
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, by David Crystal, discusses different aspects of spoken and written
language. It explains how the prosodic features of each language differ and how they are interpreted and 7
expressed in different cultures. Prosodic features are also described in Exploring Language, Ministry of
Education, 1996.
Learners will Many English language learners who come to New Zealand schools are from backgrounds
generally understand
like this. Because they have some knowledge of the language structures and vocabulary,
more than they can
say – their receptive they have an initial advantage over those who have never learned English. However, these
language will be more learners, in particular, will need their teachers to provide explicit support for their oral
advanced than their language development.
productive language.
On the other hand, there are learners who can communicate effectively in English in social
Learners need to contexts but who have very little experience in understanding and speaking English in
develop oral language
in all the learning
curriculum contexts. These learners will need their teachers to provide explicit support
areas, not just to help them extend their bank of spoken English to include the English vocabulary and
in English. structures needed for classroom learning.
There are also English language learners who will begin learning oral and written English at
the same time. They will be learning the grammatical structures, vocabulary, sound system,
and writing system of the new language all at once and will need explicit support in all
aspects of language learning.
When English language learners begin to speak English, their first language is likely to have
a strong influence on their grammar and pronunciation. But if they begin learning English
at an early age, they may eventually show few if any indications (such as in stress patterns or
accent) that it’s not their native tongue.
Many factors can affect a learner’s speaking proficiency. Each time a learner speaks, what
they say will be affected not only by their knowledge of the language but also by the
Why should we sociocultural context, for example, whether they know the person they are speaking to. The
wait longer before
expecting a response
English language learner may also need to explore and discuss the differences between non-
from an English verbal and prosodic features of their first language (such as body language and intonation)
language learner? and those of English, as these features are often culturally specific. Because of the
complexity of oral language production, teachers (and other listeners) often need to allow
additional “wait time” to give learners a chance to initiate, respond, and interact with others.
English language English language learners should be encouraged to continue to develop oral language skills
learners need
in their first language and to use critical-thinking skills (and other oral language skills) in
continuing access to
oral input in their their first language to help them develop oral language in English. Cognitive academic
first language and language proficiency (CALP) develops better when the first language develops alongside the
encouragement and additional language.
opportunities to
think and talk in When working with an English language learner in years 9–13, effective teachers provide
their first language.
continuing affirmation of their first language and opportunities for them to use their first
language wherever possible. Effective teachers also help learners to make links between
their use of written and oral language to ensure that both aspects of their language develop
together. Teaching approaches such as shared and guided reading and writing and
experienced-based learning support these very close links between reading, writing, and
oral language. These links are further supported by the use of manipulative materials (for
example, magnetic letters, picture cards and labels, and board games), audio materials, and
digital media.
While much of the information in Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13 applies as much
to English language learners as it does to native speakers of English, it’s especially important
for English language learners to be given a range of models of oral language and to be
supported by explicit teaching of vocabulary and grammar. (See Expanding Oral Language in
the Classroom [van Hees, 2007].)
8
The oral language progression
The oral language progression that follows is set out in two matrices. The first matrix
(output) indicates the verbal and non-verbal language that learners are likely to produce
at all five stages of the ELLP (Foundation Stage to Stage 4). Learners may produce
only a selection of the suggested output at any one time, and whether what they say is
appropriate or not will depend on the context and the purpose for speaking.
The second matrix (input) lists what learners at all five stages are likely to understand of
what they hear with varying levels of support. At the early stages, processing all aspects
of spoken language at the same time is a significant challenge because the listener can’t
review spoken language unless it’s recorded or repeated. Teachers can use this matrix
to help them to speak appropriately so that learners at each stage can understand them.
Teachers can support learners to increase their comprehension of input by elaborating
on or expanding oral text.
Output and input levels should not be seen as parallel because, for most learners of a
new language, receptive understanding is usually ahead of production for quite a long
time (as noted in the introductory booklet on pages 5 and 15).
For exemplars of oral language at the various stages, please see the accompanying DVD
Oral Language Exemplars for the English Language Learning Progressions.
9
10
The oral language matrix: output
Interpersonal context Content Delivery Non-verbal responses Language structures
The learner may:
– respond in face-to-face social or curriculum – say a few words in English – not respond at all or pause for a long time – respond with a relevant action, gesture, or – say single words
Foundation Stage
contexts before responding facial expression

– give a formulaic but appropriate response – echo phrases that they hear
– respond with a mixture of their first language – have pronunciation that is strongly influenced – respond with silence, which may
and English – use a gesture or facial expression to indicate by their first language indicate respect for the speaker, a lack of – respond in their first language
that they do or don’t understand comprehension, or a lack of confidence
– participate in limited interactions in pair,
small-group, and whole-class contexts – remain silent or give an inappropriate
response
– respond with a mixture of their first language – retell the main ideas or messages from their – pause and hesitate when speaking – follow an instruction or complete a task – use mostly high-frequency words and leave
and English reading or listening and present one or two out structural words
ideas – make some distinctions between minimal – respond with silence, which may
– participate in limited interactions in pair, pairs in English (e.g., “pin” and “bin”, “ship” indicate respect for the speaker, a lack of – use non-standard vocabulary and sentence
Stage 1
small-group, and whole-class contexts – use a gesture, facial expression, or phrase to and “sheep”) comprehension, or a lack of confidence structures
indicate that they do or don’t understand
– have pronunciation that shows features of – use the subject–verb–object structure if they
– initiate communication (e.g., by making their first language have had a chance to plan what they are going
requests or comments or by offering to say
information)
– respond in an appropriate or relevant – ask questions, give instructions, negotiate – use a larger vocabulary and give detailed – begin to make use of non-verbal features of – include structural vocabulary to produce fairly
way for the audience and the purpose for disagreements, buy something in a shop, responses the English language coherent and accurate standard English
communicating arrange appointments, or explain a problem
– speak fluently, with occasional pauses and – rely less on formulaic chunks and use more
– participate in different interactive group hesitation independently generated language structures
Stage 2
situations, such as pairs, groups, and whole-

class discussions – pronounce most words in a way that is usually
clear to the listener, although they may retain
– use English confidently and appropriately in a some features of their first language
range of situations
– make distinctions between minimal pairs in
English (e.g., “pin” and “bin”, “ship” and
“sheep”)
– respond in a way that is appropriate or – take turns, initiate conversations, and talk for – pronounce words so that the listener can – consciously choose non-verbal features of – use increasingly varied and complex language
relevant for the audience and the purpose for a long time, both when they have had time to usually understand them easily (although the English language to use in their own structures in standard English, with few
Stage 3
communicating plan what they will say and when they speak depending on the speaker’s age and other communication inaccuracies
spontaneously factors, their pronunciation may retain some
– choose appropriate vocabulary (e.g., making features of their first language) – use features of natural spoken language (e.g.,
distinctions between technical, formal, and – use language devices (e.g., puns and irony) saying “coming” instead of “I am coming”)
informal vocabulary) appropriately for effect
– speak in a variety of contexts
– choose appropriate language for different – take turns, initiate conversations, and talk for – pronounce words clearly and
d speak accurately – use non-verbal features of
o spoken language, – use increasingly varied and complex standard
audiences, purposes, contexts, and effects a long time, both when they have had time to and fluently. such as pauses,
s, changes in
i pitch or volume, English language structures, with few
Stage 4
(e.g., making distinctions between formal and plan what they will say and when they speak and gestures for effect. inaccuracies.
informal contexts). spontaneously
– use sophisticated language devices, such as
irony, satire, and euphemisms, appropriately
for effect.
11
The oral language matrix: input
Interpersonal context Content Delivery Language structures First-language support
The learner may understand: The learner needs:
– language use in face-to-face contexts, often – basic concepts expressed in simple English (e.g., – slow and clear speech, using simple – individual words and some short chunks of – extensive first-language support (e.g.,
Foundation Stage
with support from pictures or objects colours, shapes, time, dates, numbers, body parts, language language (formulaic chunks) through bilingual helpers or bilingual picture
feelings) dictionaries and first-language texts)
– limited interactions in pairs (student to – direct address, with key words repeated
student and student to teacher) – some basic instructions and simple questions often
– limited interactions in small-group contexts – models of different types of oral texts (see English – gestures and facial expressions that
Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource) accompany simple instructions,
– limited interactions in whole-class contexts information, or questions
– words that are significant to or for them
– limited interactions in pairs (student to – curriculum content that reflects what their peers are – the meaning of gestures, facial expressions, – simple sentences and longer common – extensive first-language support (e.g.,
student and student to teacher) learning in mainstream classes and changes in volume or tone phrases through bilingual helpers or bilingual picture
dictionaries and first-language texts)
– limited interactions in small-group contexts – simple, repetitive texts, such as songs, rhymes, poems, – slow and clear speech, using longer – short passages of natural speech, such as
and raps phrases of simple language, with key ideas in conversations and instructions
– limited interactions in whole-class contexts
Stage 1
repeated
– one or two clusters of ideas in familiar curriculum and
social contexts – standard New Zealand English, including
slang and idioms that are limited and/or
– carefully scaffolded texts in unfamiliar curriculum explained
contexts
– simple oral texts, which may be presented on CDs,
CD-ROMs, or DVDs (e.g., the CD Junior Journal 34 and 35 )
– interactions in pairs (student to student and – curriculum content that reflects what their peers are – short passages of standard New Zealand – some complex sentences – continued first-language support wherever
student to teacher) learning in mainstream classes English in a range of accents, spoken at a possible, from bilingual helpers, bilingual
natural speed – complete and incomplete sentences dictionaries, and first-language texts
– interactions in small-group contexts – some commonly used colloquial expressions and some
Màori words and phrases – extended speech that allows pauses for
Stage 2
– interactions in whole-class contexts them to process what they have heard

– extended speech in familiar curriculum and social
– interactions through extended speech (e.g., contexts – the meaning of non-verbal language
listening to a debate) features (body language and prosodic
– extended speech in unfamiliar contexts with support features)
– oral texts, which may be presented on CDs, CD-ROMs, or
DVDs
– extended passages of natural speech – a wide range of curriculum and social content – a range of accents, including those of – connected text with several ideas or text – continued first-language support wherever
speakers for whom English is an additional sequences possible, from bilingual helpers, bilingual
– multiple speakers in interactive contexts – extended passages of natural speech in familiar and language dictionaries, and first-language texts
(e.g., a group or panel discussion) unfamiliar curriculum and social contexts – longer passage
passages of speech spoken at a
Stage 3
bal
– the purpose and effect of non-verbal natural pace and witwithout planned pauses
– extended oral texts, which may be presented on CDs, language features (e.g., talks by visiting sp
speakers)
CD-ROMs, or DVDs (e.g., the Choices audiotape Danger!)
uial language
– both standard and colloquial
– figurative language, as long as it is clearly defined and
explained (e.g., puns and metaphors) – language spoken at a natural pa
pace
– multiple speakers in interactive contexts – a wide variety of texts, including multimedia texts – the purpose and effect non-verbal
ect of no – complex,x, extended speech with a wide – continued encouragement to use their first
(e.g., a group or panel discussion) language features. variety of structures at levels similar
sim to a language to enrich their learning.
– long and complex speech in a wide range of familiar and native speaker.
speaker
– multimedia texts presented without unfamiliar contexts
interpersonal support (e.g., a video with no
Stage 4
teacher support). – speech in situations that have an immediate context

(e.g., a workshop or sports game) and in situations
that don’t have an immediate context (e.g., a history
documentary)
– sophisticated language devices, such as irony, satire,
euphemisms, as long as these are clearly identified
and euphem
and explained.
12
Reading
Learning to read in a new language is different from learning to read in a first language,
and it’s important to have specific knowledge about the differences in order to teach
English language learners effectively.
For learners in years 9–13 who have had interrupted or no formal education in their
own language or in English, it will be especially important to establish and consolidate
skills and knowledge for learning to read and then reading to learn. Learners who have
had formal education in years 1–8 will already have gained some of these skills and
knowledge.
Many English language learners in years 9–13 will have developed and be able to draw
on concepts about print in their first language. However, text in their first language
may be significantly different from text in English. For example, the script of their
first language may be read in a different direction (right to left) or in vertical columns.
Beginners, therefore, may need explicit instruction about how to approach books in
English, in addition to information about how to decode in a different script or about
different letter–sound relationships if their first language is in the same script as English.
English language learners will often have come from countries and cultures that are
significantly different from New Zealand and so will need their knowledge of the
unfamiliar culture and concepts built up through reading. At the same time, it’s also
important to use fictional and factual reading materials that include contexts and
concepts that will be familiar to them.
Levels of text complexity

As a learner makes progress in reading (either in additional or first languages), they’re
What makes a text
able to comprehend increasingly complex texts. It’s important for teachers to be able easy or difficult for a
to recognise what makes a reading text easy or difficult for a particular learner so that learner?
they can choose the right text for that learner. There are many aspects of texts that may
be considered when determining their level of complexity, including topic, vocabulary,
sentence length and construction, cohesion, layout, length, and support from
illustrations.
One system of text levelling (used in the Ready to Read series) is the colour wheel.
There are suggested levels for shared, guided, and independent reading printed on the
colour wheel on the back of Ready to Read books. The colour wheel is divided into nine
colour segments that indicate a gradient of complexity, beginning with Magenta (the
emergent level), which is followed by Red, Yellow, Blue, and Green (the early levels), and
Orange, Turquoise, Purple, and Gold (the fluency levels). Each text’s colour wheel level
is determined by considering a wide range of features, such as the amount of text, the
vocabulary, the support from illustrations, the complexity of the sentences, the number
of characters, the familiarity of the context, the text structure, the layout, and so on.
Ready to Read books are used mainly by junior classes in primary schools.3
There are also a number of other ways to determine the complexity of a text. Many of
these involve analysis of vocabulary, for example, the Elley Noun Count, which is used to
assign “reading age” levels to School Journal texts.
3
This series is designed for younger learners but some texts may be appropriate for older beginners.
13
Most of these methods analyse text features that are relevant for English language
learners. However, there are aspects of these interpretations of complexity that are
inappropriate for these learners (such as the assumption that a very simple text must be
for a very young reader). Teachers also need to consider some other text features, for
example, idioms and other kinds of colloquial language, which may be difficult for an
English language learner.
Making the most of a text

When teachers carefully choose a text, build on learners’ experiences linked to the text,
and engage in meaningful conversations about the concepts in the text, learners are able
to engage more purposefully in building their understanding and their knowledge of new
structures and vocabulary. It’s important to draw specific attention to text features in a
deliberate and explicit way when teaching English language learners how to read
in English.
Teachers need to plan the steps in reading instruction carefully to ensure that
pre-reading, during-reading, and after-reading activities are appropriate and effective.
English language learners need to be able to respond thoughtfully and to be actively
engaged in a range of text-based experiences. Pre-reading instruction and activities
are particularly important for English language learners as they can help to activate the
learners’ prior knowledge, not only of the topic but also of the relevant vocabulary.
Pre-reading instruction also enables teachers to highlight language demands in all areas
of the curriculum. Elaborating on meaning in a text by providing supplementary visuals
or explanations can often increase comprehension for learners.
Reading for different purposes

Reading a text to gain information or for other curriculum purposes requires a different
approach from reading for personal interest or recreation. Within any curriculum area,
learners are required to read different types of texts for different purposes. The different
ways of reading texts for different purposes need to be explicitly taught. Teachers can
find guidance on how to foster reading for personal interest, how to approach “reading to
learn”, and how to teach reading comprehension in the publications listed on page 95.
Text-processing strategies
Effective readers, In order to be successful readers and writers, students need to learn the
including English code of written text (so that they can translate written language into
language learners, spoken language and vice versa), to make meaning from texts, and to think
decode, make
critically about the messages in the texts.
meaning, and think
critically. Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13, page 53
Right from the start of learning to read in English, learners should focus on the three key
aspects of reading: decoding, making meaning, and thinking critically. These aspects
need to be integrated when learners are reading for a purpose. Decoding in itself is not
reading, so if a learner is able to decode a text but can’t read for meaning, they can’t
yet read. In order to read effectively and efficiently, English language learners need a
repertoire of reading processing strategies. They need to be able to attend and search,
predict, cross-check, confirm, and self-correct (see Effective Literacy Practice in Years 5
to 8, pages 36–37). Learners who have limited control of the strategies may sometimes
apply a processing strategy in a way that is not appropriate for their reading purpose.
For example, they may sound out every single word when their purpose for reading is to
14 gain a general understanding of the main ideas in the text.
By the end of the Foundation Stage, learners will be able to decode and make meaning
from simple texts, and they will use critical-thinking skills appropriate to their age.
They’re likely to rely on support through their first language to aid their comprehension.
Learners in years 9–13 who are literate in their first language are able to draw on their
existing reading skills and knowledge.
Learners at the end of Stages 1 and 2 will have developed the ability to gain meaning
and identify the main ideas of phrases rather than just individual words. They will
have gradually developed confidence, fluency, and depth of comprehension as they
read increasingly complex texts in an increasing variety of contexts. They will master a
wider range of vocabulary and gain an understanding of increasingly complex language
structures.
Through Stages 3 and 4, learners will show increasing proficiency in all aspects of
reading. They will decode text fluently, sometimes pausing to use strategies such as English language
inferring the meaning of an unknown word from the context or consulting a dictionary. learners need access
They will develop ways to gain more meaning from text, for example, by distinguishing to dictionaries and
reading materials in
between facts and opinions. They will think more critically about texts, for example, to
their first language,
consider how the text constructs the world or why it uses irony. and they need
encouragement to
English language learners who have literacy skills in their first language should be think and talk in
encouraged to continue reading in their first language and to use critical-thinking skills their first language
(and other skills used for reading) in their first language in order to better access and about new ideas.
They also need texts
process concepts in English. Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) develops in English about
better when the first language develops alongside the additional language. culturally familiar
topics as well as
about less
Drawing on sources of information familiar topics.
Learners need to draw on various sources of information in order to make sense of what
they read. They draw on:
• their prior knowledge, including their background knowledge and experience
and their literacy-related knowledge;
• visual and grapho-phonic sources of information in the text, using knowledge
about printed text (and especially about the relationship between particular
written shapes and spoken sounds);
• syntactic sources of information in the text (using their knowledge about the
structure of the English language);
• semantic sources of information in the text (using their knowledge of the
meanings of words and images).
(See Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13, page 54.)
Learners need to be able to draw on, integrate, and co-ordinate information from these
sources simultaneously in order to decode and make meaning from text.
When a learner has limited prior experience of a context or lacks specific knowledge of a
concept, they may have difficulty in reading texts on some topics. They may rely heavily
on one source of information (for example, their grapho-phonic knowledge or their prior
experiences) without fully understanding the text. For example, a recent immigrant from
an urban Asian background may have difficulty in making sense of a text about sheep
shearing in Central Otago. On the other hand, when reading about a topic they are very
familiar with, a learner may rely on their background knowledge to make sense of the
text rather than fully comprehending it.
15
Factors affecting progress
A learner’s level of English language learners develop proficiency in reading at very different rates. There are
literacy in their first
many factors that affect the starting point for learners and that have a strong influence on
language strongly
influences their rate their rates of progress. Perhaps the most important factor, especially for learners beyond
of progress in the first two or three years of schooling, is the level of literacy that they have attained in
reading in English. their first language. Learners who have had no previous formal education and who can’t
read or write in their first language will take much longer to learn written English than
learners who are literate in their first language. The older an English language learner
is when they begin schooling, the greater and more noticeable the gap will be between
them and their native-speaker peers and the greater their need will be for intensive,
long-term support.
Assessing and reporting on reading

