A RT IC L E S

Active Aging: Hiking Health and Healing

Rodney Steadman1 Candace I.J. Nykiforuk2 and Helen Vallianatos3

1
Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta
2
Centre for Health Promotion Studies, School of Public Health, University of Alberta
3
Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta

Abstract
This article examines the illness and recovery experiences and perceptions
of physically active middle aged and older adults participating in hiking
groups. These perceptions are examined within the local milieu of their
group and the larger social context of biomedical norms of healthy older
bodies. Discourse on the body was viewed through the lens of medical
anthropology and data were analyzed using embodied ethnography. There
were 15 participants (53 percent female) and all were of European descent.
The hiking group served as a liminal space where participants could explore
all aspects of their health with the support of others who had undergone
similar life experiences. The physical activities they engaged in as a group
were therapeutic and transformational for several members. Their group
activities created a deep sense of community and aided in their healing
processes. Holistic health programs such as hiking groups could provide
an alternative or ancillary treatment options. However, cost, location,
opportunities for socialization, and the physical abilities of potential
participants should be seriously considered before adopting a hiking
program for this demographic.

Active aging, health, middle-aged, older adult, hiking, embodied ethnography

physically compromised and promised contrasting

Chloé’s Story views of the mountains to the west and open prairie
to the east.
In early October of 2010, R (lead author) arrived in a
parking lot at 6:30 am for a hike in the Rocky Mountains Chloé was a 58-year-old retired teacher and cancer
of southwestern Canada to meet the group of middle-aged survivor. A few years ago, when she was diagnosed
and older adult hiking enthusiasts he had been hiking with with breast cancer, she decided to be as proactive as
once a week since August. On this outing, R was introduced possible and discovered research suggesting that
exercise, specifically heavy aerobic exercise, could
to a new hiking group member, Chloé1. Her story touched potentially prevent cancer from returning. She acted
on common themes identified in this ethnographic study quickly and started to walk every morning for a
and is illustrative of a collective experience. The following minimum of an hour, searching out challenging,
is R’s journal entry from that day: hilly terrain. Chloé believed that her active lifestyle
contributed to her healing process; the walks eased
It was a very large group today with 26 people. The some of the negative side effects of chemotherapy and
large number of people, according to one of the hikers, improved her overall sense of wellbeing. It also aided in
was due to an optimistic forecast of sunny and warm maintaining a healthy body weight vital, she believed,
weather, in contrast to the rain and snow we’ve had to her recovery from six cancer related surgeries. She
for the past couple of weeks. Also, the hike did not did take painkillers after her first surgery – her nurse
have much in the way of elevation gain or distance; was a former student and she followed her advice –
therefore, it was not excessively strenuous for the but suffered “terrible side effects.” She decided not

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Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

