1.

Complex Numbers

1.1 The Algebra of Complex Numbers

The complex number z is defined to be

z = (x, y), (1.1)

where x and y are both real numbers. The numbers x and y are, moreover, known as the
real and imaginary parts of z, respectively; and we write

Re z = x, Im z = y

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their x coordinates are equal and their y
coordinates are equal. In other words,

(x, y) = (u, v) iff x = u and y = v.

Definition 1.1.1 — Addition and Multiplication. If z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are

arbitrary complex numbers, then the sum and the product of z1 and z2 are defined as
follows:

(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ). (1.2)

and

(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , y1 x2 + x1 y2 ). (1.3)

2 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Note that the operations defined by (1.2) and (1.3) become the usual operations of
addition and multiplication when restricted to the real numbers:
(x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0). (1.4)
and
(x1 , 0)(x2 , 0) = (x1 x2 , 0). (1.5)
Thus the complex number system is, therefore, a natural extension of the real number
system.
Any complex number z = (x, y) can be written z = (x, 0) + (0, y), and it is easy to see
that (0, 1)(y, 0) = (0, y). Hence
z = (x, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0);
and if we think of a real number as either x or (x, 0) and let i denote the imaginary number
(0, 1), it is clear that
z = x + iy. (1.6)
We note that i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) or i2 = −1.
In view of expression (1.6), (1.2) and (1.3) become
(x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ),
and
(x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(y1 x2 + x1 y2 ).
 Example 1.1 If z1 = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, −6), then
z1 + z2 = (3, 7) + (5, −6) = (8, 1) and
z1 − z2 = (3, 7) − (5, −6) = (−2, 13).
We can also use the notation z1 = 3 + 7i and z2 = 5 − 6i to obtain
z1 + z2 = (3 + 7i) + (5 − 6i) = (8 + i) and
z1 − z2 = (3 + 7i) − (5 − 6i) = (−2 + 13i). 

 Example 1.2 If z1 = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, −6), then

z1 z2 = (3, 7)(5, −6)

= ((3 · 5) − (7 · (−6)), (3 · (−6)) + (5 · 7))
= (15 + 42, −18 + 35)
= (57, 17).
We can also use the notation z1 = 3 + 7i and z2 = 5 − 6i to obtain
z1 z2 = (3 + 7i)(5 − 6i)
= 15 − 18i + 35i − 42i2
= 15 − 42(−1) + (−18 + 35)i
= 57 + 17i.


1.1 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 3

To motivate our definition for division, we proceed along the same lines as we did for
multiplication, assuming that z2 6= 0.
z1 (x1 , y1 )
=
z2 (x2 , y2 )
(x1 + iy1 )
=
(x2 + iy2 )
(x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 )
=
(x2 + iy2 )(x2 − iy2 )
x1 x2 + y1 y2 + i(−x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
=
x22 + y22
x1 x2 + y1 y2 (−x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
= 2 2
+i
x2 + y2 x22 + y22
 x x + y y −x y + x y 
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
= , .
x22 + y22 x22 + y22

Definition 1.1.2 — Division.

z1 (x1 , y1 )
=
z2 (x2 , y2 )
 x x + y y −x y + x y 
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
= , , for z2 6= 0.
x22 + y22 x22 + y22

 Example 1.3 If z1 = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, −6), then

z1 (3, 7)  15 − 42 18 + 35   −27 53 
= = , = , .
z2 (5, −6) 25 + 36 25 + 36 61 61

We can also use the notation z1 = 3 + 7i and z2 = 5 − 6i to obtain

3 + 7i
z1 z2 =
5 − 6i
3 + 7i 5 + 6i
= ·
5 − 6i 5 + 6i
15 + 18i + 35i + 42i2
=
25 + 30i − 30i − 36i2
15 − 42 + (18 + 35)i
=
25 + 36
−27 53
= + i.
61 61

4 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Properties of complex numbers

(P1) Commutative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 .
(P2) Associative law for addition : z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
(P3) Additive identity : ∀z ∈ C , ∃w ∈ C, z + w = z. The number w is obviously the order
pair (0, 0).
(P4) Additive inverse : ∀z ∈ C, ∃! η ∈ C, z + η = (0, 0). Obviously, if z = (x, y) = x + iy,
then η = (−x, −y) = −x − iy = −z.
(P5) Commutative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
(P6) Associative law for multiplication : z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
(P7) Multiplicative identity : ∀z ∈ C, ∃ζ ∈ C, zζ = z. (1, 0) is the unique complex
number ζ having this property.
(P8) Multiplicative inverse : ∀z ∈ C\{(0, 0)}, ∃z−1 ∈ C, zz−1 = (1, 0) = 1. The number
z−1 would be
(1, 0) 1 1 x − iy x −y
z−1 = = = = 2 2
= 2 2
+i 2
z z x + iy x + y x +y x + y2
 x −y 
= 2 , .
x + y2 x2 + y2
(P9) The distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
1.1 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 5
Definition 1.1.3 The conjugate of z = x + iy, denoted z, is the complex number
(x, −y) = x − iy.