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve students’ learning and teachers’
teaching. By focusing on giving useful feedback (a key component of formative
Judgments about assessment) throughout the learning process, teachers can work with their English
progress can only be
language learners to close the gap between their current performance and what is
made over time and
based on a variety of expected of their native-speaker peers. A teacher can assess and report on a learner’s
assessment methods. progress in reading by using standardised tests conducted at regular intervals and by
making informal judgments about the learner’s comprehension of reading texts at
different levels of complexity. It’s unwise to make broad judgments about “reading ages”
or “reading levels” based on the occasional use of a reading assessment tool. Reading
proficiency is influenced by many factors (such as the learner’s familiarity with the
content of the texts, the cultural knowledge required to understand the texts, the quality
of the teacher’s scaffolding, and the learner’s motivation). A single assessment provides
only a snapshot of a learner’s proficiency in relation to the task at the time, although it
may also indicate areas of strength and weakness in reading.
Making decisions about a learner’s progress is complex because it requires ongoing

diagnostic assessment to gain information about what a learner needs, integrated
with summative assessments that define a point the learner has reached. Assessment
of reading development should include making informal observations about the
learner’s attitudes and approaches to both extensive reading and reading for deeper
understanding, how much reading they are doing, their ability to choose appropriate
reading materials for different purposes, and their awareness of reading strategies. For
further information on reading assessment, see the ESOL Progress Assessment Guidelines.
16
The reading progression
The following matrix gives a broad overview of the features of texts that are suitable
for learners at each stage of the ELLP. There is no matrix provided to indicate reading
behaviours at the various stages because the interplay between the level of complexity
of a text, factors affecting text difficulty for individual learners, and learners’ text-
processing skills is too complex to be presented in this way. A learner will be able to
read more complex texts when they receive a lot of support from the teacher, already
know something about and are interested in what they are reading, and feel confident.
The same learner will cope with reading less complex texts when they are reading
independently, have little background knowledge, feel insecure, and/or are not very
interested in the text.
The matrix is indicative only; it is not a complete inventory of text features, and some
features of later-stage texts may occur in texts at earlier stages.
17
18
The reading matrix
Topic development Language structures Vocabulary Layout Examples can be found on:
Foundation Stage
– Texts are very short. They – Texts contain single words or – Texts use repeated high-frequency – Texts have only a few – pages 22–23
contain one or two simple short sentences, usually in the words and some words that are words per page and
ideas and use a lot of subject–verb–object order. lower frequency and topic-specific are well supported by
repetition. and that are strongly supported by illustrations.
the context.
– Texts are short and often – Texts contain simple and – Texts use varied high-frequency – Texts have about three – pages 24–31
Stage 1
present ideas in a simple compound sentences with a words and some words that are sentences per page and
sequence. variety of sentence beginnings. lower frequency and topic-specific are well supported by
There are usually no more than and that are strongly supported by illustrations.
two clauses per sentence. the context.
– Topics are developed in more – Texts contain simple, compound, – Texts use varied high-frequency – Texts have several – pages 30–35
depth and assume more and some complex sentences. words and some words that are sentences or short
background knowledge. Sentences are sometimes lower frequency and topic-specific paragraphs per page and
Stage 2
expanded with prepositional or technical, and that should be may be supported by

– Text types are more varied: phrases or other structures. clear from the context. illustrations.
they may be reports,
arguments, procedures,
explanations, recounts, or
mixtures of these.
– Topics are developed to more – Texts contain a variety of – Texts use some lower-frequency – Texts are arranged – pages 34–43
complex levels in a variety sentence types, some of which and technical words that are not in paragraphs and
of ways, using connectives may be more complex. They may easy to infer from the context. may be supported by
to signal the relationship of include passive constructions diagrams, illustrations, or
– They may use some idiomatic
Stage 3
ideas, e.g., cause and effect or and direct speech. photographs.

sequence. language.
– Texts may interweave more

than one text type.
– Comprehension requires more
inference.
– Topics are developed in – Texts include a variety of sentence – Texts use low-frequency words and – Texts are arranged in – pages 40–51
great depth and may be very structures. They may include technical vocabulary. paragraphs and may use
technical. embedded and relative clauses subheadings.
– They may use similes, metaphors,
Stage 4
and passive constructions.

– Texts may include many and idiomatic language without – There may be no
different time settings or – Each sentence may contain explanation. illustrations,
lustrations, or there
multiple voices. several concepts. may be some that require
high-level interpretation.
– Texts may interweave more
than one text type.
19
20
Sample texts for reading
The following progression of sample texts is arranged according to the stages of the matrix but is
further divided into Foundation, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D/2A, 2B, 2C/3A, 3B, 3C, 3D/4A, 4B, 4C, and 4D
Stages. There is some overlap between the stages, as indicated by the labels 1D/2A, 2C/3A, and
3D/4A. Each text is analysed in terms of its topic development, language structures, vocabulary,
and layout.
The analyses include vocabulary tables, which indicate the percentage of high- and low-frequency
words that are found in each text. (Note that the vocabulary tables do not include the title
and refer only to the words in the excerpt given, not to all the words in the whole text.) High-
frequency words are words that occur often in oral and written text. Low-frequency words are
those that occur less often. Some topic words are high frequency, for example, “wind” and “sun”,
and some are low frequency, for example, “battery”. Most words in a simple text are found in a
list of the first thousand high-frequency words. Many words in a complex text are found in an
academic word list or are not in the lists. (See pages 44–45 and 54–55 in the introductory booklet
for sources of the lists.) For further information about vocabulary, refer to the introductory booklet
on pages 39–46.
The vocabulary analysis tables4 include two types of percentages. They give the percentages for
the number of running words (all of the words that occur in the text) and the percentages for
the number of word types (different words). For example, “I bought some milk and eggs. Jane
bought some eggs and some bread” has thirteen words but only eight word types because “bought”,
“some”, “eggs”, and “and” are repeated. Simple texts generally have a lower ratio of word types to
running words because they use more repetition.
4
The vocabulary analysis program used in ELLP is available online at www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation /RANGE.zip.
Note that vocabulary analyses may count running words in different ways, for example, when counting contractions
such as “I’ve”, or numbers, or dates.
21
Foundation Stage
The following sample text is at the Foundation Stage because it is short and highly repetitive – only
one word changes per page. The text contains simple sentences.
Texts at the Foundation Stage tend to have the following characteristics:

– only a few words per page;
– good support from illustrations;
– lots of repetition;
– use of high-frequency words and only a few topic words;
– very little idiomatic language;
– use of single words and/or short, simple sentences.
Other examples of texts at Foundation Stage include some of those found in the Selections series
and in the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource. When choosing simple texts
for older learners, it’s best to avoid texts with illustrations and subject matter more suited to young
children. Non-fiction texts may be a good starting point.
Sample text
Text: Tu‘akoi, Feana (2000). Going to the River. Ready to Read series.
Wellington: Learning Media.
Topic: Some animals go to the river and run away when the lion comes.
Text type: Narrative
Audience: An emergent reader of any age
Topic development
The text is short, and the ideas are simple and
repetitive. One character acts at a time. The Going to the River
actions are presented in sequence. The reader
Elephant is going to the river.
needs some background knowledge or needs to
Zebra is going to the river.
use inference to distinguish between prey and
predator. Monkey is going to the river.
Hippopotamus is going to the river.
Buffalo is going to the river.
Language structures Lion is going to the river.
The sentences are simple clauses (subject–verb–
Run! Run! Run!
object). They are highly repetitive (only the first
word changes until the last page).
The verb phrases are mostly in the third-person-

singular present continuous form – is going.
There is an imperative verb repeated twice on
the last page.
The noun phrases are single nouns used as names for the animals – Zebra, Buffalo. There are no
adjectives. (In grammatical terminology, a noun phrase can be a single word or a group of words
that has a noun as the main part of the phrase and does not include a finite verb. For example,
in the sentence “The fox loved children”, “The fox” is a noun phrase and “children” is also a noun
phrase.)
22
Vocabulary
The text contains a limited range of vocabulary. Most words are high-frequency words, but there are
some low-frequency nouns with meanings that are easy to infer from the illustrations. The text is
very repetitive – only twelve different words are used in the forty-three-word text. Most of the words
are phonologically easy to unpack and pronounce.
Vocabulary analysis
Percentage of words Percentage of word types
in each list in each list
List One (first 1000 high-frequency 86% 50%
words)
List Two (second 1000 high- 4.7% 16.7%

frequency words)
List Three (academic word list) 0 0
Others (not in any list) 9.3% 33.3%
Total number 39 running words 12 word types
Text layout
There is one line of text per page, accompanied by an illustration that
supports the meaning
of the text.
23
Stage 1A
The following sample text is at Stage 1A because it has only one short sentence per page. The
sentences are structurally repetitive and are simple sentences.
Texts at Stage 1A tend to have the following characteristics:

– only one short sentence per page;
– repetition of language structures;
– use of high-frequency words and some topic words that are strongly supported
by the context;
– very little idiomatic language;
– mainly simple sentences with only one clause.
Other examples of texts at Stage 1A include some of those found in the Selections series and
at Stage 1 of the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for example,
“Afghanistan” in Stage 1:8[c]). When choosing simple texts for older learners, it’s best to avoid texts
with illustrations and subject matter more suited to young children. Non-fiction texts may be a
good starting point.
Sample text
Text: Cowley, Joy (1994). The Water Boatman. Ready to Read series.
Topic: Describing the features of an insect and a fish
Text type: Scientific description
Audience: Emergent readers
Topic development
The text is short, and the ideas are simple The Water Boatman
and repetitive. There are two main ideas: the
characteristics of the water boatman and the The water boatman lives in a pond.
characteristics of the mudfish. The last page It swims with its back legs.
brings the two together in a predator– It holds on with its middle legs.
prey relationship. It eats with its front legs.
A mudfish lives in the pond, too.
It swims with its fins and tail.
Language structures
The sentences are mostly simple clauses It eats water boatmen!
made up of a noun phrase (The water
[In diagram:]
boatman), a verb (lives), and a prepositional
Compound eye, wings, front leg, middle
phrase (in a pond). They are fairly repetitive,
leg, back leg, fine hairs
with only a few changes in each sentence.
A water boatman is this big.
The verb phrases are in the third-person
singular present tense (swims, holds, eats)
because they present information that is
always true, in this case scientific facts.
The verbs denote actions, describing what
the water boatman and the mudfish do.
24
The noun phrase at the start of the first sentence is made up of the definite article (The) and the
compound noun water boatman. “The” is used to define the water boatman as a class of insects.
The pronoun It is used in the following sentences to refer to the water boatman. (A similar pattern
is used in the sentences about the mudfish.) Note that the plural form of the noun (-men) is used
on the last page, and the article is omitted. The indefinite article (a) is used for the first sentence
about the mudfish, which has not previously been introduced. Each prepositional phrase (with its
back legs) contains a noun phrase (its back legs), and some of the noun phrases contain an adjective
(back).
Vocabulary
The text contains a limited range of vocabulary. Most words are high-frequency words, but there
are some low-frequency, technical nouns that are easy to understand from the illustrations – fins,
compound eye. Most words are phonologically easy to unpack and pronounce.
Vocabulary analysis
List One (first 1000 high-frequency 67.3% 60%
words)
List Two (second 1000 high- 20% 20%

frequency words)
List Three (academic word list) 1.8% 3.3%
Text layout
There is one line of text per page, accompanied by an illustration that contributes to the meaning of
the text. On the inside back cover is a scientific diagram, presenting some new vocabulary as well
as some from the text.
25
Stage 1B
The following sample text is at Stage 1B because it is fairly short and conceptually simple, with ideas
presented in a simple sequence. The sentences are simple, compound, or complex, with repetitive
structures.
Texts at Stage 1B tend to have the following characteristics:

– only a few short sentences per page;
– a variety of sentence beginnings;
– ideas presented in a simple sequence;
– use of high-frequency words and some topic words that are strongly supported
by the context;
– use of simple or compound sentences.
Other examples of texts at Stage 1B include some of those found in the Selections series and at Stage 1
of the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for example, “Bangladesh” in Stage 1:
14[c] and “Chinese New Year” in Stage 1: 12[c]). When choosing simple texts for older learners, it’s best
to avoid texts with illustrations and subject matter more suited to young children. Non-fiction texts may
be a good starting point.
Sample text
Text: Meharry, Dot (2004). Purr-fect!
Purr-fect! Ready to Read series.
One morning, a cat saw a bird in a tree.
Topic: A cat flatters a bird until “Hello, bird,” she said. “I like your song.”
the bird flies close enough to be The bird was pleased that the cat liked his
caught.
song. He sang for the cat.
Text type: Narrative “Purr-fect,” said the cat. “And I like your
feathers.”
Audience: An early-stage reader
The bird was pleased that the cat liked
his feathers. He flew closer to the cat and
Topic development fluffed up his feathers for her to see.
The text is a classic fable with a moral, “Purr-fect,” said the cat. “And I like the
in which one character is flattered into
way you fly.” The bird was pleased that
becoming the victim of another. The
the cat liked his flying, so he flew round
reader needs to infer that the cat eats the
the cat.
bird at the end of the story.
“Purr-fect,” said the cat. “But … I wish I
could fly like you.” The bird was pleased
Language structures
The text has a repetitive structure – the that the cat wanted to fly like him. He flew
cat makes a statement, the bird acts, and down to the cat.
the cat says, “Purr-fect.” This sequence is He sang his song. He fluffed up his
repeated four times. feathers.
The sentence structures vary, ranging from The cat jumped!
simple to compound and complex. The
“Purr-fect,” she said, and she washed her
reader needs to know the conventions for
writing direct speech to recognise that a face.
26 character is talking.
The text repeats the phrase The bird was pleased that the cat liked …
The verb phrases are in the simple past tense in the narrative – flew, washed. There are some
phrasal verbs – fluffed up. The verbs that are part of the direct speech are in the simple present
– like, fly. Some complex verb phrases are included – wanted to fly. The verbs show what the bird
and cat do (said, sang, flew, jumped) and how they feel (was pleased, liked).
The noun phrases relate to the central characters (The bird, the cat) and the attributes of each (his
song, his feathers, his flying, her face). The masculine pronoun he and the feminine pronoun she are
used, and the reader has to recognise which character each pronoun refers to.
Linking words are used to connect ideas – The bird was pleased that the cat liked his flying, so he flew
round the cat.
Vocabulary
The word “Purr-fect” is very important to the story – it’s a pun involving the words “purr” and
“perfect”. It’s in the title, it’s repeated throughout the book, and it starts the last sentence. Readers
will need support in understanding the pun before reading.
The text contains mostly high-frequency words. Because it’s repetitive, there’s a low ratio of word
types to running words. There are two words (fluffed and Purr-fect) that are not in the lists, but
“perfect” is in List Two, and so “purr-fect” is analysed as such.
Vocabulary analysis
List One (first 1000 high-frequency 81.9% 85.7%
words)

frequency words)
List Three (academic word list) 0% 0%
Others (not in any list) 1.4% 2%
Text layout
The text is laid out
with two to four
short sentences on
each page. The two
characters are shown
in the illustrations on
each page – except for
the last page, which
shows a feather and
the cat licking her lips
to imply the fate of the
bird.
27
Stage 1C
The following sample text is at Stage 1C because it is fairly short and the sentences are mostly
simple or compound.
Texts at Stage 1C tend to have the following characteristics:

– about three sentences per page;
– a variety of sentence beginnings;
– ideas presented in a simple sequence;
– little repetition;
– use of high-frequency words and some lower-frequency, topic-specific words;
– use of simple and compound sentences.
Other examples of texts at Stage 1C include some of those found in the Selections series and at
Stage 1 of the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource. When choosing simple
texts for older learners, it’s best to avoid texts with illustrations and subject matter more suited to
young children. Non-fiction texts may be a good starting point.
Sample text
Text: Quinn, Pat and Gaynor, Bill (1995). Wind Power. Ready to Read series.
Topic: The generation of electricity through wind power, using a wind

turbine
Text type: Explanation
Audience: A reader who wants to know about wind turbines
Topic development Wind Power

The text begins with a personal
We love to walk up the hill behind our house.
description and then moves into the
explanation. The narrator describes You can see the whole city.
the location of the wind turbine, why You can see right out to the ocean.
it’s there, what it looks like, and how The wind blows there most of the time.
it works. Although it is a personal It blows the grass flat.
account, the text is also technically
It’s too windy for trees to grow.
accurate and informative. There is
a diagram on the inside back cover. At the top of the hill there is a big machine.
A wind turbine.
Language structures The turbine looks like a windmill.