to take the painkillers after her next and consecutive the association between activity and wellbeing suggests
surgeries and discovered she did not experience a that the quality of social relationships was more highly
lot of pain and healed quickly. Chloé had met other correlated with wellbeing in Israelis over the age of 60 than
cancer patients who were inactive and overweight and
found that they had difficulties healing. She attributed activity. The authors argue that the failure to address the
her lack of pain and quick healing to her vigorous complexities of successful aging could result in increased
morning walks. marginalization. This study will attempt to address
some of the complexities of successful aging through the
Chloé feels lucky: research method of embodied ethnography.
[I]t came at a nice time, if you can have a nice time for
cancer [laughs]. My son was in grade 12…. So that
six months that I was off, happened to be his last semester Hiking groups in particular offer unique opportunities
at school. He’d be finished at two. He would come for aging populations that can supplement or enhance
home every day and we would cook supper together. the benefits of physical activities previously discussed.
So, that was five months of extra time that I’d never ever Research on middle-aged and older adults from North
would’ve had otherwise. He also went for walks with
America and Sweden showed that meaningful activities
me [laughs].
like hiking provided opportunities for creativity,
achievement, nurturing competency, and social interaction
Chloé’s story is thick with emotion. She was unwilling
(Reichstadt et al. 2010:567-575; Silverstein and Parker
to allow her sickness to provide the narrative for her
2002:528-547; Tang et al. 2010:603-612 ). Furthermore, these
treatment and healing. Chloé discovered that the simple
activities contributed to a positive sense of wellbeing and
act of walking in a natural setting helped her manage her
life satisfaction among participants. Research specific to
cancer, bond with her family, and opened her up to future
hiking activities for aging populations has provided insight
adventures and experiences.
into motivation (Sugerman 2001:21-33), perceptions of age
and aging (Weiss and Tomasa 2010:473-475), quality of life
Some of the psychosocial and physiological benefits
(Lloyd and Little 2005:147-181) and successful aging (Boyes
Chloé experienced through her physical activities (PA)
2013:644-665). Participation in meaningful activities like
have been well documented in biomedical research. PA,
hiking allows individuals to display their abilities, explore
such as hiking and walking, has been shown to decrease
their potential, and form unique identities (Stebbins
the risk or reduce the symptoms of several potentially
1982:251-272; Stebbins 1992). It is the formation of unique
debilitating health conditions such as coronary heart
identities through hiking activities in middle-aged and
disease, type 2 diabetes, breast and colon cancer, and
older adults, as they relate to age, health, and healing, that
depression (Paterson and Warburton 2010:38; Physical
will be the focus of this study.
Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee 2008; World
Health Organization 2010:8-10). There is also ample
The relationship between physical activities and the
research that demonstrates the psychosocial and
subjective experiences of the individual have not been
physiological benefits of PA in aging populations (Atalay
extensively explored in the literature on aging. Pheonix
and Cavlak 2012:71-79; Langlois et al. 2013:400; Paterson
and Grant (2009:362-379) and Grant and Klug (2007:398-
and Warburton 2010:38; Teixeira et al. 2013:307). It is clear
414) argue that literature on physical activity and the aging
that aging populations can benefit from PA, but research
body has been primarily focused on quantitative data
conducted by Katz (2000:135-152), Davey and Glasgow
collection methods, as indicated by the above literature.
(2006:21-27), Asquith (2009:255-269), and Tulle (2008:340-
The authors suggest that these forms of knowledge do not
347) suggests that the benefits are sometimes overstated to
provide a complete picture of the complex relationships
the point where physical activity is depicted as a panacea
between the aging body and physical activity. Qualitative
that can counteract the effects of aging. The authors argue
research conducted by Laz (2003:503-519) supports this
that the buoying up of physical activity as a cure-all fails to
argument. The author found that her sample of adults
recognize the challenges some individuals face later in life
over the age of 50 (n=15) discussed specific dimensions
that are outside of their control; such as financial insecurity,
of embodiment (activity, health, energy, appearance, and
congenital or genetic conditions, or poor life choices
illness) when they considered their age (Laz 2003:503-519).
earlier in life (Asquith 2009:255-269; Davey and Glasgow
Furthermore, Laz’s participants made social comparisons
2006:21-27). Asquith also points out that there is a financial
associated with age and ability when interpreting their
cost to social physical activities that not all older adults
bodies. Laz’s study demonstrates the unique information
can afford. Transportation to and from a physical activity
qualitative research into aging, specifically embodiment,
centre requires money for fuel, public transportation,
can produce. However, there is a paucity of research
or a taxi (Asquith 2009:255-269). Furthermore, research
investigating how the embodiment of specific physical
conducted by Litwin and Shiovitz-Ezra (2006:225-242) into

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Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

activities, such as hiking and walking, form perceptions of aging. Wentzell (2013:3-22) investigated Mexican men’s
aging, health, and healing. resistance to using erectile dysfunction (ED) drugs. The
author found that the health narratives supported by
This article addresses this gap in the literature through medical and pharmaceutical companies stressed the
the qualitative research method of embodied ethnography. importance of penetrative sex for healthy aging in men.
Drawing on four months of participant observation by The men’s decision making process on whether or not to
the lead author “R,” we describe how the perceptions begin ED treatment involved discussions with their wives
of aging, health, and healing are formed, transformed, and doctors and they also considered the cost and safety of
maintained, and embodied through hiking activities. Our treatments. Wentzell discovered that the men’s decisions
analysis provides insight into the individual, social, and were swayed by their doctor’s silence on the issue and
political forces influencing how the aging body in this their wives’ advice that they should respond to their ED
habitus is experienced. Finally, our research unpacks the by adopting an age appropriate sexuality. Several of the
complexities associated with PAs, socialization, and the men rejected the ED drugs and adopted a life path valued
perceptions of aging among older adults. by their community in which they became more family
oriented (Wentzell 2013:3-22).
Age, Health, and Healing The medicalization of aging did cause us to consider how
and if we categorize our participants by age. Initially we
The youthful, physically active body has become the used Statistics Canada’s (2007) and the Centers for Disease
ideal body image in North American culture (Dworkin Control and Prevention (2011) definitions of middle-aged
and Wachs 2009). The obsession to obtain this body has as 45-64 years of age and older adult as 65 years or older.
undergone intense scrutiny since Robert Crawford (1980) We were uncomfortable applying essentialized categories
introduced the concept of Healthism. Crawford asserts that to our participants since experiences of aging are
capitalism co-opts “health” for profit by elevating the ideal arguably more informative for understanding variations
and morally superior, “normal,” healthy, youthful body in meanings of an aging body. In other words, universal
above the undesirable and morally corrupt, “abnormal,” aging process are arguably not uniform, but vary by
unhealthy, or “old-looking,” body. Faircloth (2003) sociocultural expectations and individual experiences
suggests that the dominant forms of visual media in our (Featherstone and Hepworth 1998:147-175). Marshall
health, youth, and beauty obsessed culture project constant and Katz (2012:222-234) argue that the traditional use of
reminders that a beautiful body is the key to happiness. chronological age as a description of the aging process
Consumer culture propagates and enforces insecurities does not provide an accurate description of the aging
created by our self-preservationist culture to promote experience due to changes in traditional roles as a result of
strategies to counteract the perceived deterioration and increased longevity. However, as Laz (2003:503-519) points
decay associated with aging (Faircloth 2003). The end out, we do have an “age” which is culturally constructed
result is a consumer obsessed with purchasing the latest and provides a point of reference for how we experience
products and services for obtaining and maintaining the our bodies as we age. Therefore, this study will focus
ideal body (Dworkin and Wachs 2009; Powell and Longino on the dimensions of embodiment (as they relate to age,
2001:199-207). health, and healing) we discover through our embodied
ethnography approach, which is the collection of data
Biomedical research has increased the divide between through the physical presence, and participation, of a
young and old bodies. Glenda Laws (1995) argues that researcher to study the processes at work in the everyday
essentialism in biomedical research attempts to assign experiences of a group (Bourdieu 1977; Csordas 1990:5-47;
universal biological causes to the aging body. Laws Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:6-41; Turner 2000:51-60).
suggests that this single-minded approach rejects the
socially constructed intricacies of aging. Therefore, the Participant discourses on health and healing will be
categorical assignment of biological changes creates a analyzed from a medical anthropology perspective where
negative image of the aging body: it is an unattractive health is viewed as a culturally constructed ideal of well-
body increasingly susceptible to disease, loss of control, being and healing as both a sufferer and medically defined
and ultimately, death (Vincent 2003:675-684; Vincent resolution to a sickness where the sufferer is restored to
2006:681-698). However, there has been pushback against wholeness (Janzen 1981:185-194; Janzen 2002; Scheper-
narratives of the aging body involving the medicalization Hughes and Lock 1987:6-41). In this study, health and
of non-life-threatening health issues associated with healing will be defined by our participants’ ideas, actions,