 Example 1.4
a) Re(−3 + 7i) = −3 and Re[(9, 4)] = 9.
b) Im(−3 + 7i) = 7 and Im[(9, 4)] = 4.
c) −3 + 7i = −3 − 7i and (9, 4) = (9, −4).


Theorem 1.1.1 Suppose that z, z1 and z3 are arbitrary complex numbers. Then
(1) z = z.
(2) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
(3) z1 z2= z1 · z2 .
z1 z1
(4) z2 =z2 if z2 6= 0.
(5) Re(z) = z +2 z .
−z
(6) Im(z) = z 2i .
(7) Re(iz) = −Im(z).
(8) Im(iz) =Re(z).

Proof.
6 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Exercises 1.1
1. Preform the required calculations and express your answers in the form a + bi
1.1 i2016
i
1.2
2558
1.3 (i − 3)3
1.4 Re(7 + 6i) + Im(5 − 4i)
(4 − i)(1 − 3i)
1.5
−1 + 2i
1.6 (1 + i)−2
1.7 (1 + i)(2 + i)(3 + i)
√ √
1.8 (1 + 3i)(i + 3)
2. Show that zz̄ is always a real number.
3. Let z1 , z2 be arbitrary complex numbers. Prove or disprove the following.
3.1 Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(z1 )+ Re(z2 )
3.2 Re(z1 z2 ) = Re(z1 ) Re(z2 )
3.3 Im(z1 + z2 ) = Im(z1 )+ Im(z2 )
3.4 Im(z1 z2 ) = Im(z1 ) Im(z2 )
4. Verify that the complex number (0, 0) has a multiplicative inverse or not?
1
5. Prove that if z = (x, y) where x, y ∈ R and not both 0, then z−1 = .
z
 1.2 The Geometry of Complex Numbers 7

1.2 The Geometry of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers, so they can be represented by points
in the plane.
We can represent the number z = x + iy = (x, y) by a position vector in the xy plane
whose tail is at the origin and whose head is at the point (x, y). When the xy plane is
used for displaying complex numbers, it is called the complex plane, or more simply, the
z plane.
Recall that Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y. Geometrically, Re(z) is the projection of z = (x, y)
on the x-axis, and Im(z) is the projection of z on to the y-axis. We call the x−axis the
real axis and the y−axis the imaginary axis

Y Imaginary axis

z = x + iy
−2 + i

x Real axis
0

Figure 1.1: The complex plane

Definition 1.2.1 — Modulus of Complex Numbers. The Modulus, or absolute

value, of the complex number z = x + iy is a nonnegative real number denoted by
|z| and defined by the relation
p
|z| = x2 + y2 . (1.7)

We have the following results.

Theorem 1.2.1 For any complex number z = x + iy, the following are true.
(a) The number |z| is the distance between the origin and the point z = (x, y).
(b) |z| = 0 iff z = 0
(c) |x| = | Re (z)| ≤ |z| and |y| = | Im (z)| ≤ |z|,
(d) |z|2 = zz.

Proof.
8 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

R (a) The difference z1 − z2 represents the displacement vector from z2 to z1 , so the

distance between z1 and z2 is given by |z1 − z2 |. Therefore
q
|z1 − z2 | = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .

(b) If z = (x, y) = x + iy, then −z = (−x, −y) = −x − iy is the reflection of z through

the origin and z = (x, −y) = x − iy is the reflection of z through the x-axis.

Theorem 1.2.2 — The triangle inequality. If z1 and z2 are arbitrary complex numbers,
then

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

Proof.
1.2 The Geometry of Complex Numbers 9

Theorem 1.2.3 Let z1 and z2 be arbitrary complex numbers. Then

(a) ||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |
(b) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
(c) |z1 /z2 | = |z1 |/|z2 | whenever z2 6= 0.