The sentences are sometimes It sounds like a windmill as the blades twirl around.
simple, but these are often Swoosh! Swoosh! Swoosh!
expanded through adverbial
phrases of time, place, or manner The wind blows the blades around.
– We love to walk up the hill behind The blades turn the generator.
our house. They are sometimes The generator makes electricity.
complex, with at least two clauses And we use electricity every day,
– It sounds like a windmill (main
for all kinds of things …
clause) as the blades twirl around
28 (subordinate clause).
There is also a sentence fragment (A wind turbine), which is used to name the big machine. The
sentences are sometimes structurally repetitive.
The verb phrases are mostly simple, with action in the simple present. Mainly action verbs (blows,
turn) or sensory verbs (love, sounds) are used.
The noun phrases are fairly simple – trees (noun), a windmill (a determiner and a noun), the whole
city (a determiner, an adjective, and a noun). First- or second-person pronouns (We, You) and third-
person pronouns (It) are used. There are some pronouns that are used close to the noun they refer
to – The wind … It, The turbine … It.
Vocabulary
The text contains a high percentage of relatively high-frequency words (within the first 1000 words)
and a few words beyond the first 1000, for example, whole, ocean, Swoosh. There is a significant
number of technical words related to the topic (ten word types). These technical words are
supported by large, clear illustrations and by the context.
Vocabulary analysis
words)
List Two (second 1000 high- 7.8% 10%

frequency words)
List Three (academic word list) 0% 0%
Text layout
Large, brightly coloured illustrations support the printed text. They also support exploration of
meaning beyond the text. The book uses a relatively small font and generous line spacing.
29
Stage 1D/2A
The following sample text is at Stage 1D/2A because it contains expanded sentences and quite a lot
of topic vocabulary.
Texts at Stage 1D/2A tend to have the following characteristics:

– around three or more sentences per page;
– little repetition;
– support from illustrations;
– use of high-frequency words and some lower-frequency, technical, or topic words;
– use of simple, compound, and some complex sentences;
– sentences that are expanded with prepositional phrases or other structures.
Other examples of texts at Stage 1D/2A include some of those found in the Selections series and at
Stage 2 of the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for example, “Antarctica”
in Stage 2: 11[d]). When choosing simple texts for older learners, it’s best to avoid texts with types
of illustrations and subject matter more suited to young children. Non-fiction texts may be a good
starting point.
Sample text
Text: Ministry of Education (2003). “The Beginning of Digestion”. English
Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource. Auckland: Ministry of
Education, Stage 2: 8(d).
Topic: The process of digestion
Audience: A reader who wants to know about the body
Topic development
The text begins with a general The Beginning of Digestion
statement about the human mouth
The adult human usually has 32 teeth, of four basic
and then continues with the next
stages of the process of digestion. types. The teeth physically break up our food into
The text is also technically accurate smaller pieces.
and informative. The tongue is made of muscle. It moves food around
the mouth to meet the teeth. Saliva from the salivary
Language structures glands wets the food when it is in the mouth. Saliva
The sentences are sometimes makes the food easy to swallow. It contains salivary
simple, but they are often expanded amylase, which is an enzyme that starts to break down
through adverbial phrases of any carbohydrate in the food.
time, place, or manner – The
After the food is chewed it is swallowed and passed
teeth physically break up our food
into smaller pieces. They are through the food pipe (oesophagus) to the stomach.
sometimes complex, with at least This process is called peristalsis.
two clauses – Saliva from the salivary
30
glands wets the food (main clause) when it is in the mouth (subordinate clause). The sentences
are sometimes structurally repetitive.
The verb phrases are mainly simple, with action in the simple present representing scientific
facts. Both action verbs (break up, wets, is swallowed) and other verbs showing relationships
and attributes (is, has, contains) are used. Some of the verbs are in the passive form (is chewed,
is called), which is common in scientific texts.
The noun phrases are fairly simple – Saliva (noun), any carbohydrate, This process (a determiner
and a noun), The adult human (a determiner, an adjective, and a noun). The third-person
pronoun (It) is used. There are some pronouns that are used close to the noun they refer to
– Saliva makes … It (refers to saliva) contains.
Vocabulary
The text contains a high percentage of relatively high-frequency words (within the first
1000 words) and some words beyond the first 1000, for example, pieces, muscle. There is a
significant number of technical words related to the topic, for example, peristalsis, oesophagus
(which is explained in more common language as food pipe). These technical words are
supported by the context. In this case, there is no diagram, but there are often diagrams in this
sort of text to aid comprehension.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
This text is presented in paragraphs. It has no illustrations in the English Language Intensive
Programme Years 7–13 Resource, but this type of text is often supported by a diagram.
31
Stage 2B
The following sample text is at Stage 2B because it uses varied sentence types that are often
expanded.

– several sentences per page;
– little repetition; Becoming a New Zealander
– some illustrations;
Today, I became a New Zealander. People
– use of varied high-frequency
who are not born here have to go through
words and some technical or
a special ceremony if they want to become
topic words;
New Zealand citizens. That’s what my family
– topics that are developed
did today.
in depth or that assume
background knowledge; I was born in Taiwan, and I moved to New
– use of simple, compound, and Zealand with my family five years ago when
complex sentences; I was eleven years old. Now, we live in a
place called Kihikihi, which is just south of
– sentences that are expanded
with prepositional phrases or Te Awamutu.
other structures. Our brick home in Kihikihi is nothing like
Other examples of texts at Stage 2B my home in Taiwan. We live on a citrus fruit
include some of those found in the orchard, and our neighbours have geese and
Selections series and at Stage 2 of the sheep in their backyards.
English Language Intensive Programme
Years 7–13 Resource. In Taiwan, we lived in a five-storey
apartment building in the city. It was
Sample text surrounded by other tall buildings that were
full of families just like ours. No one had
Extract: Holt, Sharon and Yu backyards, and there were certainly no farm
Su, Miao (2003). “Becoming animals nearby!
a New Zealander”. Branching
Out. Choices series. Wellington: My parents moved to New Zealand because
Learning Media, pages 30–31. it is less crowded than Taiwan. They
believed that my brother and I would have
Topic: Describing the process of
better opportunities in New Zealand than we
becoming a New Zealand citizen
would have in Taiwan.
Text type: Recount I miss my friends and other family members,
Audience: A general reader but we often have Taiwanese visitors staying
with us, and I use the Internet to keep in
touch with friends.
Topic development Even though we have been here for

The text begins with a statement about five years, we still speak Mandarin and
the citizenship ceremony, then recounts Taiwanese in our home. My mother still
some of the writer’s past, describes where cooks traditional Chinese meals, and we
she lives now, and explains some aspects have kept all of our cultural traditions, such
of her family life, contrasting her past life as celebrating the Chinese New Year and
with her present. other Chinese festivals.
32
Language structures
There are many different sentence types, including compound and complex sentences.
The sentences are often expanded with prepositional phrases (in a five-storey apartment
building in the city). They do not use repetitive structures.
There are many different types of connectives signalling the types of relationships
between the ideas. Contrast is signalled by but, Even though. Some ideas are expanded
with examples – such as celebrating the Chinese New Year and other Chinese festivals.
The verb phrases use mostly past and present simple verb forms (became, moved, live,
have). But there are some passive forms (was born, was surrounded) and some other
complex verb phrases (would have, have been). Some of the verb phrases denote actions
(moved, use the Internet to keep in touch) or feelings (believed, miss).
The text describes people, places, and cultures, so it uses proper nouns and adjectives
formed from these – New Zealand, Chinese.
The text expresses a personal viewpoint and uses lots of pronouns to refer to people and
places – I, we, It.
There are several ways of noting comparison (nothing like, less crowded, better), requiring
the reader to understand that two places are being compared throughout the text.
Vocabulary
The text uses mainly high-frequency general vocabulary, with one technical phrase
– citrus fruit orchard. There is some repetition of vocabulary.
Vocabulary analysis

words)

frequency words)
Text layout
The text is presented in various
fonts on different backgrounds,
in a magazine style. It is
supported by photographs.
33
Stage 2C/3A
The following sample text is at Stage 2C/3A. It describes and explains a technical process. The
sentences are mostly compound or complex.
Texts at Stage 2C/3A tend to have the following characteristics:

– ideas arranged into paragraphs;
– support from diagrams, illustrations, or photographs;
– topics that are developed in depth, using linking words to connect ideas;
– varied high-frequency words and some technical or topic words that are not easy to infer
from the context;
– simple, compound, or complex sentences, sometimes containing passive constructions or
direct speech.
Other examples of texts at Stage 2C/3A include some of those found in the Selections series and
at Stages 2 and 3 of the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for example,
“Whale Rider” in Stage 2: 24(d)).
Sample text
Extract: Gibbison, Sue (2003). “Moving Old Houses”. Junior Journal 28.
Wellington: Learning Media, page 17.
Topic: Explaining how a house is moved to a new location
Audience: A reader of any age
Topic development
The topic is developed with a
question (as a heading at the top),
Moving Old Houses
which is answered in the text
below. The text preceding this Wouldn’t a house get damaged
excerpt answers the questions from being loaded on and off trucks?
“Where do the old houses come
Houses built from wood are very flexible and can
from?” and “Why do people move
old houses instead of building new bend quite a lot. If a house is too wide for the
ones?” This section of the text road, it can be cut in half or thirds and moved in
explains how the old houses are pieces. Then it is joined together again when all
moved. the pieces get to the new section.
Sometimes there are accidents, and windows get

Language structures broken or parts of a house fall off. These things
The sentences are mostly complex, are fixed up when the house is safely on its new
for example, Then it is joined piles. Fireplaces are always taken out before the
together again (main clause) when house is moved. They are put back again when
all the pieces get to the new section it’s on its new section.
(subordinate clause), or compound
complex (If a house is too wide for the
road, it can be cut in half or thirds and
moved in pieces).
34
Adverbial phrases indicate the sequence of events (then, when …, before …) and conditional events
(Sometimes, always). There is ellipsis of relative pronouns and verbs – Houses [that are] built from
wood.
The verb phrases are often complex – is joined together. They include passive constructions – can be
cut in half, is joined, are fixed up. Phrasal verbs are also included – are fixed up, are taken out.
The noun phrases include very few adjectives. The determiners a (indefinite article) and the
(definite article) are used to indicate nouns that are generic (a house) and specific (the house). Some
pronouns are distant from the nouns that they refer to – Fireplaces … They.
Vocabulary
The text contains a significant number of high-frequency words, many of them repeated, and some
lower-frequency words that are explained in the text – flexible and can bend quite a lot. There is
some technical vocabulary (piles), with no clear context clues to help the reader infer the meaning.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
The article is laid out with a
photograph at the top of each page,
followed by a question that is used
as a heading, which is answered by
the text below it. The images aid
comprehension.
35
Stage 3B
The following sample text is at Stage 3B because it contains compound and complex sentences.
It requires some background knowledge and inference to understand what’s happening.

Mussel Time
– support from diagrams,
illustrations, or photographs;
Longosai keeps gently stirring the
– topics that are developed in depth, mussels to make sure that the ones on
using linking words to connect the bottom don’t open too much and
ideas;
that the ones on top are being cooked.
– some technical or topic words If they’re cooked for too long, they
that are not easy to infer from the become chewy, and that’s not how the
context;
boys like their kai. The mussels must
– some idiomatic language; be soft, hot, tender, and dripping with
– long sentences; coconut cream.
– simple, compound, or complex
“Mmm, I could stand here all day
sentences, sometimes containing
smelling this beautiful, sweet kai,” jokes
passive constructions or direct
Longosai, “but if I do, there’ll be no
speech.
flavour left in the mussels!”
Other examples of texts at Stage 3B include
some of those found in the Selections series The coconut cream starts to simmer
and at Stage 3 of the English Language – and the mussels begin to open. When
Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for all the shells are open, it’s time for
example, “Tattooing and Body Piercing on action.
Minors” in Stage 3: 9[d]).
“Over here with the tray and serving
tongs, chefs,” calls Longosai.
Sample text
“Three for me, one for you two,” teases
Extract: Hart, John (2003). “Mussel Filimone as he helps lift the mussels out
Time”. School Journal, Part 3 of the pot.
Number 1, 2003. Wellington:
Learning Media, page 9. When the tray is loaded, the boys carry
it to the staffroom balcony. They’ve
Topic: Cooking mussels at school for invited a special guest to share their
lunch
meal – Mrs Howe, the principal. They’ve
Text type: Recount chosen her because of her love for
the schoolchildren and because her
Audience: Primary or secondary
presence gives honour to the occasion.
school students, particularly those
who have a strong interest in the “Quiet, please,” whispers Painga.
cultural context “Heads down and arms off the table.”
Topic development
The text is an excerpt from a narrative about cooking and eating mussels. This part goes into some
detail about the cooking and serving process. The reader needs to use inference to understand the
last paragraph (that is, the boys are about to say grace before eating).
36
Language structures
The sentences use a variety of structures, including compound (The coconut cream starts to simmer
– and the mussels begin to open) and complex (When all the shells are open, [subordinate clause] it’s
time for action [main clause]).
The verb phrases are complex and include adverbs (keeps gently stirring), present perfect verb
forms (They’ve invited), and modal verbs (must be). Present verb forms invite the reader into the
immediacy of the occasion (jokes, starts), and a variety of alternatives to “says” build the mood
(jokes, calls, teases, whispers). Contracted verb forms reduce the formality of the text – They’ve.
The noun phrases are often complex (the ones on the bottom, all the shells) and include adjectives
(this beautiful, sweet kai).
Cohesion involves some words being substituted for nouns (the ones [mussels]), some ellipsis
characteristic of informal spoken language ([Put your] Heads down and [take your] arms off the
table), and pronouns that are sometimes distant from the nouns they refer to – the mussels … they’re.
Vocabulary
The text contains a high percentage of high-frequency vocabulary but also some lower-frequency
vocabulary – balcony. Vocabulary associated with cooking is used – cooked, chewy, kai, soft, hot.
There are also some colloquial expressions (time for action) that help establish the informal tone of
the text.
Vocabulary analysis
words)
List Two (second 1000 high- 9.7% 13%

frequency words)
Text layout
The photographs complement the text
and create a picture of the participants
and their actions.
37
Stage 3C
The following sample text is at Stage 3C because it is a mixture of text types and uses a large
amount of technical or topic vocabulary. The sentences are mostly compound or complex.
Texts at Stage 3C tend to have the following

characteristics: Paddle Power
A kayak is a long, narrow boat
– support from diagrams, illustrations, specially designed for sea travel.
or photographs;
Its shape (wide in the middle and
– topics that are developed in depth,
narrow at the ends) makes it stable
using linking words to connect ideas,
and more than one text type; in rough water. But if it does tip
over, water can be emptied out of the
– sentences that require inference to
cockpits using a bilge pump.
understand the ideas;
– some lower-frequency, technical, or A traditional kayak is made from a
topic-specific words that are not easy light, wooden frame covered with
to infer from the context; sealskin, with a hole in the middle
– some idiomatic language; where the paddler sits. For centuries,
– long sentences; the Inuit people of Greenland, North
– simple, compound, or complex America, and Canada used this kind of

sentences, sometimes containing kayak for fishing and sealing.
passive constructions or direct speech. A modern kayak is usually made of
Other examples of texts at Stage 3C include fibreglass, Kevlar (a woven fabric that
some of those found in the Selections series is stronger than fibreglass), or plastic.
and at Stage 3 of the English Language Intensive It can be a single (for one person) or a
Programme Years 7–13 Resource (for example, double (for two people). In a double
“Sustainable and Renewable Energy” in
kayak, each person sits in a separate
Stage 3: 3[d]).
cockpit, one at the front and one at the
back.
Sample text …
Extract: Lilleby, Maggie (2001). Paddle In the narrow tunnel, the waves are
Power. School Journal Story Library much stronger. Water smashes against
series. Wellington: Learning Media, the walls and slurps back again to the
pages 4 and 9. other side. Brett and Valerie both have
to work hard to stop the kayak from
Topic: Sea kayaking
crashing into the sides of the tunnel.
Text type: Description and recount It’s dark and spooky inside. The kayak
pitches wildly up and down, and Brett
Audience: Readers who enjoy sport or
is loving every minute. But what will
adventure
happen if they’re washed up onto those
sharp rocks?
Topic development
Most of the book this text is taken from is a
factual description of kayak design, interwoven
with the “core” text of Brett and Valerie
preparing for and going sea kayaking. Both text
types develop the theme of sea kayaking. The
inclusion of Brett and Valerie makes the text
38 more personal and helps to engage the reader.
Language structures
The sentences have a variety of beginnings and are mostly compound (The kayak pitches wildly up
and down, and Brett is loving every minute) or complex (But if it does tip over, water can be emptied out
of the cockpits using a bilge pump). They vary in length from short to long.
The verb phrases include the verb “to be”, which is often used in the technical or scientific
description, in both the active and the passive forms – A kayak is (active); A traditional kayak is made
(passive). There are some present-tense action verbs (sits, pitches) and onomatopoeic verbs in the
recount passage (smashes, slurps). The verb phrases are sometimes complex (can be emptied, have
to work) and include some phrasal verbs (tip over, are washed up). Some future forms are used with
conditionals (what will happen if …), and modals such as can are used for predictions or warnings.
The noun phrases vary from simple (A kayak, water, A traditional kayak) to complex (a long, narrow
boat specially designed for sea travel; a light, wooden frame covered with sealskin). The pronoun “it” is
used to refer to nouns that either follow it or precede it and also to refer to concepts or processes
(It’s dark and spooky inside).
Vocabulary
The text contains topic-specific technical vocabulary in almost all sentences – bilge pump, wooden
frame covered with sealskin, paddler, modern kayak, pitches. There are colloquial expressions
– spooky inside.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
The text is set out in two
interwoven sections – the
technical information and
the personal recount.
Photographs and
diagrams support the
technical description, and
photographs support the
recount.
39
Stage 3D/4A
The following sample text at Stage 3D/4A describes and explains a technical process. The
sentences are mostly compound or complex.