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representations, and the institutions that they view as and 50 minutes, depending on the topic (i.e. if R needed
embodying health (Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:6-41). a quick clarification on a theme or if he had to conduct
a full interview). The interviews included questions
Hiking about participant’s hiking activities and experiences,
relationships with other members and family, work
Hiking in the context of this study is defined as walking history, health history, and their age. Interviews were
in a mountain setting. We will use Ingold’s (Ingold then transcribed and coded. Data collection and analysis
2004:315-340; Ingold 2010:S121-S139) description of proceeded together and were an iterative process. Once
walking as a rhythmic activity with a “pattern of lived time a theme was identified, it was incorporated into future
and space” where walkers are continually adapting, and interviews and validated by re-interviewing participants
fine-tuning, their gait to the environment (332). According who preceded the theme’s identification. Themes were
to Ingold, walking requires a high degree of intelligence also compared against the other forms of data collected to
that incorporates all the experiences of being human. ensure their validity.
Furthermore, the author argues that it is the landscape that
shapes how people experience their environment and not Our research group consisted of seven participants who
vice versa. Ingold suggests that we create a vast network were middle-aged (75 percent female; female mean age
of personalized trails through our nuanced physiological was 58 and male mean age was 61; age range was 51 to 63)
responses to our routes of pedestrian travel in landscapes and eight older adults (29 percent female; female mean age
that change with the seasons and shape our experiences: was 66 and male mean age was 71; age range was 66 to 78).
it is how we explore our world, physical body, and The total number of participants was 15 (53 percent female;
socially constructed self (2004:315-340; 2010:S121-S139). mean age 64; age range was 51 to 78). All participants were
Ultimately, walking provides a lens through which to of European descent with 22 percent at low income level,
view and interpret our life experiences. It is “a way of 56 percent at low-middle income level and 22 percent at
thinking and knowing” (Ingold 2010:S135) where hikers upper-middle or higher income levels (Statistics Canada
must be fully engaged with their body to respond to an 2013). Participants were chosen using convenience
ever-changing environment and the other hikers around sampling (Bernard 2012) where participants are chosen
them (Csordas 1993:135-156). in the field according to availability and willingness to
participate as well as their representativeness of the social
Methodology phenomenon being researched. Thus participants were
members of the FHC, and actively participated in hiking
The data for this study were collected during R’s three activities during the ethnographic fieldwork. Theoretical
month participation (September to November, 2010) in the sampling (Eisenhardt and Graebner 2007:25-32) was also
hiking and walking activities of three different groups from used to ensure equal representation from both genders;
the town of Foothill: The Women’s Walking Group, Men’s however, more women than men participated in hikes
Walking Group and the Foothill Hiking Club (FHC). This during the research period.
article will focus on the FHC. R used his body as a “tool
of inquiry and vector of knowledge” (Wacquant 2004:viii) Our findings are organized beginning with a brief
and it served as one mode of data collection. R has been description of the town of Foothill and history of the
engaged in outdoor activities for over 20 years (he was 41 FHC. This will be followed by R’s experiences on his first
at the time) and grew up hiking, climbing, and skiing in hike. The study is then divided into sections that discuss
and around the locations for this study. His experiences the dimensions of embodiment through the habitus of
of hiking provided R with some cultural capital with hiking: resistance to medicalization and healthy bodies
participants and insight into the activities of hiking. and healing.