Proof.
10 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Exercises 1.2
1. Evaluate the following quantities.
1.1 |(1 + i)(2 + i)|
4 − 3i
1.2
2−i
1.3 |(1 + i)50 |
1.4 |z − 1|2 where z = x + yi
2. Sketch the sets of points determined by the following relations
2.1 |z + 1 − 2i| = 2
2.2 Re(z + 1) = 0
2.3 |z + 2i| ≤ 1
2.4 Im(z −√2i) > 6
3. Prove that 2|z| ≥ |Re(z)| + |Im(z)|.
4. Prove that |z1 − z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
5. Prove that |z| = 0 iff z = 0.
6. Show that the nonzero vectors z1 and z2 are parallel iff Im(z1 z2 ) = 0.
7. Show that the nonzero vectors z1 and z2 are perpendicular iff Re(z1 z2 ) = 0.
8. Show that |zn | = |z|n where n is a natural number.
9. Suppose that either |z| = 1 or |w| = 1. Prove that |z − w| = |1 − z̄w|.
10. Prove the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:
s s
n n n
∑ zk wk ≤ ∑ |zk |2 ∑ |wk |2.
k=1 k=1 k=1

11. Show that ||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |.

12. Prove that |z1 − z2 |2 = |z1 |2 − 2Re(z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2 .
 1.3 Complex Numbers in Polar Coordinates 11

1.3 Complex Numbers in Polar Coordinates

Let z = x + iy and r = |z|. Let θ be the angle that the line from the origin to the complex
number z make with the positive x-axis. Then the figure below shows

z = (r cos θ , r sin θ ) = r(cos θ + i sin θ ). (1.8)

Note : The number θ is undefined if z = 0.

Definition 1.3.1 — Polar representation. Equation (1.8) is called as a polar repre-

sentation of z, and the value r and θ are called polar coordinates of z.
√
 Example 1.5 If z = 1 + i, then r = 2 and
1 1
cos θ = √ and sin θ = √ .
2 2
Therefore θ = π4 . This implies that
√ π π
z= 2(cos + i sin )
4 4
is a polar representation of z. 

The number θ can be any value for which the identities

cos θ = x/r and sin θ = y/r

hold. For z 6= 0, the collection of all values of θ for which z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) is denoted
by arg z and is called the set of arguments of z. Then, we have the following definitions.
Definition 1.3.2 — Set of Arguments. If z 6= 0, then denote the set of arguments arg z
by

arg z = {θ : z = r(cos θ + i sin θ )}. (1.9)

If θ ∈ arg z, we say that θ is an argument of z.

R Note that, if θ1 , θ2 ∈ arg z, then there exists some integer n such that

θ1 = θ2 + 2nπ.
12 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers
√
 Example 1.6 Since 1 + i = 2(cos π4 + i sin π4 ), we have
nπ o
arg (1 + i) = + 2nπ : n is an integer
4
n 7π π 9π 17π o
= ..., − , , , , ... .
4 4 4 4


Definition 1.3.3 — Principal Value of the Argument. Let z 6= 0 be a complex number

such that z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) and − π < θ ≤ π. The number θ is called the principal
value of the argument and is denoted by Arg z; that is θ = Arg z.

R θ = Arg z ⇔ θ ∈ arg z and −π < θ ≤ π.

 Example 1.7 Arg(1 + i) = π4 . 

√ √
 Example 1.8 Let z = − 3 − i. Thus r = |z| = 3 + 1 = 2 and tan θ = −−1 √ = √1 . This
3 3
implies that
1 nπ o
θ ∈ arctan √ = + nπ : n ∈ Z .
3 6
√
Since − 3 − i is in the third quadrant, this implies that θ = −5π6 . Therefore
√ −5π −5π
− 3 − i = 2 cos + i2 sin
6 6
 −5π   −5π 
= 2 cos + 2nπ + i2 sin + 2nπ
6 6
  −5π   −5π 
= 2 cos + 2nπ + i sin + 2nπ ,
6 6
√ √ n o
where n ∈ Z. Hence Arg(− 3 − i) = −5π 6 and arg(− 3 − i) = −5π
6 + 2nπ : n ∈ Z . 

 Example 1.9 Let z = iy. Therefore Arg z = π2 if Im z > 0, and Arg z = − π2 if Im z <
0. 

The following theorem will be proved in Chapter 5.