– topics that are developed in depth and may be technical;
– diagrams, illustrations, or photographs;
– lower-frequency, technical, or topic-specific words that are not easy to infer from
the context;
– use of more complex figurative language, such as similes and metaphors;
– wider use of idiomatic language;
– ideas that are arranged into paragraphs, sometimes using subheadings;
– a variety of sentence structures, including embedded clauses and passive constructions.
Other examples of texts at Stage
3D/4A include some of those found
The Distinction between Plastics
in Part 4 of the School Journal, in the
and Metals
Choices and Selections series, and
at Stage 3 of the English Language What Is a Plastic?
Intensive Programme Years 7–13 A plastic is an organic material that can be
Resource.
moulded into shape when soft. It then sets
to become rigid or slightly elastic. Plastics
Sample text can usually be reshaped by applying heat
or pressure. They are made from organic
Text: Quinn, Pat (2003). The
Distinction between Plastics polymers. A polymer is a long molecule
and Metals. Charged! made of many repeating units, each known
MacDiarmid’s Electroplastic. as a monomer. (The prefix “poly-” means
Applications series. many, and the prefix “mono-” means single.)
Wellington: Learning Media, Monomers do not usually exist as separate
page 3. molecules. Rather they are joined together in
long chains like beads on a necklace. Each
Topic: The difference between
polymer has characteristic properties that
plastics and metals
make it suitable for particular uses. Nearly
Text type: Scientific explanation all polymers are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. Polymers are everywhere in the
Audience: A science student
modern world – in fabrics, films, foams, paints,
and fibres. Most modern technologies use
Topic development polymeric materials in some way.
The text is set out as two paragraphs
What Is a Metal?
with a subheading at the beginning
of each. The first paragraph defines A metal is a chemical element that is typically
plastics and describes some of their hard, shiny, malleable (able to be hammered
properties. The second paragraph or pressed into shape without breaking),
does the same for metals. fusible (able to be fused or melted easily),
and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin
wire). Metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity. However, not all metals have all
these properties.
40
Language structures
The sentences are of varied types, but most are simple.
The verb phrases are often passive – can usually be reshaped, are made from, are joined together.
There are several uses of simple linking verbs (is, are, have) to state properties.
The noun phrases are mostly simple when they are the subject of the sentence (A plastic, Polymers,
A metal), but there are some complex noun phrases – Most modern technologies.
Adjectives and adverbs are used to qualify ideas (slightly, usually, Most, typically) so that the reader
knows that the statements don’t apply to all plastics or metals all the time. Lists of adjectives are
used to show properties – hard, shiny, malleable.
Vocabulary
Many of the words are highly technical, academic, and topic specific, but there are many high-
frequency words as well. The difficult vocabulary is made easier for the reader by in-text definitions
(ductile [able to be drawn out into a thin wire]) and by the information about the prefixes poly- and
mono-. Linking words are used to signal relationships between ideas – Rather, However.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
List Three (academic word list) 2% 3.2%
Text layout
There are subheadings for sections
of the text to help the reader focus
on the main idea. The text is
supported by diagrams.
41
Stage 3D/4A
The following sample text is at Stage 3D/4A because it describes and expresses complex ideas and
emotions. The sentences are mostly compound or complex.

– diagrams, illustrations, or photographs;
– lower-frequency, technical, or topic-specific words that are not easy to infer from
the context;
– a variety of sentence structures, including embedded clauses and passive constructions.
Other examples of texts at Stage 3D/4A include some of those found in Part 4 of the School Journal,
in the Choices and Selections series, and at Stage 3 of the English Language Intensive Programme
Years 7–13 Resource.
Sample text
Extract: Roberts, Megan (2003). And Then I Grew Up …
“And Then I Grew Up …”.
On the back porch, dozens of boots lay
This Other Place, Journal of
scattered, camouflaged by gooey mud, and
Secondary Students’
Writing, 2003. Wellington: the smell of fresh cowpat seemed to be
Learning Media, page 32. everywhere. When I finally left the warm haven
of Grandma’s kitchen to venture out into the
Topic: A teenager’s icy beyond, I felt like a snowman. As I stood
childhood memories of her
waiting with anticipation for Grandpa’s ancient,
grandparents’ house
mustard Land Rover to appear, I was filled with
Text type: A literary description a great sense of excitement and exhilaration.
The cobwebs on the fenceline clothed in icy
Audience: A general audience,
dew reminded me of lace. Grandpa told us
but particularly young people
they were fairies’ lace, so we regarded them as
(because the text is written by
untouchable. However, the thin ice covering
a teenager)
each puddle was a temptation we couldn’t
resist. There was something wonderfully
Topic development rewarding hearing the cracking of shattering ice
The text has two major stages – the as a muddy gumboot was thrust into each tiny
first part reflects on the past, while frozen lake.
the second part contrasts the present
and past. The change in verb form My grandparents seem so little now – their
helps the reader understand when the backs are stooped, and their skin is shrivelled
narrator is talking about the past and and sunken. Although I still sleep under the
when about the present. same pink eiderdown, it doesn’t seem so
huge anymore, nor is it so shiny. At last I, too,
have an electric blanket, and so the green
Language structures
The sentences include a variety of hottie hangs lonely and forgotten behind the
structures, including compound and bathroom door.
complex sentences. They include
42
some complex embedded clauses
with expanded prepositional phrases – There was something wonderfully rewarding hearing the
cracking of shattering ice as a muddy gumboot was ….
The verb phrases are often complex – stood waiting, couldn’t resist. They include some sensory
verbs (regarded, hearing, seem) and some action verbs (left, thrust). The verb phrases are
sometimes expanded using adverbial phrases – As I stood waiting with anticipation for ….
The noun phrases are often very complex and include modifiers both before and after the noun
– The cobwebs on the fenceline clothed in icy dew, the thin ice covering each puddle.
Cohesion is created through the use of words that indicate the sequence of ideas (When, At last) and
words that signal different types of logical relationships (However, Although, so, nor). Cohesion is
also created by the repetition of words like mud, icy, Grandpa.
Vocabulary
The text contains some low-frequency vocabulary – camouflaged, exhilaration, untouchable. It
also contains evocative connotative vocabulary (warm haven, lonely and forgotten), similes (like a
snowman), and metaphors (they were fairies’ lace). There are complex strings of related words, like
icy, cracking, frozen, to establish atmosphere. There are also antonyms that contrast the inside and
outside settings – icy, frozen versus warm, electric blanket.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
The running text is set out in paragraphs
under a heading with an “author byline”.
There is a stylised portrait of a girl
(presumably a portrait of the female
narrator) and a large, brightly coloured
illustration – an abstract representation
of “memory”.
43
Stage 4B
The following sample text is at Stage 4B because the sentences use a variety of structures,
including compound and complex sentences and passive constructions. The text moves between
the present and the past.

– design that may or may not include illustrations;
– some long sentences containing several concepts;
– technical, topic-specific, or low-frequency words;
– a variety of verb forms;
– a variety of sentence structures, including embedded and relative clauses and passive
constructions.
Other examples of texts at Stage
4B include many of those found in
mainstream classes at peer level Righting the Wrongs – Poll Tax in
(for example, Bill O’Brien [2001], The New Zealand
Gene Seekers, Applications series,
Wellington: Learning Media). What is a poll tax?
The Prime Minister was apologising to the
Chinese community of New Zealand for a law
Sample text called the 1881 Chinese Immigrants Act. It was
Extract: Wong Ng, Eva (2003). passed by the government of that time, and
“Righting the Wrongs – Poll it singled out Chinese people. The intention
Tax in New Zealand”. School of the law was to limit the number of Chinese
Journal, Part 4 Number 2, coming to New Zealand by making each of
2003, page 23. them pay a £10 entry fee called a poll tax. It
Topic: Explaining the was a racist and discriminatory law because
historical background to the only Chinese had to pay the fee.
Government’s recent apology
What were the reasons for the poll tax?
for the poll tax on Chinese
The New Zealand government of 1881 believed
immigrants
that each nation had the right to decide
Text type: Explanation what sort of people should settle in their
country. The 1881 government argued that
Audience: Students of history
Chinese people were an undesirable class of
immigrant for British colonies because morally,
Topic development religiously, racially, and culturally they were
The text is part of an article explaining at odds with the larger population. Their
the history of the poll tax in New presence would bring only downfall and ruin to
Zealand. The article also explains
the colonies.
the reasons for the government of
today making a formal apology Not everyone thought this way. Those against
charging a poll tax argued that it was unjust,
cruel, and unfair.
44
to representatives of the Chinese community. The text moves between a recent period in New
Zealand history (the twenty-first century) and the distant past (the nineteenth century).
Language structures
The sentences use a variety of constructions, including compound and complex sentences, and
include passive constructions – It was passed by …
The verb phrases are mainly simple – Not everyone thought this way. They include some complex
verb phrases (was apologising, would bring) and some phrasal verbs (singled out). The verbs are
predominantly linking verbs (was) rather than action verbs because most of the information is
contained in noun phrases and adverbial phrases. The verbs sometimes convey mental processes
– believed, argued, thought.
The adverbial phrases are complex and use unusual word order – because morally, religiously,
racially, and culturally they were at odds with …
There are some complex noun phrases – the Chinese community of New Zealand, The New Zealand
government of 1881.
The cohesive devices include the ellipsis of relative pronouns and verbs – those [who were] against
charging a poll tax. There is sometimes some distance between pronouns and the nouns that they
refer to – Chinese people … they.
Vocabulary
The text contains mainly general rather than topic-specific or technical vocabulary, but there are
some low-frequency words – colonies, discriminatory, immigrant. There is some idiomatic language
(at odds with) and metaphorical language (ruin). Some of the text has a rhetorical tone – only
downfall and ruin.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
A great deal of background knowledge
is required in order to understand what
the images (such as the related historical
documents) mean and to see their relevance
to the text. The subheadings orient the
reader to the topic of each segment and
indicate the structure of the article.
45
Stage 4C
The following sample text is at Stage 4C because the sentences use a variety of structures, mainly
complex with embedded clauses. The text includes low-frequency vocabulary.
Texts at Stage 4C tend to have the following characteristics:

– topics that are developed in depth and may be very technical;
– topics that require extensive knowledge of vocabulary and ideas;
– a design that may or may not include illustrations;
– some long sentences containing several concepts;
– technical, topic-specific, low-frequency, and academic words;
– a variety of language structures, including embedded and relative clauses and passive
constructions.
Other examples of texts at Stage 4C include many of those found in mainstream classes at peer
level (for example, Karen Goodare and Bryan Chapple [1995], “Fiscal Policy”, in Inflation: A Sixth
Form Resource, Wellington: Learning Media for the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, page 47).
Sample text
Extract: Author unknown (2003). “Money Trees”. New Zealand
Education Gazette, 6 October, page 14.
Topic: A science, technology, and maths perspective on a new

scientific process
Text type: Explanation and recount
Audience: Students of science
Money Trees
At last, scientists have been able to confirm that money really does grow on trees.
After six years of arduous research, Chris Anderson at Massey University emerged from his
experimental greenhouse with a range of fast-growing herbs that can extract minute gold
particles from the soil.
Using a garden-variety mustard, Dr Anderson has been able to show that the plants can pull
tiny gold particles from gold-rich soil, along with the other soil-bound nutrients they need to
grow. So far the tests have been only on a small scale, culminating with a field trial in Brazil
earlier this year. The next step is to do full-scale field trials.
46
“The conclusion of our initial research is that the plants really can extract gold from the
ground. Now we need about 5000 tonnes of gold-rich soil spread over a hectare of land
for the next stage of our field work. We’ve learnt we need to have a certain concentration
of gold in the ground to make it feasible. We’re aiming to recover a kilogram of gold per
hectare using our plants. But we’re also looking at niche-market uses for the gold mined by
the plants, which may change the economics and make it feasible at 250 gm a hectare.”
Dr Anderson says mining gold with trees is easy, and inexpensive. Extracting the gold from
the plant biomass is the difficult part of the process. “Early in the research we developed a
processing system using chemical solvents that works in the lab. We need to expand that
to pilot scale and refine it.”
Working with collaborators in the United States and the Netherlands, Dr Anderson is also
looking at alternative processing options. “We may be able to grind up the plant material,
add it to water and make a slurry. If we spin the slurry in a centrifuge, it may form a band of
gold. A simple extraction process like that would also change the economics.”
The gold can exist in the plants as nanoparticles of pure gold, which may have potential in
the medical and electronics industries, or as industrial catalysts. At present, an expensive
chemical process is used to convert traditionally mined gold into small enough particles
to be used in these industries – Dr Anderson says plant mining could do that process
naturally.
Topic development
The text is the first section of an explanation and recount of a scientific experiment. It contains
passages of direct speech, but the reader must infer that the speaker is Dr Anderson.
Language structures
The sentences are mainly complex with embedded clauses – After six years of arduous research,
Chris Anderson at Massey University emerged from his experimental greenhouse with a range of fast-
growing herbs that can extract minute gold particles from the soil. They often contain relative clauses
– that can extract minute gold particles from the soil.
The verb phrases are often complex – has been able to show.
There are many prepositional phrases – on trees, from the soil.
The noun phrases are complex and often use compound adjectives – fast-growing, garden-variety,
gold-rich, full-scale, niche-market. The nouns may be modified before or after they occur – a field
trial in Brazil earlier this year, A simple extraction process.
The cohesive devices include frequent use of ellipsis – nutrients [that] they need [in order] to grow.
Adverbial phrases show the time sequence of the experiment – At last, After six years of arduous
research, So far, Now.
The text requires some background knowledge of horticulture, mining, and chemistry. The reader
also needs to know the proverb “Money doesn’t grow on trees.”
47
Vocabulary
The text contains many technical words and phrases from the fields of both science and marketing.
There are several compound adjectives – soil-bound nutrients, full-scale field trials, niche-market
uses. Low-frequency academic vocabulary is used to condense information – arduous, culminating,
feasible. The text repeats words relating to key ideas, such as money and mining. There are some
complex, interwoven strings of related words – trees, fast-growing herbs, plants; gold, mining, slurry.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Others (not in any list) 12% 19%
Text layout
The text is in newspaper-style paragraphs and includes some direct speech in quotation marks.
There is no accompanying visual support.
48
Stage 4D
The following sample text is at Stage 4D because the sentences use a variety of structures, mainly
complex, and often include several concepts. The text includes low-frequency and academic
vocabulary.
Texts at Stage 4D tend to have the following characteristics:

– topics that are developed in depth and may be very technical;
– topics that require extensive knowledge of vocabulary and ideas;
– sentences or phrases that require inference in order to understand them;
– a design that may or may not include illustrations;
– long sentences containing several concepts;
– technical, topic-specific, low-frequency, and academic words;
– a variety of language structures, including extended noun phrases, complex verb phrases,
embedded and relative clauses, and passive constructions.
Other examples of texts at Stage 4D include many of those found in mainstream classes at peer
level (for example, Robyn Baker [1991], Tuatara: A Resource for Sixth and Seventh Form Biology,
Wellington: Learning Media for the Ministry of Education).
Sample text
Extract: Statistics New Zealand (1995). New Zealand Now: Asian
New Zealanders. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, page 6.
Topic: Chinese immigration in the late nineteenth and early

twentieth centuries and legal discrimination (the poll tax)
Text type: Historical recount and explanation
Audience: Students of economics, geography, or history
49
New Zealand Now: Asian New Zealanders
The number of people in New Zealand who were born in China peaked at 5,033 in 1881.
By that year, growing public prejudice against Chinese immigrants resulted in restrictions
on entry to New Zealand by the imposition of a poll tax, initially of £10, but raised
progressively to £100 in 1896 and with severe limitations on the number of immigrants per
vessel. The poll tax remained in force until 1944. In 1899, the Immigration Restriction Act
limited immigration to British subjects, although other people could come to New Zealand
if they had special approval and had a working knowledge of a European language. New
Zealand imposed this “literacy test” for all new Asian arrivals.
Early 20th century