R’s data on his own experiences of hiking provide insight Foothill Hiking Club
into how hiking feels, but he also used ethnographic
methods of observation to document how hikers moved Foothill has a population of 13,760 and it is considered a
over the landscape in field notes, and audio recorded his bedroom community of a major city, with approximately
discussions while engaged in hiking activities (Angrosino 40 percent of the labour force working in areas outside of
2007; O’Reilly 2004). Interviews were unstructured with a Foothill. Thirty-seven percent of Foothill’s population are
basic outline allowing for reflexivity and lasted between 5 over 45 years of age (approximately18.8 percent female

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Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

and 18.6 percent male) and nine percent were older than fit and capable, but ended up becoming a burden on the
64 (five percent female and four percent male). Therefore, group because of their lack of experience, preparedness,
approximately 46 percent of Foothill’s population was and fitness. He stressed that the day is very important to
over the age of 45. The average household income for participants and most of them plan their week around the
the community was in the upper-middle income range weekly hiking trip, therefore, they do not want to spend
for Canada ($72, 756 - $118, 285) (Statistics Canada 2010; their time babysitting someone who should have been
Statistics Canada 2013). prepared. It can be an unpleasant experience for the new
member and group. This sentiment was repeated several
The FHC was created in April 2002, after a local doctor times throughout R’s time with the group. Phil wanted
approached one of his patients, Phil (78 years old), an everyone to have a positive experience, so he made sure
individual with the determination to see a project through people were prepared and knew what they were getting
to completion, to create a walking and hiking program in into. However, Phil did make it clear that accidents do
Foothill. The doctor was concerned for the health of his happen and the group leaders have emergency training if
aging male patients. Phil accepted the challenge and the anything does go wrong.
hard work began. He organized a seminar, attended by 20
men of all ages, and went door to door to introduce the all- While FHC members were gearing up for the hike, two
male walking group to the community. At the same time, buses pulled into the parking lot. To R’s surprise, both
Phil created the co-ed FHC. As of September 2010, the buses were from senior hiking groups. It was a surprise
FHC had close to 50 members. There is a nominal annual to R because some of the people exiting the buses did not
membership fee ($40 CAD) for the FHC and participants look like they were able to hike the trails in the area. R
were expected to help out with fuel costs ($15 CAD) if they knew the area well and there were not a lot of easy hikes
are car-pooling. There is also a $5 CAD drop-in fee for non- for the types of bodies he saw exiting the buses. He heard
members. The FHC received financial and administrative a few of the FHC members voice what he was thinking.
assistance from the Recreation and Culture section of the Immediately R questioned why he and the FHC members,
Town of Foothill. This allowed the groups to purchase who were in the same age range as the new arrivals,
insurance, equipment, and run courses on how to prepare viewed the newcomers differently. R concluded that they
for backcountry travel, general first aid, and wilderness did not look physically capable of navigating the rugged
first aid. The courses were mandatory, due to insurance terrain. There was a frailty to some of the newcomers that
restrictions, for FHC trip leaders. The FHC met at a local was unsettling. R would like to think that he was immune
park every Tuesday and left exactly at 7:00 am. to the negative stereotypes of aging, but they are so
pervasive in Western culture that it is difficult not to slip
New members to the FHC are asked to hike with Group into assumptions about the aging body such as, “These
B because the hikes were less demanding than Group A. people look old, how can they do what I can do?”
This allowed for group leaders to assess the fitness and
experience level of new members and provided new Dionigi and O’Flynn (2007:359-377) encountered a
members with the opportunity to decide if the group was similar type of ageism in their research on older athletes.
the right fit for them. Both groups usually hiked in the The authors found that older athletes held dearly to
same area, but traveled different routes. Sometimes the notions of physical activity improving their physical
groups hiked to a common area for lunch and then split abilities and prolonging their lives because they feared the
apart: Group B would either return to the parking lot or opposite and their level of physical activity “reinforced
take a less strenuous route than Group A. the undesirability of old age” (2007:372). Therefore, the
juxtaposition of the physical demands of hiking and the
First Day rugged mountain setting with what was perceived as frail
older bodies, exaggerated the undesirability of old age in
The first day of hiking was a test for R. Phil, the trip leader, R and FHC members. However, their perceptions were
wanted to R to hike in Group B so he could find out if R’s proven wrong. Although some of the newcomers did need
fitness was good enough to go with Group A on the next walking aids – almost everyone in both the FHC and the
hike. R convinced him that he had done a lot of hiking in the newcomers’ group used walking poles, so the aids were
past and ensured him he was fit enough for the Group A not viewed as something age specific – they did not have
hike. But Phil was still leery. He informed R that there have any problems with the terrain.
been people who joined the group in the past who looked The rest of the hike that day was an illuminating