Theorem 1.3.1 — Euler’s formula. Let z = x + iy. Then

ez = ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y) (1.10)

If we set x = 0 and let θ = y in the (1.10), we get a famous result known as Euler’s
formula :

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ = (cos θ , sin θ ). (1.11)

R If θ is a real number, then eiθ will be located somewhere on the circle with radius 1
centered at the origin. This assertion is easy to verify because
p
eiθ = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
1.3 Complex Numbers in Polar Coordinates 13
Definition 1.3.4 — Exponential Representation. Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) be any
complex number. Using the Euler’s formula we can write z in its exponential form:

z = reiθ . (1.12)

Moreover we have arg z = {θ : z = reiθ }.

√
 Example 1.10 If z = − 3 − i, then z = 2ei(−5π/6). 

Proposition 1.3.2 Suppose that z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 . Therefore

z1 z2 = r1 eiθ1 r2 eiθ2
= r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 )
= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )].

Theorem 1.3.3 Suppose that z1 = r1 eiθ1 6= 0 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 6= 0. Thus

arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 .

Proof.
14 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Using z = reiθ , we obtain the following results:

(1)
1 1 1 1
z−1 = = iθ = e−iθ = [cos(−θ ) + i sin(−θ )],
z re r r
(2)

z = r(cos θ − i sin θ ) = r[cos(−θ ) + i sin(−θ )] = re−iθ ,

(3)
z1 r1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )] = ei(θ1 −θ2 ) .
z2 r2 r2
√
 Example 1.11 Let z = 1 + i, then r = |z| = 2 and θ = Argz = π4 . Therefore
√ √ i
−1 1 π π 1 h 2 2
z = √ [cos(− ) + i sin(− )] = √ −i .
2 4 4 2 2 2

√
 Example 1.12 Let z1 = 8i, and z2 = 1 + i 3, then z1 = 8(cos π2 + i sin π2 ) and z2 =
π π
2(cos 3 + i sin 3 ). Therefore
z1 8h π π   π π i
= cos − + i sin −
z2 2 2 3 2 3
 π π
= 4 cos + i sin
√ 6 6
= 2 3 + 2i.


1.3 Complex Numbers in Polar Coordinates 15

Exercises 1.3
1. Find Argz for the following values of z.
1.1 (1 − −2
√i)
1.2 (− 3 + i)2
2
1.3 √
1 + i√3
1+i 3
1.4
(1 + i)2
2. Use exponential
√ notation
√ to √
show that
2.1 ( 3 − i)(1 + i 3) = 2 3 + 2i
3
√i) = −2 +√
2.2 (1 + 2i
2.3 2i( 3 + i)(1 + i 3) = −8
8
2.4 = 4 + 4i
1+i
3. Represent√the following complex numbers in polar form.
3.1 −2 3 − 2i
1
3.2
(1 − i)2
6
3.3 √
1+ 3
3.4 (5 + 5i)3
4. Show that arg z1 = arg z2 iff zh2 = cz1 for some positive real number c.
π πi
5. Show that if Arg z1 , Arg z2 ∈ − , , then Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 .
2 2
6. Show that arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 – arg z2 .
7. Show that Arg z − w = −Arg(z − w) iff z − w is not a negative real number.
 16 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

1.4 De Moivre’s Formula

The important players in this regard are the exponential and polar forms of a nonzero
complex number z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ ). By the laws of exponentiation that we will
proved in Chapter 5, we have the following results:

zn = (reiθ )n = rn einθ = rn [cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ )]

and
z−n = (reiθ )−n = r− ne−inθ = r−n [cos(−nθ ) + i sin(−nθ )].
√
 Example 1.13 Show that (− 3 − i)3 = −8i 

Proof.

√
 Example 1.14 Evaluate (− 3 − i)30 . 

Solution.

An interesting application of the laws of exponents comes from putting the equation
(eiθ )n = einθ in its polar form. Doing so gives

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ , (1.13)

which is known as De Moivre’s formula.

 Example 1.15 Use De Moivre’s formula to show that

cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ .


1.4 De Moivre’s Formula 17

Theorem 1.4.1 — Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. If P(z) is a polynomial of

degree n(n > 0) with complex coefficients, then the equation P(z) = 0 has precisely n
(not necessarily distinct) solutions

Proof. Refer to Chapter 6.

 Example 1.16 Find roots of the polynomial P(z) = z3 + (2 − 2i)z2 + (−1 − 4i)z − 2. 