The second period of Chinese immigration covers the first half of this century, to the end
of World War II. Most Chinese in New Zealand were still Cantonese, although there were a
small but growing number of Fukienese. In this period, gold-mining had slumped and most
Chinese were now involved in businesses (laundries, market gardening, and the grocery
trade).
The 1916 Census recorded 2,147 Chinese in New Zealand, the lowest number living here
since the 1860s. Where the Chinese lived in New Zealand also changed. By 1916, 42
percent were living in Auckland, 34 percent in Wellington and only 16 percent in Otago. The
proportion living in Westland and Canterbury had fallen to under 6 percent in each region.
The Chinese had become a predominantly urban population.
Until around 1936, the Chinese community continued to have a very high sex ratio (males
per 100 females), and a very high level of mobility. Even as late as 1921, around half of the
Chinese population had been living in New Zealand for fewer than 20 years. They remained
aliens throughout this period. This started to change when a policy shift allowed wives
and families of local Chinese to emigrate to New Zealand between 1939 and 1952, but the
numbers recovered only slowly after the end of World War II, reaching nearly 5,000 in 1945.
Topic development
The text is part of a chapter in a book on New Zealand demographics. This part deals with the
influence of the poll tax on the demographics of Chinese New Zealanders in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. The information is arranged in chronological order.
Language structures
The sentences are simple (New Zealand imposed this “literacy test” for all new Asian arrivals), complex
(In 1899, the Immigration Restriction Act … a European language), and compound complex (By that
year, growing public prejudice … per vessel). Adverbial phrases are placed at the beginning of many
sentences to indicate time – In 1899, By 1916, Until around 1936. There are often several concepts in
one sentence, such as mobility and gender – Until around 1936, the Chinese community continued to
have a very high sex ratio (males per 100 females), and a very high level of mobility.
The verb forms indicate shifts from the past to the present. The simple present is used to describe
an unchanging characteristic (The second period … covers), the simple past to describe past events
(The poll tax remained …), and the past perfect to locate events further back in time, prior to another
event or time (The proportion living … had fallen to). The verb phrases are simple (limited) or complex
(started to change). They sometimes use modal verbs to indicate permission – could come to New
Zealand.
50
The noun phrases are often complex (The second period of Chinese immigration) and include
embedded relative clauses (The number of people … who were born in China). They are sometimes
unusual in construction – Where the Chinese lived in New Zealand also changed.
The cohesive devices include pronouns that can be difficult to link with the nouns they refer to – This
[view of the Chinese as aliens] started to change … There is ellipsis that requires the reader to infer
information – the proportion [of Chinese] living in Westland and Canterbury.
Vocabulary
The text contains some metaphorical expressions (gold-mining had slumped), some technical words
(Census, aliens), some low-frequency vocabulary (vessel), and some mathematical words (number,
percent, proportion, ratio). There is repetition of vocabulary for the key ideas – Chinese, immigration,
percent.
Vocabulary analysis
words)

frequency words)
Text layout
This part of the text has no illustrations. Subheadings separate the information into chunks.
51
Writing
There are many similarities between the ways in which native speakers and English
language learners develop writing skills. However, there are also noticeable differences
in their patterns of progress. (For example, native speakers hardly ever misuse the
articles “a”, “an”, and “the”, but this is a common error for English language learners.)
The differences result from English language learners bringing different knowledge,
approaches, and experiences to writing in English.
It’s important to remember that progress is individual and depends on a number of

factors specific to the learner and the context of each task. Factors that affect progress
include the English language learner’s previous education in their first language, their
prior experiences, and culturally specific ways of representing the world through writing.
As with reading and oral language, writing development in years 9–13 will reflect
developmental stages appropriate to the learner’s age.
The better English language learners are prepared for writing, the better their writing will
be. Like all writers, they need to understand the purpose for writing and know who their
Writers produce
audience will be. They need to be reminded of what they already know about the topic
better texts when
they are clear about and to have time to plan ideas, including time to plan in their first language. They need
their purpose and the to be familiar with the typical features of the kind of text they’re planning to write, and
audience and know they need to have a bank of general vocabulary and vocabulary for curriculum contexts
about the features of
effective texts and the
that is appropriate to the writing task. English language learners should also have
writing process. opportunities to unpack model texts to see how the English language works in a variety
of written texts – first in a group context and later independently.
Writers often produce more accurate, comprehensive, and effective texts when they are
writing on a familiar topic. Texts on unfamiliar or complex technical topics are likely to
have more errors and to communicate a less effective message.
Some errors in an English language learner’s writing may be attributable to their

English language developmental stage and some to their level of proficiency in English. The attitude of
learners need the learner towards editing and proofreading their work will also have an impact. The
continuing nature and quality of their English language instruction will be another factor affecting a
opportunities and
encouragement to
learner’s writing development.
think, talk, read, and
write in their first
English language learners should be encouraged to continue writing in their first
language about new language and to use critical-thinking skills (and other writing skills) in their first
ideas. They also language to help them develop their writing in English. Cognitive academic language
need opportunities to
proficiency (CALP) develops better when the first language develops alongside the
write in English about
culturally familiar additional language.
topics as well as about
less familiar topics.
52
The writing progression
Pages 57–83 contain descriptors of texts written by English language learners, followed
by samples of their writing. These are arranged to show a typical progression in writing
development that illustrates the first four stages of the writing matrix on page 55. For
examples of texts at Stage 4, refer to the NCEA and asTTle websites for descriptors of
advanced writing.
A learner makes progress in writing in many ways, including by:

• increasing their awareness of their purpose and audience;
• learning to develop topics in more depth;
• learning to use a wider range of text types appropriately;
• increasing their use and control of language structures;
• learning more vocabulary;
• increasing their control of script;
• improving their spelling;
• using a wider range of appropriate punctuation.
As a learner’s writing improves, they become able to produce longer texts in a wider
range of forms.
In some ways, the sample texts in the early stages are similar to those in the early levels
of The New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars: English (Written Language), which represent
the writing of native speakers of English. (For learners in years 11–13, other examples
can be found on ESOL online as NCEA exemplars.) However, although there are many
parallel features between the writing development of English language learners and
that of native speakers of English, there are also many differences. The nature of these
differences depends on a range of factors, including the learner’s age, their level of
literacy in their first language, and the characteristics of their first language.
The samples have been analysed to highlight some typical features of English language
learners’ writing at the Foundation Stage and Stages 1–3 and to demonstrate how to
notice both writing strengths and learning needs in a piece of writing. Using the writing
progression descriptors, teachers can make judgments about the stages that their learners
have reached. More importantly, teachers can see where their learners should be heading
and what priorities they should set for teaching and learning.
Surface and deeper features of texts

The texts have been analysed in terms of both deeper features (topic development, Teachers need
language structures, and vocabulary) and surface features (script control, spelling, and to analyse errors
punctuation). There is a crossover between some deeper and surface features. For carefully to
discover what is
example, if a learner leaves “-ed” off a verb or adds it inappropriately, this may be causing them.
interpreted as a spelling error, which is usually seen as a surface feature. However, it
may indicate lack of knowledge of the past tense form of the verb, which is a deeper
feature. Similarly, punctuation is usually categorised as a surface feature, but if a text
includes run-on sentences or “sentences” with no main verb, it’s likely that the writer
lacks knowledge about the structure of an English sentence.
Deeper features also include text organisation, sentence structure, and the extent to
which the text fits the purpose for writing. The writer’s choice of vocabulary may fall
into either category – deep if it indicates lack of knowledge of word families or surface if
it’s just a spelling mistake.
53
Best fit
Judgments about Assigning a text to a stage is complex and requires careful judgment and a “best fit”
what stage a learner approach, based on a range of criteria. A learner’s written text may have some features
is at can never
that seem to fit into a lower stage and some that seem to fit into a higher stage.
be “absolutely
accurate”; they can
The decisions that a teacher makes about where a learner’s text fits are generalisations,
only indicate the
“best fit” for but they should always be informed by the teacher’s knowledge about language. Teachers
that learner. need to make their judgments on the basis of an analysis of the text at whole-text,
sentence, and word levels, taking into account both deeper and surface features.
Information about supporting writing development can be found in Effective Literacy

Strategies in Years 9 to 13, English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource,
The New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars: English (Written Language), asTTle: Assessment
Tools for Teaching and Learning, the DVD series Making Language and Learning Work 1:
Integrating Language and Learning in Secondary Maths and Science and Making Language and
Learning Work 2: Integrating Language and Learning in Secondary English and Social Science,
and ESOL Online.
There are many different ways of describing progress in writing. The following very
broad matrix is generalised to all types of text. It gives an overview of important aspects
of English language learners’ writing progress rather than identifying every aspect in
detail. Teachers also need to be aware that a learner’s writing will always be affected by
the context of the writing task and by the prior knowledge and skills the learner brings
to it.
Specific indicators for different text types can be identified, for example, in the asTTle
Writing Progress Indicators.
This matrix focuses mainly on how writers within each broad stage of development
typically organise and develop a text. It indicates the ways that a learner’s writing
develops as they move through the Foundation Stage and Stages 1–3,5 in terms of their
use of structures (at whole-text, paragraph, sentence, and phrase levels) and word
forms in their texts. Appropriateness (in terms of purpose and audience) of content,
vocabulary, and stylistic choices are also important indicators of progress.
5
The matrix refers teachers to NCEA and asTTle for descriptions of writing at Stage 4.
54
The writing matrix
Topic development Sentence development and language structures Vocabulary development Script control Editing, spelling, and punctuation
– Texts may be exact copies of a model. – Sentences show frequent or repeated use of a restricted – Most words are high frequency, and there is little – Letter formation is – The writing may show evidence of self-
range of modelled (learned) structures. topic-specific vocabulary (unless it has been developing but is often correction.
Foundation Stage
– Original texts are very short (two or three provided). variable.

ideas) with minimal topic development. – Sentences are simple or compound (e.g., linked with “and”). – Some words are spelt correctly, and there are
– Towards the end of the attempts to spell words as they sound.
– Ideas may be presented randomly. – There may be a range of different errors, some attributable Foundation Stage, writing
to the learner’s age and some to their proficiency in English. usually shows appropriate – There are often errors in the use of simple
– Towards the end of the Foundation Stage, These errors may include a lack of agreement of subject and punctuation.
ideas may be organised in an order use of upper- and lower-
verb (“he go”), incorrect word endings, omitted or overused case letters.
appropriate to the text type. articles (“the China”), incorrect verb forms, or
overgeneralised use of a grammar rule (“I broked it”).
– Texts are longer (at least 6–8 sentences), – Sentences are mainly simple or compound (e.g., linked with – Texts use a greater range of vocabulary. Most – The script is generally – There is some evidence of editing, usually
with some organisation of the ideas. “and”). familiar vocabulary is likely to be accurately spelt readable. teacher-directed.
or show phonemic awareness. Attempts to use
– The main ideas may be expanded with – The writing shows a reduced reliance on formulaic structures. unfamiliar vocabulary show evidence of phonemic – Many high-frequency words are spelt
details. awareness. correctly, but there may be intrusive errors.
– Words like “because” indicate that the learner is beginning
to expand texts by using complex sentence structures. – Texts use some learned topic-specific vocabulary. – Writing may show some awareness of
additional punctuation features and control
Stage 1
– Texts include linking words to signal the development of Words may be chosen to create an effect.
over full stops.
ideas (such as markers of time in a narrative or of cause and
effect in an explanation).
– Errors in words and structures are likely to be frequent and
obvious.
– Texts by learners who are literate in their first language may
show attempts to use more complex structures but will often
have intrusive errors.
– Topics are developed in stages, using an – Texts include a range of different sentence beginnings and – The writing shows a strong personal voice – The script is controlled and – The text shows some evidence of accurate
appropriate paragraph structure. structures (such as use of relative clauses). developing through deliberate choice of appropriate legible. editing.
vocabulary.
– Ideas are linked and organised, although they – The writing shows an increasing use of subordinate clauses. – The writing shows evidence of attention
Stage 2
may simply be listed at times. – There may be some evidence of less appropriate to specific points, such as distinguishing
– The writing may use modal verbs (e.g., “might”, “should”). language choices, perhaps from direct translation, between homonyms (“their” and “there”;
– A range of errors in language forms and structures is likely e.g., use of “companion” instead of “friend”. “to”, “too”, and “two”; and so on).
to be evident (e.g., run-on sentences or inaccuracies in, or – Texts may have insufficient topic-specific or formal – Contractions are used appropriately.
omissions of, elements of a complex verb phrase). vocabulary for the task or context.
– Texts may show overuse of a recently learned structure.
– Topics are developed according to the – Texts include varied and complex sentence structures and/or – Words are chosen from an expanding bank of – The writing style is now – The writing shows evidence of independent,
purpose of the task. sentence types appropriate to the writing purpose, often with general, technical, and academic vocabulary in a established, and there accurate editing.
errors. range of curriculum
m and topic areas. In less familiar is little likelihood of the
– Topics are sustained and organised topic areas, the
he vocabulary may revert to more learner changing how they – Surface features are generally controlled
logically and coherently in stages. Ideas – Some incorrect structures are still likely to be seen at times, general or vague word choices (e.g., “things”). form their letters. consistently, although in unfamiliar topic
are linked with appropriate use of a range of such as inaccurate use of articles or lack of subject–verb areas or under time pressure in formal
Stage 3
connectives (e.g., “however”, “therefore”). agreement. – Words are mostly chosen appropriately to meet assessments, control may be reduced.
the purpose
urpose for writing
w and
nd to create specifi
spec c
– Texts may follow a model closely. effects,
cts, such as using literary devices for humour
hum
or consciously choosing features of persuasive
persuasiv
language.
guage.
– Direct
rect translations may lead to inappropriate word
choices.
oices.
– See the NCEA

NC and asTTle websites for descriptions of advanced writing.
Stage 4
55
56
Samples of learners’ writing
Foundation Stage
The Foundation Stage contains two bands of texts that illustrate emergent writing. Foundation
learners are beginning to master the basics of surface features of writing, such as the direction
of print, how to form letters, the difference between upper- and lower-case letters, separation of
words, and simple punctuation. Generally, beginners initially find it more difficult to master the
written form of English if the script of their first language does not use the Roman alphabet.
Learners who are beginning to write in English are often frustrated by their lack of knowledge of
English vocabulary and language structures. Those writers in years 9–13 who have no literacy
skills in their first language are getting a sense of the purposes for writing, deciding what they want
to say, working out how to organise their ideas, and (in some cases) finding it challenging to move
from oral language to writing.
The first text in the samples of writing at the Foundation Stage is an example of a teacher-written
text that the learner has copied by writing each word underneath the word in the teacher’s
model. This process is sometimes called “mirror writing”. Learners who are in the first stages of
developing literacy will benefit from this sort of support until they have learned to write letters and
words and have sufficient linguistic resources to be able to convey meaning in their writing.
Typical features of writing at Foundation Stage A

Topic development
– Texts may be exact copies of a model.
– Original texts are very short (two or three ideas) with minimal topic development, constrained by a
limited vocabulary.
– Ideas may be presented randomly.
Sentence development and language structures

– Sentences show frequent or repeated use of a restricted range of modelled (learned) structures.
– Sentences are simple or compound (for example, linked with “and”).
– There may be a range of different errors, some attributable to the learner’s age and some to
their proficiency in English. These errors may include a lack of agreement of subject and verb
(“trees is
is”),
”), incorrect word endings (“we celebration
celebration”),
”), omitted or overused articles (“to the work”),
incorrect verb forms (“was
(“was can ran fast”), or overgeneralised use of a grammar rule.
– Learners are beginning to develop the standard sentence structures of English and show some
knowledge of standard English word order.
– Learners use some incorrect structures.
– Because learners don’t yet use linking words or phrases, sentences are unlikely to flow well.
Vocabulary development
– Most words are high frequency, and there is little topic-specific vocabulary (unless it has been
provided).
– Simple repetition of vocabulary is common.
– There is often no linking vocabulary.
57
Script control
– The writing shows variable letter formation, including slope, and may be on and off the lines.
– Some writing shows inappropriate use of upper- and lower-case letters.
Editing, spelling, and punctuation

– The writing may show evidence of self-correction.
– Some words are spelt correctly, and there are attempts to spell words as they sound. However,
learners have limited phonological knowledge.
– There are often errors in the use of simple punctuation.
Where to next?
Teachers could help learners to:
– use oral language to identify, develop, and practise language for ideas and concepts and to build
the context, vocabulary, and sentence structures for fluency and confidence;
– say each sentence out loud before writing.
Teachers could:
– guide and scaffold as learners write, paying attention to basic punctuation, high-frequency
vocabulary, vocabulary enrichment and accuracy, and letter formation and position;
– encourage rereading for sense;
– use the shared and guided writing approaches to scaffold learning, for example, when
co-constructing or co-editing a text. (See Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13,
pages 136–146, and the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource, for further
information about approaches to writing.)
– use simple dictation tasks to model correct language structures.
Samples of learners’ writing at Foundation Stage A

About Me (1)
This text is an example of “mirror writing”, where the learner has copied what the teacher has
written. This technique can be used with very new writers. The learner’s script is on and off the
lines, but their letter formation is clear.
58
Recount
Task: To write a recount
Topic development – The text is short, and there is minimal topic development.
– The writer has not finished the task.
Sentence development – The writer uses some simple verb forms correctly – Jhon wake up and take your staff
[stuff] (this appears to be direct speech). But there are errors with many other verb
and language phrases – take [it] to the car, wake [woke] up and [went] to the work, to take [I took],
structures was can ran fast [could run fast].
– A few phrases are repeated – wake up, take … stuff, to the car.
– The ideas are connected with and.
– The writer uses correct word order for simple constructions (Jhon wake up) but has
difficulty with phrasing more complex ideas (And I’m going my big brother was can ran
fast).
Vocabulary – The writer uses the definite article incorrectly – the work.
development – The writer’s vocabulary is limited, and the words are high frequency.
Script control – The script is legible.
– Capital letters are used correctly.
Editing, spelling, and – The text shows evidence of editing.

punctuation – Most words are spelt correctly, except for Jhon [John] and staff [stuff]. The writer uses a
contraction – I’m.
– The writer uses full stops.
59
Typical features of writing at Foundation Stage B
Topic development
– Original texts are short, with minimal topic development.
– There is some logic behind the organisation of ideas, and readers are able to follow this.
– Texts are more coherent when learners are writing on a familiar topic.
– Most sentences are relevant to the topic and are clearly connected.
– Ideas are not arranged into paragraphs.
– Texts may be presented as lists of ideas.