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experience for R. Group A did the longer hike which was embraced.
a 16 km loop with 726 m in elevation gain and Group B
went to a small alpine lake and returned the same way Lou (66 years old) had a dualistic view of biomedicine.
(approximately the same distance as Group A, but not as He visited his cardiologist three times a year to monitor his
much elevation gain). Group A was a mix of four women hypertension and his cardiologist was always impressed
and five men. The group embodied distance, elevation, with his good physical condition. Lou attributed his good
and time to complete hikes. This was exemplified when health to staying active and managing his weight, “If your
the groups split up after lunch and Group B went back the waist line is too big [laughs] and you’re overweight, you’re
way they came and Group A continued the loop. R went putting more pressure on your heart and your vessels to
with Group A and it was a long slog in rain, sleet and snow supply the blood.” Lou’s neighbours – inactive and obese
to the top of a col (a gap between mountain peaks) that according to Lou – frequently told him he was acting like
connected two valleys. The group spread out according to a 20 year old due to his active lifestyle; furthermore, they
fitness level and comfort with the terrain. The easier route did not understand why he did not take it easy in his
was through rock bands in the scree (loose rock), but there old age. His response to their criticism was that he had a
was some very minor climbing that could be minimally choice to be obese or not. Lou’s view of his body coincided
challenging for some. Participants would look after with biomedicine’s reductionist view where disease
each other and help the ones that needed it through the is determined by deviations from measurable somatic
tricky sections. The scree was less intimidating, but more norms (Engel 1977:129-136). From Lou’s perspective, the
challenging because the scree would slip so that each step normal body had a specific weight and size that, when
forward was almost half a step on solid ground. Everyone deviated from, resulted in an improperly functioning
waited at the top of the col for the slower members and cardiovascular system. This was a common discourse
allowed them to have a rest before the trip down. While amongst participants.
waiting for the slower members, Phil showed R the
altimeter to let him know that they had gained 600 m Lou also had arthritis. In the same way that Chloé
since their lunch spot and after the hike, Phil told R the mitigated her post surgery pain with exercise, Lou
length of the hike and how long it took them to complete it managed his arthritic pain through physical activity.
(approximately 7 hours). He told R, “Not bad for a bunch He believed that the release of endorphins, through
of old guys.” He was right, and R had to remind himself exercise, eased his arthritic pain. Additionally, Lou used
that Phil was 78 and the youngest person in Group A was acupuncture to control his pain and, like Chloé, he was
59. They were an extremely fit and capable group to tackle determined to “stay away from medicine as much as
this type of hike. R (41 years old) had also gained the possible.” Other participants shared Lou’s avoidance of
acceptance of the group by not slowing them down. pharmaceuticals.

Resistance to Essentialism Foothill Hiking Club members attached a moral value

to medications they believe could be avoided, or doses
Similar to Chloé’s experiences with cancer, biomedicine reduced, if they remained active: such as medications for
has both figuratively and literally shaped the lives and pain relief, diabetes, or heart disease. Similar to Dionigi and
bodies of some FHC members: surgeries have corrected O’Flynn’s (2007:359-377) and Laz’s (2003:503-519) findings,
malfunctioning hearts, removed cancer, and repaired participants considered people who were able to control
injured joints. Pharmaceuticals have allowed members their illnesses through physical activity as strong-willed,
to control chronic health problems, such as heart healthy, and of good moral character. Furthermore, they
disease, diabetes, and cancer. However, biomedicine did not judge participants who had to take medications
was also viewed with distrust due to concerns about the due to the severity of their conditions. They considered
over prescription of pharmaceuticals and biomedical these individuals to be of good moral character for being
essentialism associated with their ages. The Cartesian proactive and joining their group to improve their health
dualism of biomedicine has frequently been discussed in and fitness.
anthropological literature (Helman 2001; Scheper-Hughes
and Lock 1987:6-41; Shilling 2012), but for our participants, In addition to pharmaceuticals, several key informants
biomedicine had its own dualism: it was viewed with had become desensitized to the plethora of potential
gratitude and distrust, both a preserver and destroyer accidents and illnesses associated with their age group
of life, something to be avoided and simultaneously that were endlessly reported in the media. R was told