Theorem 1.4.2 — nth roots of unity. The n solutions of zn = 1 can be expressed as

2kπ 2kπ 2kπ

zk = ei n = cos + i sin , for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1. (1.14)
n n
(They are called the nth roots of unity.)
When k = 1 we call
2π 2π 2π
ωn = z1 = ei n = cos + i sin
n n
the primitive nth root of unity.

R By De Moivre’s formula, the nth roots of unity can be expressed as

1, ωn , ωn2 , ..., ωnn−1 .

 Example 1.17 The solutions of the equation z8 = 1 are

2kπ 2kπ 2kπ

zk = ei 8 = cos + i sin , for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., 7.
8 8
Therefore z0 = cos 0 + i sin 0√= 1, √
2 2
z1 = cos 2π 2π
8 + i sin 8 = 2 + i 2 ,
z2 = cos 4π 4π
8 + i sin 8 = i, √ √
2 2
z3 = cos 6π 6π
8 + i sin 8 = − 2 + i 2 ,
z4 = cos 8π 8π
8 + i sin 8 = −1, √ √
2 2
z5 = cos 10π 10π
8 + i sin 8 = − 2 − i 2 ,
z6 = cos 12π 12π
8 + i sin 8 = −i,
√ √
2 2
z7 = cos 14π 12π
8 + i sin 8 = 2 −i 2 .
18 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

The primitive 8th root of unity is

√ √
i 2π i π4 π π 2 2
ω8 = e 8 =e = cos + i sin = +i .
4 4 2 2


Theorem 1.4.3 — Roots of the Nonzero Complex Number. The n solutions of zn =

c, where c is a nonzero complex number can be expressed as
 
1
i φ +2kπ 1 φ + 2kπ φ + 2kπ
zk = ρ en n = ρ cos
n + i sin , (1.15)
n n

for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, where ρ = |c| and φ ∈ arg c.

 Example 1.18 Find all cube roots of 8i = 8(cos π2 + i sin π2 ) 

Solution.
1.4 De Moivre’s Formula 19

Exercises 1.4
1. Calculate the
√ following.
√
1.1 (1 − i 3)3 ( 3 + i)2
(1 + i)3
1.2 5
√− i) 6
(1
1.3 ( 3 +√ i) √
2. Show that ( 3 + i)4 = −8 + i8 3.
3. Find all roots in both polar and rectangular form for each expression.
1
3.1 (−2 + 2i) 3
1
3.2 (−1) 5
1
3.3 (−64) 4
1
3.4 (16i) 4
4. Let z be any nonzero complex number and n be an integer. Show that zn + (z̄)n is a
real number.
5. Let z = i be a root of z4 − 4z3 + 6z2 − 4z + 5 = 0. Find another roots of the equation.
6. Solve the equation (z + 1)3 = z3 .
3 √ √
7. Find the three solutions to z 2 = 4 2 + i4 2.
 20 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

1.5 The Topology of Complex Numbers

Definition 1.5.1 — Curve in the Complex Plane. A curve is the range of a continu-
ous complex-valued function z(t) defined on the interval [a, b]. That is a curve C is the
range of a function given by

z(t) = (x(t), y(t)) = x(t) + iy(t), for a ≤ t ≤ b,

where both x(t) and y(t) are continuous real-valued functions.

We specify a curve C as

C : z(t) = (x(t), y(t)) = x(t) + iy(t), for a ≤ t ≤ b,

and say that z(t) is a parametrization of a curve C. Note that, with this parametriza-
tion, we are specifying a direction for the curve C, saying that C is a curve that
goes from the initial point z(a) = (x(a), y(a)) = x(a) + iy(a) to the terminal point
z(b) = (x(b), y(b)) = x(b) + iy(b).

If we had another function whose range was the same set of point z(t) but whose initial
and final points were reversed, we would indicate the curve that this function defines by
−C.
Example 1.19 Find parametrizations for C and −C, where C is the straight-line segment
begining at z0 = (x0 , y0 ) and ending at z1 = (x1 , y1 ). 

Solution.

Definition 1.5.2 — Closed Curve and Simple Curve. (a) A curve C having the
property that z(a) = z(b) is said to be a closed curve.
(b) The curve C : z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, is said to be simple provided that z(t1 ) 6= z(t2 )
whenever t1 6= t2 , except possibly when t1 = a and t2 = b.

 Example 1.20 Show that the circle C with center z0 = x0 + iy0 and radius R can be
parametrized to form a simple closed curve. 
1.5 The Topology of Complex Numbers 21
Definition 1.5.3 — Open Disk and ε neighborhood. An ε neighborhood is the
open disk of radius ε > 0 centered at the point z0 and is denoted by Dε (z0 ). That is

Dε (z0 ) = {z : |z − z0 | < ε}.