– Learned (modelled) sentence structures are used effectively.
– All sentences are statements.
– Sentences are simple or compound (for example, linked with “and”).
– Compound and complex sentences are sometimes attempted, to expand ideas and to give more
detail.
– There may be a range of different errors, some attributable to the learner’s age and some to
their proficiency in English. These errors may include a lack of agreement of subject and verb
(“trees is”), incorrect word endings (“we celebration”), omitted or overused articles (“to the work”),
incorrect verb forms (“was can ran fast”), or overgeneralised use of a grammar rule.
– The writing is less like transcribed speech – there is evidence that the learner is developing a
consciousness of being a writer.
– Learners are beginning to develop control of the sentence structures of standard English.
– Sentence beginnings are often repetitive.
– Learners are beginning to use linking words.
– Most words are high frequency, and there is some attempt to use lower-frequency, topic-specific
vocabulary.
– Repetition of vocabulary is common.
– High-frequency vocabulary is used correctly.
Script control
– The form and position of letters is generally appropriate, and the script is easily readable.
– The writing shows generally correct use of upper- and lower-case letters.

– Some words are spelt correctly, and there are attempts to spell words as they sound. However,
learners have limited phonological knowledge.
– Learners are developing control over simple punctuation, although errors may still be frequent.
– Writing may show evidence of self-correction.
60
Where to next?
– identify ideas and organise them into a basic sequence, initially shaping their ideas and concepts
into well-structured sentences orally and then transferring them into print;
– build a greater variety of sentence structures, especially at the beginning of sentences;
– add details to sentences and expand sentences that elaborate on a core idea;
– expand their use of high-frequency vocabulary and increase their use of lower-frequency,
topic-specific vocabulary.
Teachers could:
– support learners in applying phonological knowledge to spelling unknown words;
– model spelling words that are not easily worked out phonologically;
– continue to use the approaches suggested for Foundation Stage A.
61
Samples of learners’ writing at Foundation Stage B
My Special Time
Task: To describe a time that is special for you and your family
Topic development – There are two paragraphs. The first lists “best days” and the second mentions two
happy times.
Sentence development – In the first paragraph, the phrase The best day in my life is is repeated at the beginning
of most sentences. The writer often incorrectly follows it with a main clause (a
and language sentence) instead of a relative clause or noun phrase – The best day in my life is I can
structures speak English nearly.
– All sentences are statements.
– Sentences are simple or compound (linked with and).
– Compound and complex sentences are sometimes used to expand ideas and to give
more detail – I very happy when I came to the New Zealand and I very glad when I came
to the lynfield College and I have firends [friends] now.
– The writer sometimes omits the verb to be – I very happy, I very glad.
– The writer uses some linking words – also, and.
Vocabulary – The writer doesn’t seem to understand the word “best” – four different events are
described as best.
development
– Most words are high frequency and are used correctly.
– Capitals are mostly used correctly.
Editing, spelling, and – The writing shows evidence of editing.

punctuation – Most words are spelt correctly, with the exception of firends [friends].
62
The Food Cycle
Task: To write a scientific description of the food cycle
Topic development – The ideas are organised in a logical sequence but are not arranged into paragraphs.
– The writer adds examples in brackets.
– The writer uses a diagram to illustrate the food cycle.
Sentence development – The writer mostly uses subject–verb–object word order correctly – birds eat bugs and
seeds. But there are still errors – But people are every thing eat and kill [But people kill
and language and eat everything].
structures
– The writer uses some simple linking words to connect ideas – But, and.
– The writer uses some simple verbs correctly, and they agree with their subjects – bugs
eat, animals die, people are. Sometimes verbs are omitted – and [become] dead
matter, many animals [are] not lost.
– The writer mostly uses singular and plural forms correctly, but there are a few errors
– small bugs eat tree and flower, big birds eat small animal.
Vocabulary – High-frequency vocabulary is used correctly.

development – The writer attempts to use two lower-frequency or technical terms – dead matter, replay.
Script control – The letter formation is not always clear or consistent.
– Capital letters are not always used correctly.
Editing, spelling, and – There is a little evidence of editing.

punctuation – Most words are spelt correctly (except for rabit).
– The writer uses brackets, ellipses, commas, full stops, and apostrophes.
63
Stage 1
Stage 1 texts are written by learners who have developed enough knowledge of vocabulary and
language structures in English to begin to write short original texts.
Typical features of writing at Stage 1

Topic development
– Texts are longer (at least 6–8 sentences), with some organisation of ideas.
– Ideas are not generally arranged into paragraphs.
– The main ideas may be expanded with details and will generally be clear to the reader.

– Sentences are mainly simple or compound (for example, linked with “and”).
– The writing shows a reduced reliance on formulaic structures.
– Sentence beginnings are likely to be repetitive.
– Words like “because” indicate that the learner is beginning to expand texts by using complex
sentence structures.
– Texts include linking words to signal the development of ideas (such as markers of time in a
narrative or of cause and effect in an explanation).
– Errors in words and structures are likely to be frequent and obvious. Texts that use modelled
structures will have fewer errors than texts that show more original use of language.
– Texts by learners who are literate in their first language may show attempts to use more complex
structures, including direct speech or questions, but will often have errors that impede successful
communication.
– Additional details may be presented through a series of short sentences or through subordinate
clauses.
– Texts use a greater range of vocabulary. Most familiar vocabulary is likely to be accurately spelt or
show phonemic awareness. Attempts to use vocabulary that learners know orally show evidence
of phonemic awareness.
– Texts use some learned, topic-specific or lower-frequency vocabulary. Words may be chosen to
create an effect.
Script control
– The script is generally readable. It may still be variable, especially with younger learners, but the
form and position of letters and words are generally clearer, more consistent, and more accurately
used than at earlier stages.

– There is some evidence of editing, usually teacher-directed.
– Spelling may show errors that impede successful communication.
– Punctuation may range from accurate to weak or inconsistent.
– Writing may show some awareness of additional punctuation features (such as speech marks and
question marks) and control over full stops.
64
Where to next?
– organise the main ideas into a logical sequence according to topic, purpose, and audience;
– form well-structured sentences relating to each main idea;
– ensure that sentences are correctly punctuated and grammatically structured and that structural
and content vocabulary is included;
– construct varied sentence beginnings and use sentences of different lengths;
– construct “tighter” sentences, with fewer simple conjunctions and more prepositional and
adverbial phrases and expanded noun phrases;
– improve their vocabulary, using both high-frequency and lower-frequency, topic-specific words;
– continue to pay attention to script form and position.
65
Samples of learners’ writing at Stage 1
The Food Chain
Task: To write a scientific description of the food chain
Topic development – Several sentences are relevant to the topic and are arranged in a logical order.
– It’s difficult for the reader to understand the text.
Sentence development – The writer mostly uses the right words but has many errors with word order and verb
forms – After its to become a bacteria come back to grownth.
and language
structures – The writer repeats the phrase It’s a process.
– There is some attempt at using linking words to connect ideas within paragraphs –
A first, A Second, A Third, After.
– There are many errors when the writer tries to construct more complex sentences with
lower-frequency, technical vocabulary. There are fewer errors when the writer uses less
formal structures and higher-frequency vocabulary – Why is an Insect always unluck? I
don’t know. But It’s a good process for a population in a world.
Vocabulary – Most words are high frequency, and the writer attempts to use lower-frequency and
more complex vocabulary.
development
– The writer uses some technical words correctly and some incorrectly – food cycle,
consumer, producer, genes, bacteria, decompose, inorganic chemicals, labotarium.
Script control – The form and position of letters is generally appropriate.
– The writer mostly uses capitals correctly.
Editing, spelling, and – There is some attempt at editing.

punctuation – Most words are spelt correctly.
– The writer uses full stops, commas, and a question mark.

66
Celebration
Task: Write a description of a celebration in your own culture
Topic development – The writer describes what their family did to celebrate Eid (the holiday at the end of
Ramadan).
– The ideas follow a continuous flow rather than being arranged into paragraphs.
Sentence development – The writer uses mostly simple and compound sentences. There are some complex
sentences – The best Celebration I have is Eid which come after remmber [Ramadan].
and language
structures – There are some subordinate clauses that are not linked to a main clause – Which all my
people come to toegther the house.
– There are some run-on sentences – then we come back the house then I go to my Friend
house to go moive [movie] with me and we celebration on that day most of People come
to the city to good [go] to celebration.
– The writer uses some linking words to connect ideas – So; and; then.
– The writer doesn’t add ’s to possessives – my aunty house; my Friend house.
– Most verbs are in the present tense even though the writer appears to be talking about
a past event.
Vocabulary – The text uses mostly general vocabulary. The writer misspells a few words, including
moive [movie] and fund [fun].
development
– Capitals are not always used appropriately.
Editing, spelling, and – There is some evidence of editing.

punctuation – Most words are spelt correctly, but together is spelt three different ways.

67
Stage 2
The samples of writing at Stage 2 are in two bands, showing the diversity of writing features at this
stage. The 2A band texts are generally less complex in structure. The 2B band texts show more
attempts to vary sentence beginnings, to expand noun and verb phrases and use adverbial phrases,
and to develop cohesion and coherence through the text by using different types of linking words.
This also results in longer texts.
Typical features of writing at Stage 2A

Topic development
– Topics are developed in stages, and learners may begin to arrange ideas into paragraphs.
– Ideas are linked and organised, although they may simply be listed at times. Links between ideas
may include adding ideas (“and”), contrasting ideas (“but”), indicating sequence (“when”, “first”),
and indicating consequence (“so”).
– A personal voice is developing.
– Texts usually make sense to the reader.

– There is some use of different sentence beginnings and choice of structures.
– The writing shows increasing use of subordinate clauses.
– Texts use linking words to connect ideas, for example, “and”, “but”,“when”, “first”, “so”.
– The writing may use modal verbs (for example, “might”, “should”).
– A range of errors in language forms and structures is likely to be evident (for example, run-on
sentences or inaccuracies in, or omissions of, elements of a complex verb phrase).
– With more technical and complex topics, there will be a greater number of errors in language
structures and forms.
– Writers may have problems with using articles and other determiners correctly and with subject–
verb agreement.
– The writing shows a strong personal voice developing through deliberate choice of appropriate
vocabulary.
– There may be some evidence of less appropriate language choices, perhaps from direct
translation, for example, use of “companion” instead of “friend”.
– Texts include some lower-frequency and technical vocabulary but may have insufficient
topic-specific or formal vocabulary for the task or context.
– Singular and plural forms may not always be accurately used.
– Learners are developing control over contracted verb forms, for example, “wouldn’t”.
Script control
– The script is controlled and legible. Upper- and lower-case letters are almost always used
appropriately.
68
– The text shows evidence of accurate editing.
– Most high-frequency words are spelt correctly, and some lower-frequency technical words are
spelt correctly.
– The writing shows evidence of attention to specific points, such as distinguishing between
homonyms (“their” and “there”; “to”, “too”, and “two”; and so on).
– Punctuation is mostly accurate.
– Contractions are used appropriately.
Where to next?
– identify key ideas and concepts and organise them into an appropriate sequence according to
topic, purpose, audience, and text type;
– organise their text to include paragraphing;
– build variety in their sentence structures, especially phrases at the beginnings of sentences;
– build connecting sentences onto the core idea sentence, thus forming paragraphs;
– develop the use of complex noun phrases and prepositional and adverbial phrases to add detail
and expand sentence structures;
– expand their vocabulary, using more topic-specific, low-frequency vocabulary and choosing
appropriate vocabulary for impact;
– continue to pay attention to high-frequency words and increase their use of low-frequency words,
as well as improving spelling accuracy and choosing appropriate words;
– punctuate their work accurately, including using the appropriate sentence length and separating
sentences by identifying main verb phrases.
69
Samples of learners’ writing at Stage 2A
Economic Growth
Topic development – The writer answers the question in two parts, as the task (“Identify and explain ONE
positive and ONE negative outcome resulting from economic growth”) dictated.
Sentence development – The writer has some errors with verb forms, especially future verb forms and modals
– community will benefits, will [be] better, can be keep [can keep], will got [will get], will
and language [become] more higher, is not benefits [will not benefit].
structures
– The writer attempts to use extended noun phrases – The difference on the poor and rich
people, Some consumers which very poor.
– The writer uses linking words to connect ideas – so, also, and. Sometimes these are
incorrectly placed – And the also government.
– There is a variety of sentence types, including compound and complex sentences.
– The writer attempts to use comparison – will more higher.
– Most words are in the correct order.
– Some articles are omitted – [the] government, [a] country.
70
Vocabulary – The writer uses some lower-frequency, topic-specific vocabulary – community, benefits,
average, economic growth, consumers, products, price, inflation.
development
– Some words are non-specific, and the intended meaning is unclear – the outside and
inside things.
– The writer makes some mistakes with prepositions – difference on [between], to [on]
products.
Script control – The script is legible (although on and off the lines).
– Capitals are used correctly.

Economics exam
Topic development – The writer does not show a clear understanding of what MU (marginal utility) is and
therefore answers the question incorrectly. The short-answer format means that
minimal topic development is needed.
Sentence development – The writer attempts to use passive constructions – MU is increase[d], Quantity of buying
products is decrease[d].
and language
structures – There are errors with subject–verb agreement – Price increase[s], MU also increase[s],
consumer[s] buy.
– There are some subordinate clauses – if the price of product increase, when the price
of product increase. The writer has good control of conditionals, which are a common
construction in economics.
– The writer uses some linking words to connect ideas – and, if, when.
– There are some missing articles and use of singular rather than plural forms –
consumer[s], [the] law of demand.
Vocabulary – The writer uses technical vocabulary – increase, consumer, product, scarcity, demand,
decrease.
development
– Most capitals are used correctly.
Editing, spelling, and – Because this sample was written under test conditions, there would have been little
time for editing.
punctuation
– The words are spelt correctly.

71
Typical features of writing at Stage 2B
Topic development
– Topics are developed in stages, and ideas are linked and organised.
– Texts show a greater variety of ideas and ability to express a range of original ideas.
– Texts are longer and rely less on modelled (learned) structures.
– Learners show increased awareness of writing for different purposes and audiences.

– Texts use a variety of simple, compound, and complex sentence structures.
– Texts may use a variety of verb forms, contracted verb forms, and expanded noun phrases.
– There is a range of different sentence beginnings and chosen structures (such as use of relative
clauses).
– The writing shows an increasing use of subordinate clauses.
– The writing may use modal verbs (for example, “might”, “should”).
– Texts use linking words to connect ideas, for example, “but”, “because”, “so”.
– The writing shows a strong personal voice developing through deliberate choice of appropriate
vocabulary.
– There may be some evidence of less appropriate language choices, perhaps from direct
translation, for example, use of “companion” instead of “friend”.
– Most vocabulary is high frequency.
– Texts include some lower-frequency and technical vocabulary but may have insufficient
topic-specific or formal vocabulary for the task or context.
– Learners may have difficulty with choosing the correct preposition.
Script control
appropriately.

– The text shows evidence of accurate editing.
– The writing shows evidence of attention to specific points, such as distinguishing between
homonyms (“their” and “there”; “to”, “too”, and “two”; and so on).
– Most high-frequency words are spelt correctly, and some lower-frequency technical words are
spelt correctly.
– Learners may begin to use a greater range of punctuation, for example, question marks and
exclamation marks.
72
Where to next?
– organise their ideas and concepts into an appropriate sequence, according to topic, purpose,
audience, and text type;
– expand or elaborate each core idea through supporting and connecting sentences organised into
paragraphs;
– increase the variety of sentence beginnings and length by including prepositional and adverbial
phrases and additional clauses;
– use correct and effective punctuation;
– improve their vocabulary, especially by pre-teaching academic or technical topic-related words
and by further expanding their high-frequency vocabulary;
– increase their knowledge and use of expanded structures, for example, noun phrases and
prepositional and adverbial phrases;
– learn the structure of complex verb phrases and how to clarify the main verb role in main clauses,
that is, the differences between finite and non-finite verbs;
– clarify their understanding and use of articles;
– continue to pay attention to script form and position.
73
Samples of learners’ writing at Stage 2B
Opinion of New Zealand
Task: Write a paragraph (5–6 lines) on the following question:
a) Describe New Zealand in the world.
b) Explain why someone would want to visit the Auckland region.
Topic development – The ideas are relevant to the question.
– The short-answer format means that minimal topic development is needed.
Sentence development – The sentence structures are varied, and some are complex – I think there is no one
in the world who wouldn’t like to visit this beautiful country, because in this country
and language children can get good education, and also there is a lots good place to work.
structures
– The writer uses some subordinate clauses – where you can found green fields.
– The writer uses linking words to connect ideas – because, and, also.
– There are some modal verbs – can found [find], wouldn’t like, can get.
– The writer uses an indefinite article with lots – a lots of parks, a lots good place[s].
– There is a contracted verb form (wouldn’t) and some expanded noun phrases (one of the
beautiful and exciting place, lots of parks, no one in the world).
– The writer has some errors with plurals – one of the beautiful and exciting place[s], good
place[s] to work.
Vocabulary – The vocabulary is general and high frequency but appropriate to the purpose.
development
– Capital letters are used appropriately.

punctuation – The words are spelt correctly.
– Punctuation is used appropriately.
74
Anti-Smacking Bill Letter
Task: To write a persuasive letter
75
Topic development – Several ideas are arranged logically in paragraphs, and the writer gives examples.
– The ideas are relevant to the topic.
– The ideas are usually expressed in a way that is appropriate to the text type.
Sentence development – The text uses a variety of simple, compound, and complex sentence structures.
and language – There are some relative clauses to amplify ideas (which afraids children to do bad
structures things) and subordinate clauses (when he or her is gonna hit her or his child lightly).
– The writer uses a variety of phrases at the beginnings of sentences to structure the
argument – The reason why, For example, I think, My conclusion is.
– The writer has considerable control over language structures but still makes some
errors. There are errors with the verb to be (I can’t be agree, I am [do] not agree, his
son’s answer [is] gonna be) and with articles and plurals (an [the] Anti-smacking Bill,
when [a] parent asks, [a] mother can use, do bad thing[s]).
– The writer uses an incorrect contraction – amn’t.
– The writer attempts to use the adjective “afraid” as a verb – afraids.
Vocabulary – The writer transfers a word from oral language to written language inappropriately
– using gonna instead of going to.
development
– The vocabulary is mostly general and high frequency, but there are some topic-specific
words – Bill, control, charged.

punctuation – The words are spelt correctly.
– The writer uses a range of punctuation, mostly accurately.
76
Stage 3
It is very important to continue to set clear priorities, for learners at this stage, that systematically
address issues other than surface features. These priorities will include creating coherent texts by
organising information at whole-text, paragraph, and sentence levels in ways appropriate to the text
type and the purpose of the task. (See the English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource.)
Typical features of writing at Stage 3

Topic development
– Topics are developed according to the purpose of the task.
– Topics are sustained and organised logically and coherently in stages. There is some
paragraphing.
– Ideas are linked and organised.
– Texts may follow a model closely or use mainly learned structures.
– Texts show a greater variety of ideas and details and ability to express a range of original ideas.
– Learners show an awareness of writing for different purposes and audiences.