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Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

on several occasions that if they worried about all the decision making process. This form of empowerment
potential hazards of life, they would never leave home. It created a unique social identity that we explore in the next
is a reaction to what Scheper-Hughes and Lock identifies section.
as the “medicalization and the overproduction of illness”
(1987:27). The medicalization and overproduction of Healthy Bodies, Healing, and Age
illness is also linked to Laws’ essentialism in which specific
biological changes and diseases are associated with The values of a society can be expressed through symbolic
chronological age. Therefore, as experienced by Lou being equations and metaphors that delineate individual roles
told to act his age, there are specific activities an aging through daily activities (Csordas 1990:5-47; Geertz 1973;
person is not expected to engage in. This also contributed Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:6-41). According to
to how they viewed their own age. A frequent response Csordas and Scheper-Hughes and Lock, these symbolic
from key informants when asked if they considered equations and metaphors can be used to create an
themselves healthy was, “for my age.” This response was idealistic vision of health and reveal how a group views
an acceptance that by a certain age a physiological decline a healthy body in relation to a healthy society and a
will be experienced (Laz 2003:503-519). This was mainly due diseased body in relation to a dysfunctional society
to biomedical research filtered through media outlets and (Csordas 1990:5-47; Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:6-
presented as anti-aging products and recommendations 41). The symbolic structure of the FHC is located in the
for a youth obsessed culture (Cardona 2008:475-483). They physical act of bipedal motion (Ingold 2004:315-340). Our
were constantly being reminded that an older body was observations and experiences with the group coincide
not welcome in Western society (Cardona 2008:475-483). with Ingold’s (2004) argument that the routes people walk
This was illustrated when a key informant told R that his becomes an expression of their lived time and space. For
presence had brought a certain “vitality” and provided example, walking for Chloé was linked to her overall sense
the group with a feeling of importance, “Now we can of wellbeing. She endeavoured to walk routes that were
puff our chests up and say, ‘we, are being, studied.’” His difficult enough to ensure she was exercising at a high
life before retirement consisted of academic research and intensity. She embodied active aging and attributed it to
teaching. He missed it desperately, resulting in feelings of her healing. This also influenced how Chloé viewed the
abandonment: inactive body during her cancer treatment. She equated
the inactive and obese body to being lethal to a person’s
I don’t feel I have a purpose. It’s annoying that people overall health because she saw inactive and overweight
try to attain this [retirement], and when they get patients having difficulties healing, whereas her active
there, [as] in my case, I want to be helping. I want to be
contributing. I buy into this thing though [that] you body did not experience the same problems healing.
should be paying back to society, and now – I can’t However, her perspective on activity does not recognize
go to the university and say, “I’ll do lab work. Well our that these individuals may have faced challenges
salary, cap… No-no I’ll work as a lab tech or something beyond their control or associated with their diagnosis
at half the salary. No-no we can’t because our grid (a and treatment regiments (Asquith 2009:255-269; Davey
union hierarchy of jobs and wages), doesn’t allow
it.” It doesn’t make me happy. and Glasgow 2006:21-27). Chloé thought that someone
should help them become more active to improve their
Hiking provided this informant with something to do conditions. This building of health and healing symbolic
with his spare time. He was an avid photographer and equations holds true for FHC members. Members shared
would share his photos with other members. It provided in the physical experiences of their environments and
an opportunity for him to socialize, be active, and indulge the changes their activities made to their bodies. These
his creativity. Therefore, hiking can be viewed as a form experiences also made them uniquely aware of their age
of protest against biomedical essentialism. Instead of and body parts susceptible to injury.
submitting to the aging expectations, group members
had taken the privileged position of institutionalized Joint health of the lower body was a major concern for
established norms and placed it on par with their ability to all FHC members. Injury to a knee, ankle, or back could
consider alternatives when dealing with their health and severely limit their mobility. FHC members attached
age (Helman 2001:501; Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987:6- meaning to an upright and mobile body in the same way
41). They allowed biomedicine to provide the diagnosis, that, as pointed out by Scheper-Hughes and Lock, “old
occasionally the “cure,” but they also had a voice in the stock” American farmers from the Midwest attached
meaning to the backbone of their bodies and “upright”