 Example 1.21 (a) The solution set of the inequality |z| < 1 is the open disk D1 (0).
(b) The solution set of the inequality |z − i| < 2 is the open disk D2 (i).
(c) The solution set of the inequality |z + 1 + 2i| < 3 is the open disk D3 (−1 − 2i). 

Definition 1.5.4 — Closed Disk and Punctured Disk. (a) The disk Dε (z0 ) := {z :
|z − z0 | ≤ ε} is called the closed disk of radius ε centered at z0 .
(b) The disk D∗ε (z0 ) := {z : 0 < |z − z0 | ≤ ε} is called the punctured disk of radius ε
centered at z0 .

Definition 1.5.5 — Interior-Exterior-Boundary Points. (a) The point z0 is said to be

an interior point of the set S provided that there exists ε > 0 such that

Dε (z0 ) ⊂ S.

The set of all interior points of S is denoted by intS ; that is

intS = {z0 : there exists ε > 0 such that Dε (z0 ) ⊂ S}

(b) The point z0 is called an exterior point of the set S if there exists ε > 0 such
that

Dε (z0 ) ⊂ C\S.

The set of all exterior points of S is denoted by extS ; that is

extS = {z0 : there exists ε > 0 such that Dε (z0 ) ⊂ C\S}.

(c) The point z0 is called a boundary point of the set S if for each ε > 0,

Dε (z0 ) ∩ S 6= 0/ and Dε (z0 ) ∩ C\S 6= 0.

/
22 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

The set of all boundary points of S is denoted by bdS ; that is

bdS = {z0 : for each ε > 0, Dε (z0 ) ∩ S 6= 0/ and Dε (z0 ) ∩ C\S 6= 0}.
/
 Example 1.22 Let S = D1 (0) = {z : |z| < 1}. Find the set of interior, exterior, and
boundary points of S. 

Solution.

Definition 1.5.6 — Accumulation Point. The point z0 is called an accumulation

point of a set S if, for each ε,

D∗ε (z0 ) ∩ S 6= 0.
/

Definition 1.5.7 — Some Topological Structures of Sets. (a) A set S is called an

open set if every point of S is an interior point of S ; that is S = int S.
(b) A set S is called a closed set if bd S ⊂ S.
(c) A set S is said to be a connected set if every pairs of points z1 and z2 contained in S
can be joined by a curve that lies entirely in S.
(d) A set S is called the domain if S is a connected open set.

 Example 1.23 Show that the open disk D1 (0) = {z : |z| < 1} is a connected open set. 

Solution.
1.5 The Topology of Complex Numbers 23

 Example 1.24 The annular A = {z : 1 < |z| < 2} is a connected open set. 

Solution.

 Example 1.25 The set B = {z : |z + 2| < 1 or |z − 2| < 1} is not a connected set. 

Solution.

 Example 1.26 Show that the right half-plane H = {z : Re(z) > 0} is a domain. 

Solution.
24 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers

Exercises 1.5
1. Find a parametrization of the line that
1.1 joins the origin to the point 1 + i.
1.2 joins the point 1 to the point 1 + i.
1.3 joins the point i to the point 1 + i.
1.4 joins the point 2 to the point 1 + i.
2. Sketch the curve z(t) = t 2 + 2t + i(t + 1)
2.1 for −1 ≤ t ≤ 0.
2.2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
3. Show that D1 (0) is a domain but {z : |z| ≤ 1} is not.
4. Let S be a set of finite complex numbers. Show that S is bounded.
5. Which of the following terms apply to the sets listed below: open; connected;
domain; region; closed region; bounded.
5.1 {z : Re(z) > 1} .
5.2 {z : −1 < Im(z) ≤ 2}.
5.3 {z : |z − 2 − i| ≤ 2}.
5.4 {z : |z + 3i| > 1}.
π π
5.5 {reiθ : 0 < r < 1 and − < θ < }.
2 2
iθ π π
5.6 {re : r > 1 and < θ < }.
4 3
6. Let S be the open set consisting of all points z such that |z + 2| < 1 or |z − 2| < 1.
Show that S is not connected.  
i
7. Prove that the only accumulation point of : n ∈ N is 0.
n
 2. Complex Functions

2.1 Functions and Linear Mappings

Exercises 2.1
2.2 Limits and Continuity of Complex Functions
Exercises 2.2