– Texts include varied and complex sentence structures appropriate to the writing purpose, often
with errors.
– Texts may use a variety of verb forms, contracted verb forms, and expanded noun phrases.
– Texts use a range of linking words to connect ideas appropriately (for example, “however”,
“therefore”).
– Some errors are still likely to be seen at times, such as incorrect verb forms (“I am going to the
dentist yesterday”, “She was died”) or incorrect use of plural and singular forms (“many apple”, “a
few homeworks”).
– Texts may show overuse of a recently learned structure.
– There is a range of different sentence beginnings and chosen structures (such as use of relative
clauses).
– Writing may use modal verbs (for example, “might”, “should”).
– Words are chosen from an expanding bank of general, technical, and academic vocabulary in a
range of curriculum and topic areas. In less familiar topic areas, the vocabulary may revert to
more general or vague word choices (for example, “things”).
– Words are mostly chosen appropriately to meet the purpose of the task and to create specific
effects, for example, by using literary devices for humour or consciously choosing features of
persuasive language.
– Direct translations may lead to inappropriate word choices.
Script control
– The writing style is now established, and there is little likelihood of the learner changing how they
form their letters.
appropriately.
77
– The writing shows evidence of independent, accurate editing.
– Surface features are generally controlled consistently, although in unfamiliar topic areas or under
time pressure in formal assessments, control may be reduced.
– Spelling is mostly accurate.
– Learners use a greater range of punctuation, for example, question marks and exclamation
marks.
Where to next?
– plan and organise their core ideas, concepts, and overall text, making it appropriate to the topic,
purpose, audience, and text type;
– construct each core idea or sentence and elaborate on and expand it with supporting sentences;
– make effective use of topic-specific and technical vocabulary;
– use “tighter” sentence construction, minimising the use of simple connectives in compound
sentences and using more embedded clauses and phrases;
– construct grammatically correct and expanded phrases, especially verb, noun, adverbial, and
prepositional phrases;
– increase their use of more sophisticated and/or varied vocabulary and sentence structures;
– increase the variety of sentence types they use;
– continue to pay attention to punctuation.
78
Samples of learners’ writing at Stage 3
Perfect Home
Task: Write a description of your perfect home
Topic development – The ideas are relevant and are presented in a logical order but are not arranged into
paragraphs.
– The writer goes into detail and expresses personal ideas.
Sentence development – There is a variety of sentence structures, including complex – Just about 150 kilometres
[metres] square in my house that’s enough, because I don’t like too much spaces and just
and language three persons in it.
structures
– The writer uses some linking words to connect ideas – because, Through [though].
– There are some run-on sentences – In my game room, you can see football, basketball,
and other things about sport, that’s my free room.
– The writer sometimes has errors with the verb to be – needn’t [be] very big, It must be put
[have], can’t [be] just wood, that’s can help.
– There are several modal verbs – needn’t [be], should be, must be put, can see, shouldn’t
be, can help.
– Contracted verb forms are used appropriately.
– There are some errors with articles and/or plurals – too much spaces, is [a] living room,
[a] kitch [kitchen] and [a] game room, and [a] fountain, under [the] foutain is [a] pool, all
of [the] rooms.
Vocabulary – The writer uses appropriate high-frequency, general vocabulary.

development – There are several prepositions appropriate to the topic – in my house, downstairs, in the
middle of, Under, In my game room, Upstair, outside.
– There are a few vocabulary errors – kilometres [metres], cause of [reason for].
– The writer uses some high-frequency adjectives – big, perfect, comfortable, quiet, lovely,
large, important, alive, green, colourful.
– Capital letters are sometimes used inappropriately.

punctuation – Spelling is mostly accurate. 79
– The writer uses a range of punctuation.
Best or Worst
Task: Write about the best or worst thing that has happened to you since you came to New Zealand.
Topic development – The ideas are logically organised in paragraphs.
Sentence development – The writer uses short sentences to good effect, although there are some longer
sentences and attempts at using complex ones – When we got there. My friends started
and language cooking dinner.
structures
– There are many markers of time – It was about 1 month ago, On the second day, Then,
suddenly, When we got there.
– The writer shows a good grasp of language structures, but there are a few incorrect
structures – seemed they really enjoyed it, one of my friend, There were seemed good
meal.
– The writer uses relative clauses – It was one of the days which I can’t forget.
– There are a few missing articles – took them to [the] shopping centre, I thought [the]
supermarket.
– There are some errors with verb forms – I thought supermarket is [was], they said I can
[could] come in.
– The writer has some difficulty with the verb to seem – My friends seemed they really
enjoyed it [seemed to really enjoy it/seemed like they really enjoyed it]; There were
seemed good meal [It seemed like a good meal].
Vocabulary – The writer uses appropriate, high-frequency, general vocabulary.

development – Most verbs are used correctly – was planning to take, were staying, started cooking,
didn’t let me come.
– Capital letters are mostly used appropriately.
Editing, spelling, and – The writing shows a little evidence of editing.

punctuation – The spelling is correct.
– The writer uses some commas, full stops, and speech marks but sometimes incorrectly
– When we got there. My friends started cooking dinner.
80
Economics
Topic development – The short-answer format and the need to use certain words constrain the writer’s
ability to develop a topic.
Sentence development – The writer uses a variety of sentence structures.

and language – The writer uses linking words to connect ideas – For example, But, so, If, However.
structures – The writer uses some passive constructions – are made, can be bought.
– There is a relative clause – which choices are same value.
– There is a subordinate clause – If I buy the dog.
Vocabulary – The writer uses the required technical vocabulary plus some high-frequency,
general words.
development
– The writer has difficulty incorporating some of the technical words into the text –
which choices are, my area are scarcity. The writer uses “scarcity” as an adjective
and doesn’t seem sure of its technical meaning.

– The writer uses commas and full stops correctly.
81
Family Changes
Task: To describe family changes between 1558 and 1667 and evaluate the influence of the family on
the lives of people at this time.
Note: A transcript of this text is provided on page 96, as an appendix.
82
Topic development – The ideas are relevant to the topic, but there is a lack of development and supporting
detail. There is some repetition, and some ideas are not expressed clearly – The
change of family during the period 1558–1667 was huge and also lots of changes.
– Ideas are arranged into paragraphs.
Sentence development – There are many correct passive constructions – was caused by, was believed, was also
changed, was known as. However, the writer consistently uses the word “been” instead
and language of “being” – were been killed, were been taken, were been shared.
structures
– There are a few linking words to connect ideas – because, also.
– The writer attempts to use some complex verb phrases – started to gain, turn to religion
to solve.
– The writer has some difficulty with verb forms – has [had] it’s own role, you can [could]
get married, turn [turned] to religion, the parents choose [chose], been educate[d], men
start[ed] asking.
– There are some errors with subject–verb agreement – women was, role of women were,
boys is, head of the family were.
– There are some relative clauses – The men missed an important part in the child life
which is child birth.
– There are some incorrect constructions that impede the reader’s understanding – where
is to solve the problem, to cut down the beside them.
– The writer has some difficulty with plurals – produce baby, blaming them as witch,
children of family, solve all the problem.
Vocabulary – The writer uses appropriate general vocabulary as topic vocabulary – parish, courtship,
sin, witch.
development
– Capital letters are mostly used appropriately.
Editing, spelling, and – There is some evidence of editing, but the sample was written under test conditions so
there was little time for this.
punctuation
– Spelling is mostly correct.
– The learner uses full stops but does not use more complex punctuation, such as colons,
which would be useful in this text – The role of women were simple[:] to produce baby
and do the wish of the husband.
83
Developing Independent Lea
Learners
ea ne
nerrss
Using “learning to Cognition (thinking and learning) and metacognition (thinking about thinking and
learn” strategies can learning) are both important components of learning. Learners who have metacognitive
improve a learner’s
achievement. awareness are aware of how they approach a particular learning task. They can monitor
the progress of their learning and can think about their own thinking and learning
processes.
Students have to learn how to learn … students need to develop a range of

information-processing abilities (both cognitive and metacognitive) …
Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9–13, page 23
Three different types of metacognitive knowledge have been identified (see Biggs and
Moore, 1993):
• knowing what, or having knowledge about your own learning processes
(declarative knowledge);
• knowing how, or having knowledge about what skills and strategies to use
(procedural knowledge);
• knowing when, or having knowledge about when and why to use various
strategies (conditional knowledge).
Learners need to be taught how to use learning prompts and strategies and then
encouraged to use them. Teachers should explain each prompt or strategy, describe
its purpose, model how to use it, give learners chances to practise using it, and then
encourage them to use it at different points in the learning tasks until it becomes part of
how they learn.
A prompt is a reminder to a learner to use what they already know and can do (for
example, by selecting a known strategy to solve a learning problem). In this book,
common prompts are usually written in the first person so that learners can use them
independently, for example, Are my ideas in the right order? Prompts like this could be
displayed around the room, or they could be listed in the learners’ books and numbered
(so that the teacher can say, “Remember to use prompts 1 and 3 for this task.”)
In the early stages, the learners can use symbols and icons (such as smiley faces or
question marks) to show what they do or don’t understand. Teachers can use cards to
prompt the use of a learning strategy.
Checklists will only Checklists can also be displayed in the classroom to encourage self-monitoring and
have a meaningful use
independent learning. Teachers can use them to focus on specific aspects of learning at
if they are carefully
designed and linked different times and for different purposes. Checklists should be short and should relate
to a specific task. to a specific task.
Checklists for speaking could focus on fluency or on specific aspects of speaking, such
as stress patterns, pronunciation of a particular sound, or minimal pair differences (for
example, “pin” and “pen”).
Checklists for reading can be used to make sure that learners draw on and use
appropriate reading strategies, including the reading processing strategies and the reading
comprehension strategies described on pages 139–152 of Effective Literacy Practice in Years
5 to 8 and put into practice on pages 51–98 of Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13.
84
For example, readers can use the comprehension strategies of:
• inferring and evaluating, when completing three-level thinking guides to gain a deeper
understanding of a text;
• analysing and synthesising, when using comment codes to annotate texts (I = interesting,
D = disagree, A = agree, F = fact, O = opinion);
• asking questions, identifying main ideas, or analysing and synthesising, when using
highlighters to identify different aspects of the text.
Checklists for writing could focus on different aspects of texts at different times, depending
on the teaching and learning focus. A checklist could include features of a specific text type, a
punctuation feature, appropriate vocabulary choices, a spelling rule, a grammar rule (such as the
use of “s” at the end of verbs in the third-person singular present tense), or use of prepositions.
Example of a writing checklist for Stage 3

Task: To summarise the causes of World War I, using four different types of sources, and compare the points of view of
the sources
Language focus: Passive verbs
Prompts:
Do I understand what I have to do?
Have I checked the instructions to make sure that I’m using the right range of sources?
Have I checked that I’ve recorded the details of the sources accurately?
How have I been able to show the similarities and differences between the sources?
Have I checked that my use of the passive in my summary is grammatically correct?
Strategies:
Work out ways to help you identify the main ideas in a text, highlight them, and identify the language cues that show you
that they are main ideas.
Check with the teacher that you understand the differences between fact and opinion and ask yourself which are facts
and which are opinions.
Remember that English language learners eventually need to move beyond checklists in order to
become independent learners. They need to learn to draw on and use their knowledge, skills, and
strategies consciously and deliberately for cognitive and metacognitive purposes in all areas
of learning.
The following table includes examples of learning prompts and strategies from the Foundation
Stage to Stage 4 in oral language, reading, writing, and thinking about learning.
85
Examples of learning prompts and strategies
Oral language Reading Writing Thinking about
learning
Foundation Stage Prompts Prompts Prompts Prompt
and Stage 1
Am I easy to hear? Before reading: Do I know what I need What do I remember
(At these stages, What is this about? to write about? from yesterday when
Do I need to say it
prompts may we were learning
again? How do I know? Are my words and
be explained about this?
letters easy to read?
by pictures, Did I hear what you Do I know some words Strategy
mime, symbols, said? Does my writing make
for this in my first
teacher/peer sense? Practise different ways
Do I need to hear it language?
modelling, of learning new words
or saying, not again? During reading: Strategy and decide which
reading.) Can I use the pictures ones work best for
Strategies Use a model for
to help me understand writing (in print or you, e.g., look, say,
Say your question (or the words and ideas? spell, cover, write,
electronic form).
idea) to yourself in check.
your head before you After reading:
talk. What words and ideas
Listen for words said do I remember?
more than once or Is this idea or topic
loudly and slowly. easy or hard for me to
understand?
How can I get better at

understanding?
Stage 2 Prompts Prompt Prompts Prompts
Am I speaking clearly? What questions can I Have I checked that What questions can I
ask as I read, to help my work makes sense ask as I learn, to help
Am I trying to talk a lot me understand? and has capital letters, me understand?
so I’ll get better? full stops, and correct
Strategy What have I been
Can I pick out the spelling?
learning about (e.g.,
main ideas from what Use different ways Are my words and volcanoes, soccer
I hear? (charts, mind maps) sentences in the right rules), and what have
to make notes about
What should I do if I order? I learned how to do
the main ideas. This
don’t understand what (e.g., play a game, use
can help you to notice Strategy
I hear? a piece of equipment)?
and understand what
Check that you
Strategies you read. Strategies
followed the
Work out ways to get instructions for the Use different ways
the main ideas from writing task. (e.g., charts and mind
what you hear, both in maps) to make notes
class and out of class. about the main ideas.
This will help you to
Tell a buddy what notice and understand
the main ideas are, what you learn.
and see if your buddy
agrees. Practise different ways
of learning new words,
e.g., look, say, spell,
cover, write, check.
Act out words to

see if it helps you to
remember them.
Ask a friend or a
teacher if you don’t
know how to do
something.
86
learning
Stage 3 Prompts Prompts Prompts Prompts
Is my English Am I reading different Have I checked that my Can I explain what I’ve
pronunciation types of text to learn ideas are organised in learned to a friend,
improving? more information and a sensible order? someone in my group,
learn about ways that or someone at home?
How am I trying to Have I written as much
people use language?
improve my fluency as I need to for my What do I know at the
(speaking for longer Can I understand the writing purpose? end of a topic study
and without too difference between that I didn’t know at
Have I checked for
many pauses and main ideas and the beginning?
missing words?
hesitations)? details?
Strategies
Have I tried to use new
Am I practising using Strategy
vocabulary? Think about how what
new words at home?
Ask yourself if you you are learning today
Does my writing
Which words do I need have read about this links to what you have
meet my purpose for
to pronounce better? in your first language. already learned about
writing? and summarise this
Am I talking to
In completing the in a notebook.
different people (e.g.,
writing task, have I
teachers, friends) in Ask yourself if you
met my learning goal?
different ways? have read about this
Strategies in your first language.
Strategies
Talk or make notes Talk with a friend
Listen to people
about what you know about your learning,
speaking on the radio
before you start. in either your
and on TV and repeat first language or
to yourself a main idea Make a plan for your English, to help you
you have heard. writing and check that understand and see if
your plan fits the task your ideas match each
Make yourself talk to
and the audience for other’s.
someone you don’t
your work.
know in the class. Complete a time trial
Practise asking – give yourself ten
different sorts of minutes at home to
questions. write down everything
you remember about
Time yourself (with a topic. Then check
a watch or clock) so in your textbook
you speak with fewer to see what you’ve
pauses. remembered and what
you left out.
Listen to how people
change meanings by
saying words louder or
more slowly.
87
learning
Stage 4 Prompts Prompts Prompts Prompts
Have I set my goals for Am I reading a range Am I editing carefully Do I understand that
improving fluency and of different texts on for accurate standard there are different
pronunciation? the topic? English use? levels and types of
questions and that I
Have I checked that Can I recognise bias or Am I choosing features need to ask questions
my opinions about my inadequacies in to create an effect as well as answer
proficiency in English the text? where appropriate? them to help me learn?
match my listener’s
Am I using a range Strategy use
views? Do I understand the
of different sources
Am I choosing and different approaches
Am I able to choose of information on
using a range of required in different
different features of the page, including
appropriate strategies subjects for research
spoken English to visual text (diagrams,
to improve my tasks?
create an effect? graphs) and written
academic writing?
text to make sense of Am I always checking
Have I worked out the text? to see what I know
what strategies about a topic before
work best for me to Strategy use beginning a task?
help me listen and
Am I choosing and
understand? Am I being systematic
using appropriate in my approach
Strategy use strategies to improve to learning new
my appreciation and
Am I choosing and grammatical forms,
comprehension of
using appropriate correcting errors,
complex texts?
strategies to improve and learning new
my listening and vocabulary?
speaking skills? Do I know ways
of analysing and
synthesising
information (such as
grids) and ways to
work out the meanings
of words in unfamiliar
contexts?
88
Record of Progress
It would be useful to photocopy this form and complete it three times per year for each learner, to track
progress over time, and keep it with student records.
Name:
Year level:
ESOL number (if funded):
Assessment date:
Oral language: Oral language: Reading Writing

listening speaking
Stage (please circle) F 1 2 3 4 F 1 2 3 4 F 1A 1B 1C FA FB 1 2A 2B 3 4