93 Anthropology & Aging Quarterly 2013: 34 (3)

Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

posture (1987:18). When these hard working individuals problem in aging populations. In the United States alone,
were bedridden, it was extremely damaging to their ego. cases of back pain have increased from 7.8 million to 12.8
Their society equated wellbeing with an ability to remain million between 2000 and 2007, with chronic back pain
upright and mobile. Erwin Straus (1966:164-192) in his accounting for over half the increases (Smith et al. 2013:2-
paper “The Upright Posture” identified the symbolic 11). During this same time period, the average age of back
importance of an upright posture. According to Straus, in pain sufferers increased from 46 years to 48 years (Smith
Western society “to be upright” has literal and metaphorical et al. 2013:2-11). Furthermore, over 25 percent of older
meanings: the literal meaning is to physically stand up adults had chronic back pain as they entered retirement
without assistance; the metaphorical or symbolic meaning (Smith et al. 2013:2-11). So it comes as no surprise that back
is linked to a person’s morality (1966:530). An upright problems were a source of considerable discussion with
person, or as expressed by our participants as “a stand-up FHC members. Participants would discuss how back pain
guy,” is a person of good moral character. Foothill Hiking in aging friends and family members had made it difficult
Club members attached similar symbolic meanings to for them to live an independent and mobile life.
the reclining body as Midwest farmers by viewing it as
lazy or disabled. It represented a loss of independence [S]he [wife] unfortunately can no longer participate
and a potentially demoralizing, even fatal, situation if an [in walks]. She’s got back problems.... She never has a
day that she doesn’t have pain...
individual was forced to endure long periods of inactivity
or lying down. [W]e have some physical problems with my wife at
home…. Once you are destabilized it’s just incredible
Hal (69 years of age) tore his Achilles tendon the summer how bad it is when you can’t get out and do anything.
before he was interviewed. It had been a long recovery for She’s got a bad back.... When you can’t even walk it’s
pretty miserable.
him, but he refused to stop hiking. He believed that hiking
would eventually heal his condition. Like Chloé, Hal was a
Their indirect experiences of their spouses’ conditions
cancer survivor and attributed his recovery to his physical
had given them an appreciation for their bodies and the
activities. Hal had to undergo a six-hour surgery, followed
motivation to maintain an upright, and pain free, posture.
by 12 hours in post operation, to remove a tumour from
his brain. He was up and walking within a few days after
Maintaining an upright and mobile body were key
his surgery to the chagrin of hospital staff. They told him
symbolic acts by FHC members that demonstrated
he was a bad patient and his response was, “You want the
to others their independence and health status. Their
most efficient sort of patient who lies in bed, but I’m not a
attitudes towards the upright body embodied the
patient anymore. I’ve had the operation. I’ve got my own
connection between the individual and the group. Hiking
way of getting fit now and I go for walks.” Hal allowed
with painful injuries or illnesses provided other members
biomedicine to treat his cancer, but, like Chloé, Lou, and
with inspiration and enforced the belief that their hiking
others, he was determined to proceed with his healing on
will heal their injuries or mitigate side effects due to illness.
his own terms. He fully believed walking had helped his
For many, submitting to pain or sickness by reducing
healing process and eight weeks after his surgery he was
their level of activity was equated with a loss of mobility,
back at work.
independence, and overall health.
After surviving his cancer, and seeing other members
Several participants discussed how their mental pain
in the group with serious health problems still hiking,
was also managed or completely eliminated through their
Hal believed his torn Achilles tendon was not enough of a
hiking experiences; as one key informant suggested, “It
health problem for him to stop hiking. He felt an obligation
gives you the ability to cope with life a lot better when you
to his fellow hikers who hiked with more serious health
do physical activities.” It was a mind-body interaction that
problems than his. Therefore, Hal had to maintain his
they were aware of and attributed to their overall sense
upright and mobile body image as a symbolic gesture of
of wellbeing. They frequently discussed the importance
solidarity with his fellow hikers. Also, hiking just might
of hiking to improve their mental state, so there was an
heal him.
acknowledgment that the mind and body functioned as
a whole:
It was not just joints of the lower limbs that were a concern [Y]ou keep your body loosened up, like I say you
for participants, back problems were another frequently
discussed health problem. Back pain is a common

94 Anthropology & Aging Quarterly 2013: 34 (3)

Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

release endorphins and I really do believe that it of our group were insulting like they thought,
helps so you don’t get depressed and people that sit ‘Oh this younger generation…’ They had negative
around, feel sorry for themselves rather than get comments, but I said, ‘You know what, no. Let’s
out and exercise, they just seem to go downhill in my encourage them,’ and so when we got to the
opinion. Whereas, if you’re out exercising, it just ladder [to climb a cliff], they were already going to
gives you a little lift… turn back, but we told them to join us and we
helped them up the ladder and told them to watch for
Jemma, an FHC member who had been living in a very us when we left, so we could help them down.
I thought that was so good. It probably helped them
difficult marriage, found escape and comfort in her fellow have a different attitude about aging and maybe
hikers who provided her with a coping mechanism for her helped some of the older people have a different
emotional pain: – like, we’ve made a difference in their lives.

Oh it [hiking] made all the difference, I felt like I was For the majority of FHC members, emotional and
holidays all the time, because one day a week I had physical pains were unifying experiences. It defined
a fantastic holiday. I had people I enjoyed outside
of the family situation, and the family situation their experiences of sickness and healing. Similar to
had some conflict, so it was great to get out of that, Cholè’s experiences with using walking to mitigate her
and it gave me something to look forward to. sickness, group members controlled their pain through
hiking. They viewed their hiking activities as liberating
The camaraderie that Jemma experienced amongst her experiences that motivated them to continue their active
fellow FHC members was created through the sharing of lifestyles and provided them with a sense of control over
leadership responsibilities and adventures. Leaders were their lives. However, the production of acute pain was
both male and female and treated as equals during our also considered a part of the healing process and a rite of
observations. Although leadership was an undesirable passage.
position due to the extra responsibilities, members felt a
duty to lead the group to ensure the continuation of hiking The physical strain and pain associated with the physical
trips. Men and women hiked together, helped each other demands of walking and hiking acted as a rite of passage
out, and shared in adventures resulting in the formation for group members. It was a therapeutic experience
of deep bonds between participants. These bonds important to their healing. Hsu (2005:78-96) suggests that
helped them mitigate the occasional negative experience acute pain can break down barriers between individuals
associated with their age. and create a space for interpersonal connectedness and
healing. The sharing of these physically demanding
Foothill Hiking Club members were constantly experiences created a bond between group members and
challenging the stigma attached to age and the aging provided them with new social identities (Hsu 2005:78-96).
process. Jemma provides a couple of examples of how Individuals recovering from sickness or injury were able
they used their activities to challenge traditional notions to change their life narratives to ones where their health
of aging: issues were not the only experiences that defined them.

[T]hey push themselves sometime to the limit and Embodiment was an important feature to the
some of them have gone beyond their comfort contextualizing of our participants activities and their
level to achieve that and I feel that they’re a good
example to anybody who is looking at people who experiences of good and bad health and healing; however,
are getting older and see that they don’t sit around it was not the sole focus of our participant interactions with
[laughs]...I think as you get older – especially if you’re each other and R. Of equal importance to their emotional
retired – I think it gives you a new lease on life and and mental health was their experiences in nature; the
makes you want more, or not, depending on the feeling of being in a special space or place. Boyes (2013:644-
individual [laughs].
665) research into successful aging coincides with our
[W]e went [hiking], and there were two 20 [year old] findings. Boyes found that the natural environment
girls…and they looked at all us ‘old people’ was integral to the experiences of his research group (80
and they said, ‘Oh, we should have no trouble with members of an outdoor adventure group ranging in age
this hike. If these people can do it we can do from 54 to 83 years) and their successful aging. Margaret
it’ and I snickered to myself…so, they struggled, and Rodman (1992:640-656) observes that the experience of
they struggled. They were a little bit behind us, but
we kept encouraging and talking to them and some place is unique to each individual and shared amongst
members of a group; that is, places are compared,

95 Anthropology & Aging Quarterly 2013: 34 (3)

Steadman, Nykiforuk, Vallianatos Active Aging

manipulated, or interpreted to provide an idealized and transformational for many members. It created a
landscape. This was seen in the hiking groups by the deep sense of community and aided in their healing
taking and sharing of pictures. The pictures represented processes. The health benefits of gender- and age-based
trophies of hikes completed or their constructed image of groups have been documented by Gleibs and colleagues
an ideal place. It was a way of confirming to each other (2011:456-466; 2011:1361-1377) and others (Haslam et
that their experiences were unique and special, therefore, al. 2008:671-691; Haslam et al. 2010:157-167; Haslam et
the group and its members were unique and special: they al. 2005:355-370; Haslam et al. 2009:1-23). As the global
had a unique level of experience, health, and fitness to population lives longer (World Health Organization 2012),
traverse long distances, ascend great heights, and navigate healthcare professionals will continue to be challenged
the difficult terrain represented by their pictures. with maintaining the health of aging populations. Holistic
health programs such hiking groups could provide
Conclusions an alternative or ancillary treatment option to aging
populations. However, cost, location, opportunities
In this paper we explore how a group of middle- for socialization, and the physical ability of their target
aged and older adult hikers embodied their experiences demographic should be seriously considered (Meisner et
of age, health, and healing. The major themes that al. 2013).
identified dimensions of embodiment were: resistance
to essentialism, activity, and camaraderie. Hiking was
considered as an activity that would improve the aging Notes
body and make the body less reliant on medications and 1
This is a pseudonym, as will be the case with all names of
other forms of medical interventions. It was also a way individuals and places referenced in this article.
to maintain a healthy weight and avoid the negative
consequences of inactivity and obesity. Furthermore,
hiking activities allowed middle-aged and older adults to Acknowledgements
challenge perceptions of the aging body and strengthen
bonds between members through the adventures they Rodney would like to thank Dr. Helen Vallianatos for all
shared. of her help and support during the writing of his graduate
The authors acknowledge that their description is not thesis – the source material for this manuscript – and
an accurate depiction of all middle-aged and older adult this manuscript. He would also like to thank Dr. Jean
hikers. We are only able to provide evidence of a single Debernardi, and Dr. Pamela Willoughby for their valuable
group of hikers in a particular time and place. Future comments which helped to improve the quality of this
research on health and healing in this age group would manuscript. Finally, we all thank our participants for
benefit from an analysis of hiking groups that consisted allowing us access to their lives and to their group.
of more diverse ethnic backgrounds. It would also be of
value to establish if socioeconomic (SES) status influenced
participation in hiking activities and if aging hikers from
diverse SESs embodied their activities in relation to age,
health, and healing in the same way as our participants. References
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