1D/2A 2B 2C/3A
3B 3C 3D/4A 4B
4C 4D
Assessment tool (see

pp. 17–28 of ESOL
Progress Assessment
Guidelines)
Level of assistance
(teacher-guided, peer,
or independent)
Task type (e.g., a

speech, a journal
entry, a test)
Context of assessment
(ESOL class or
mainstream)
Hours per week

of ESOL specialist
classes
Next steps
Other comments
89
Glossary
academic vocabulary words that are used in academic contexts or with academic topics.
These words include words for specific subjects or disciplines and
general academic vocabulary that is used for many different subjects
(see Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13, page 28). Some
words have meanings that are different when the word is used in
a specific academic subject rather than in everyday contexts, for
example, in the subject of mathematics “mean” refers to the average
of a set of scores, whereas its everyday meanings include “stingy”,
“cruel”, and “unkind”.
adverb An adverb is any word (or sometimes a group of words) that

modifies or adds to the meaning of verbs, adjectives (including
numbers), clauses, sentences, and other adverbs. Adverbs typically
answer questions such as how?, when?, or where? For example, “In
the wintertime they usually treated her well”, “An extremely small
child entered the room quietly.”
adverbial phrase a group of words functioning as an adverb in a sentence, for

example, “I’m going to the shop to buy a drink.”
article “A” is called an indefinite article; “the” is called a definite article.

(For more information about articles, see Exploring Language: A
Handbook for Teachers, page 47.)
clause a group of words containing a subject and verb, for example, “I’m
going.” A clause may be a subordinate [dependent] clause or a
main [independent] clause.
cognitive academic The ability to use academic language is sometimes called cognitive
language proficiency academic language proficiency (CALP). The ability to use social
language is sometimes called basic interpersonal communication
skills (BICS). CALP usually takes more time to acquire than BICS.
cohesion the way a text is formed into a united whole through the use of
linking words, nouns and pronouns, synonyms, and other cohesive
devices
collocate with (of two or more words) to be commonly used together. For
example, “go” collocates with “swimming”, as in “go swimming”,
but it does not collocate with “tennis”. A verb that collocates with
“tennis” is “play”, as in “play tennis”.
collocation two (or more) words that are commonly used together
complex sentence a sentence that has a main clause and at least one subordinate
clause, for example, “The bike was smaller [main clause] than I had
expected [subordinate clause].”
compound sentence a sentence containing at least two main clauses, linked by a

conjunction (“and”, “but”, “or”, and so on)
conjunction a joining word, for example, “and”, “but”, “or”
90
content words words that have some meaning on their own and refer to an action,
state, object, idea, and so on. (In contrast, functional words or
structural words indicate relationships between other words and
don’t tend to have a clear meaning on their own.)
decode read individual words, that is, translate them from the shapes of
written language into the sounds of oral language (often silently) by
making links between letters or letter clusters and their associated
sounds, using visual and grapho-phonic sources of information
in a text in conjunction with semantic and syntactic sources of
information in the text and prior knowledge of literacy learning
dependent clause see subordinate clause
determiner a word that quantifies or identifies nouns, including articles,

numbers, and possessive adjectives
discourse Discourse is the level of language beyond the sentence. Spoken

discourse can refer to oral texts such as dialogues or monologues,
while written discourse can refer to parts of written texts or entire
written texts.
elaborate on to enhance understanding of texts (oral, audio, visual, or written) by

using supplementary information, explanations, or other material
(which may include visuals). It is preferable to elaborate on
language structures or vocabulary rather than to simplify them for
learners after the Foundation Stage or Stage 1.
ellipsis leaving out one or more implied words from a sentence, for example,
“[I’ve] Got it.”
finite verb A finite verb changes according to person, number, tense, and so
on. It is a verb that has a subject–verb relationship within a sentence
or a clause, for example, “the dog ran away”, “I like people who
are polite.” A non-finite verb does not have this relationship, for
example, “I want to run away”, “It’s easy to like children”, “Being
polite is very important.”
formulaic chunk a phrase or sentence that learners remember and use without
necessarily understanding the individual words, such as “How are
you?”
general vocabulary words that are used in many different everyday contexts
high-frequency word a word that occurs often in speech or writing
homonym words that have the same sound but different spellings and/or
meanings, for example, “their” and “there”
idiom a saying that has a different meaning from the individual meanings
of the words that it consists of and is often used in informal contexts,
for example, “She’s over the moon about the baby.”
idiomatic containing idioms
imperative verb a verb expressing a command or request, for example, “come” in

“Come here!” and “remember” in “Please remember me.”
independent clause see main clause
91
intensifier a word used to make the meaning of another word or phrase
stronger, for example, “very” in “very hot”, “so” in “so fast”, and
“really” in “really angry”
interlanguage the language used in transitional phases of learning an additional

language. This language is not a standard form of either the learner’s
first language or the target language but has elements of each,
and may also include elements that come from aspects of language
learning, such as “overgeneralising” grammar rules.
lexical referring to the lexis or lexicon (all of the content words) of a

language
lexical item a word or group of words that has a specific meaning. For example,
“drink milk” contains two lexical items, but “traffic light” contains
only one.
main clause (independent clause) a clause that can function as a sentence by

itself, for example, “If we all go outside [subordinate/dependent
clause], we can play in the sunshine [main clause].”
metacognitive referring to a learner’s awareness of how they think and learn
minimal pair two words that have only one different sound, for example, “ship”
and “sheep” – these can be hard for English language learners to
differentiate
modal verb a verb that expresses obligation, permission, possibility, ability, or

degrees of probability or obligation, for example, “can”, “could”,
“may”, “might”, “must”, “should”, “will”, “would” (refer to Exploring
Language, pages 66–68)
modes Speaking, listening, reading, writing, viewing, and presenting are

sometimes referred to as the modes of language use. There are two
oral language modes, two written language modes, and two visual
language modes. There are three modes for the production of
language (speaking, writing, and presenting) and three modes for its
comprehension (listening, reading, and viewing).
modifier a word, phrase, or clause that occurs before and/or after a noun and
modifies the meaning of that noun, for example, “the shining eyes of
my daughter”
morphology the study of the meaning-related structure of words. Morphemes

are units of meaning that make up words; some words consist
of one morpheme (such as “cat”), and some are combinations of
morphemes (for example, “un+interest+ed”).
native speaker a person who speaks a language (in this booklet, usually English) as
their first language
non-finite verb a verb that does not have a direct subject–verb relationship and
does not change according to person, number, tense, and so on,
for example, “I want to run away”, “It’s easy to like children”, “Being
polite is very important.”
non-verbal language all types of body language, such as gestures, movements, and facial
expressions. This is considered part of oral language.
92
noun phrase In linguistics, “phrase” refers to a group of words that has a meaning
but does not have both a subject and a finite verb (so it is not a
clause). A phrase is categorised by its most important part, for
example, “the big dog” is a noun phrase. A noun phrase may be a
single word, for example, “I”.
overgeneralising In linguistics, “overgeneralising” means applying a grammar rule in

a language context in which it is incorrect, for example, using the
plural suffix -s with the noun “sheep” and saying “sheeps”. This is
a sign that a language learner is beginning to know and understand
the rules of the target language.
passive construction a sentence construction in which the subject undergoes the action
of the verb, for example, “He was remembered” (as opposed to an
active construction, in which the subject performs or experiences the
action, for example, “He remembered”)
phonemic awareness awareness of the separate sounds within words
phonological knowledge knowledge of the sound system of a language
phrasal verb a verb consisting of a verb and a preposition or adverb, or both. A

phrasal verb as a whole has a meaning that differs from the meanings
of each of the parts, for example, “He caught on very quickly.” (Refer
to Exploring Language, pages 68–69.)
phrase a group of words that forms part of a sentence but does not express
a complete thought. (In linguistics, it means a group of words that
does not have both a subject and a finite verb.)
possessive adjective a word that occurs before a noun and indicates the possession of this
noun – “his”, “her”, “their”, “your”, “our”
prepositional phrase a phrase that begins with a preposition, for example, “in the car”,
“outside the house”
pronoun a word that stands in place of a noun, for example, “I”, “he”, “you”
proper noun a name of a person or place, beginning with a capital letter, for
example, “Li Ling”, “Sàmoa”
prosodic features the prosodic features of a language include pitch, volume, speed,
intonation, and stress, all of which affect the way the sounds of the
language are articulated. The way prosodic features are used can
alter the meaning of what is said, for example, “John’s bought a new
car” (not a new bike) or “John’s bought a new car” (not a second-
hand one). Prosodic features are considered part of oral language.
referent a person or thing that a word (often a pronoun) refers to
relative clause a subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun (such as

“who”, “which”, “that”), for example, “That is a good idea, which we
should remember.”
relative pronoun the word used to introduce a relative clause – for example, “who”,
“which”, “that”
sensory verbs verbs that refer to feelings or senses, for example, “love” and “smell”
93
simple sentence a sentence containing only one main clause
structural words sometimes called functional or grammatical words; words such

as “a”, “the”, “to”, and so on, which don’t have a specific meaning
in themselves but which are crucial for making sense of texts, for
example, “Mary was having a party.”
subject pronoun a pronoun functioning as the subject of the sentence
subordinate clause (dependent clause) a clause that is introduced by words like “when”,
“if”, “after”, “because”, “unless”, “as”, “that”, or “whether” and that
is incomplete as a sentence without a main clause, for example, “If
we all go outside [subordinate clause], we can play in the sunshine
[main clause].”
syntax the ways in which words in a language can be combined to make

sentences
target language the language being learned
technical vocabulary words that are subject-specific or have a subject-specific meaning,

for example, “knock on” is a technical term used in the sport of
rugby and “standard deviation” is a technical term used in the
subject of statistics.
verbal language language in the form of words. This is considered part of oral
language.
verb phrase In linguistics, “phrase” refers to a group of words that has a meaning
but does not have both a subject and a finite verb (so it is not a
clause). A phrase is categorised by its most important part. For
example, in the sentence “I am going”, “am going” is a verb phrase.
A verb phrase may be a single word.
94
References
Biggs, J. and Moore, P. (1993). The Process of Learning. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heatley, A., Nation, I. S. P., and Coxhead, A. (2002). RANGE and FREQUENCY Programs. Available
on the Internet at: www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation/RANGE.zip
Ministry of Education (1996). Exploring Language: A Handbook for Teachers. Wellington:

Learning Media.
Ministry of Education (1999). Danger! Choices series. Wellington: Learning Media. (audiotape)
Ministry of Education (2003a). Effective Literacy Strategies in Years 9 to 13: A Guide for Teachers.
Ministry of Education (2003b). English Language Intensive Programme Years 7–13 Resource. Auckland:
Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education (2003c). Quality Teaching for Diverse Students in Schooling: Best Evidence Synthesis.
Report from the Medium Term Strategy Policy Division. Wellington: Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education (2003d). The New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars: English. Wellington: Learning
Media and the Learning Centre Trust of New Zealand. Available on the Internet at:
www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment/exemplars/index_e.php
Ministry of Education (2005a). ESOL Progress Assessment Guidelines. Wellington: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education (2005b). Oral Language Exemplars for the English Language Learning Progressions.
Christchurch: Visual Learning. (DVD)
Ministry of Education (2006). Effective Literacy Practice in Years 5 to 8. Wellington: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education (2007a). Junior Journal 34 and 35. Wellington: Learning Media. (CD)
Ministry of Education (2007b). Making Language and Learning Work 1: Integrating Language and Learning
in Secondary Maths and Science. Auckland: Unitec in Schools, TEAM Solutions and Visual
Learning. (DVD)
Ministry of Education (2007c). Making Language and Learning Work 2: Integrating Language and Learning
in Secondary English and Social Science. Auckland: Unitec in Schools, TEAM Solutions and Visual
Learning. (DVD)
Ministry of Education (2007d). The New Zealand Curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education. Te Kete Ipurangi – The Online Learning Centre: ESOL Online.
www.tki.org.nz/r/esol/esolonline/
Ministry of Education and The University of Auckland (2003). asTTle: Assessment Tools for Teaching and
Learning: He Pùnaha Aromatawai mò te Whakaako me te Ako. Version 2. Wellington: Learning
Media. (CD-ROM)
van Hees, J. (2007). Expanding Oral Language in the Classroom. Wellington: New Zealand Council for
Educational Research.
95
Appendix: Transcript of Student’s
tt’ss Te
Text
xtt
4. Describe the extent to which the family changed during the period 1588–1667 evaluate family changes
between 1558 and 1667.
Evaluate the influence of the family on the lives of people at this time.
After the Reformation the family changed from it’s trational way. The women started to gain independence
for themselves and also start moving their lives in their own way. The family was start to move away from
the old way and it was caused by many things.
The family member has it’s own role. It was believed that the women was to blame for our first sin from
the first family Adam and Eve. The role of women were simple to produce baby and do the wish of the
husband. Marriage was simple because you can get married when you are 7 years old if your’e girl and
boys is 14. The role of men in a family was to be master or the head of the family. The head of the family
were the only one who can go to church while[?] women educated the children at home. The men missed
an important part in the child life which is child birth. The parish set up courtship where is to solve the
problem between the men and women. The people turn to religion to solve the problem of the first sin
which was caused by the women by blaming them as witch and some of the women were been killed to cut
down the beside them. The marriage way was also changed because mainly the parents choose whose going
to married who and it was known as arranged marriage. The change became when they choosed their own
wife and husband to formed a family. The relationship in the family became strong and also children of
family were been taken to church insted of been educate at home by the mother.
The change of family during the period 1558-1667 was huge and also lots of changes. The change didn’t
solve all the problem within the family because men start asking for the role of been a headmaster which
were been shared now with the women of the family. It didn’t solve but it was a huge movement of the
family from the old trational way to a new world which was just been formed.
96

ELLP Years 9-13

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELLP Years 9-13

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELLP Years 9-13

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The English Language

A resource for mainstream and ESOL teachers

Published 2008 for the Ministry of Education by

All rights reserved. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.

Dewey number 428.0071

Oral Language – Listening and Speaking 7

Developing Independent Learners 84

Foundation The New Zealand Curriculum

The English Stage 2 Stage 3

The New Zealand 5

• teachers focused more on written English than on oral English;

The learner may:

contexts before responding facial expression

situations, such as pairs, groups, and whole-

The learner may understand: The learner needs:

– interactions in whole-class contexts them to process what they have heard

teacher support). – speech in situations that have an immediate context

Levels of text complexity

Making the most of a text

Reading for different purposes

Assessing and reporting on reading

Making decisions about a learner’s progress is complex because it requires ongoing

expanded with prepositional or technical, and that should be may be supported by

ideas, e.g., cause and effect or and direct speech. photographs.

– Texts may interweave more

and passive constructions.

Texts at the Foundation Stage tend to have the following characteristics:

Text type: Narrative

Audience: An emergent reader of any age

The verb phrases are mostly in the third-person-

List Two (second 1000 high- 4.7% 16.7%

List Three (academic word list) 0 0

Others (not in any list) 9.3% 33.3%

Total number 39 running words 12 word types

Texts at Stage 1A tend to have the following characteristics:

Topic: Describing the features of an insect and a ﬁsh

Text type: Scientiﬁc description

Audience: Emergent readers

List Two (second 1000 high- 20% 20%

List Three (academic word list) 1.8% 3.3%

Others (not in any list) 10.9% 16.7%

Total number 55 running words 30 word types

Texts at Stage 1B tend to have the following characteristics:

List Two (second 1000 high- 16.7% 12.2%

List Three (academic word list) 0% 0%

Others (not in any list) 1.4% 2%

Total number 144 running words 49 word types

Texts at Stage 1C tend to have the following characteristics:

Topic: The generation of electricity through wind power, using a wind

Text type: Explanation

Audience: A reader who wants to know about wind turbines

Topic development Wind Power

Language structures The turbine looks like a windmill.

List Two (second 1000 high- 7.8% 10%

List Three (academic word list) 0% 0%

Others (not in any list) 10.7% 8.5%

Total number 103 running words 59 word types

Texts at Stage 1D/2A tend to have the following characteristics:

Topic: The process of digestion

Text type: Explanation