Contents

Introduction v
Get the most from this book vii
Acknowledgements ix

Introduction
1 Quantities and units 1
2 Practical skills 10

Mechanics
3 Rectilinear motion 25
4 Momentum 45

e
5 Forces 57
6 Work, energy and power 76
pl
Electric circuits
7 Charge and current 94
m
8 Potential difference, electromotive force and power 107
9 Current–potential difference relationships 122
10 Resistance and resistivity 136
sa

11 Internal resistance, series and parallel circuits,

and the potential divider 154

Materials
12 Fluids 183
13 Solid materials 199

Waves and the particle behaviour of light

14 Nature of waves 222
15 Transmission and reflection of waves 234
16 Superposition of waves 261
17 Particle nature of light 289

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 3 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Further mechanics
18 Momentum and energy 312
19 Motion in a circle 335

Gravitational fields
20 Universal gravitation 351

Electric and magnetic fields

21 Electric fields 367
22 Capacitance 386
23 Magnetic fields 407

Nuclear and particle physics

24 Electrons and nuclei 430
25 Particle physics 449

Nuclear radiation

e
26 Nuclear decay 467

Thermodynamics
pl
27 Specific heat capacity 499
28 Internal energy, absolute zero and change of state 516
m
29 Gas laws and kinetic theory 537

Space
sa

30 Astrophysics 561
31 Cosmology 580

Oscillations
32 Oscillations 602
33 Maths in physics 637
34 Further practical skills 651
35 Preparing for the exams 660

Index 675

Go online to www.hoddereducation.co.uk/EdexcelPhysics for

answers and extended glossaries.

iv Contents

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 4 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Introduction
Welcome to Pearson Edexcel A Level Physics Student’s Book. The text is
illustrated with many contextual examples, and places an emphasis on
practical work and lots and lots of questions for you to try. The Pearson
Edexcel specification has been developed from the best of the Pearson Edexcel
concept-led and the Salters Horners context-led approaches. Although the
book has been specifically written to cover the concept approach to the
specification, the contextual examples and practice questions make it a most
valuable resource for the context approach as well. The authors have vast
experience of teaching, examining and writing about physics. All three have
examined for Edexcel at a senior level for over 30 years and served as Chief
Examiners.
This book is designed as a resource for both the first and second year of the
A level course.

e
A key aspect of the text is the emphasis on practical work. Although you do
pl
not have a practical examination as such, questions based on practical work
pervade all the A level papers, particularly Paper 3, which comprises practical-
based and synoptic questions. There is also an internally assessed Practical
Endorsement at A level, for which you should have started a portfolio of
m
work in Year 1. The sixteen Core Practicals in the specification are described
in detail and in such a way that students can carry out the experiments
in a laboratory environment. Each experiment has a set of data for you to
sa

work through, followed by questions similar to those you will be asked in

the examination. Questions within written examination papers will aim to
assess the knowledge and understanding that students gain while carrying
out practical activities, both within the context of the sixteen core practical
activities and in novel practical scenarios. In addition, the completion of
the sixteen core practical activities can provide evidence of competence for
the Science Practical Endorsement. The core practicals are also intended
to provide students with opportunities to undertake investigative work;
therefore the core practical experiments described in this book must be
considered as examples of the sort of activity that could be undertaken.
Many other experiments – under the heading of Activities – are also
described, together with data and questions. Chapter 34 – Further practical
skills – is a reminder of the key practical skills that should be developed
through teaching and learning and will form the basis of practical assessment
in the written examination. Before carrying out any practical activity,
teachers must identify any hazards and assess any risks. This can be done
by consulting a model (generic) risk assessment such as that provided by
CLEAPSS to subscribing authorities.

Introduction v

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 5 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Emphasis is also placed on answering practice questions. The text is
abundantly illustrated by Examples, which are accompanied by answers to
enable you to check your progress. There are then Test yourself questions for
you to try, and at the end of each chapter there are Exam practice questions.
These are graded in terms of difficulty ( = A level Grade E, = A level
Grade C and = A level Grade A/A*). In the exam practice questions, the
mark allocation for each part is shown, as it would be in the examination.
The answers give an indication of how the marks might be awarded but not
in the same detail that there would be in an actual mark scheme. In addition,
some of the exam practice questions are examples of ‘Quality of extended
response’ questions; these are indicated by an asterisk (*).
Throughout the book there are Key Terms highlighted in the margin that
you need to learn. There are also numerous Tips. These may be reminders,
for example, to use SI units, warnings to avoid common errors, or hints
about short cuts in performing calculations.
At the end of the book, Chapter 35 (Preparing for the exams) is a valuable guide
on revision and exam technique. As you need to put these principles into
practice from day one, you are strongly advised to read through this before
you start your course (although you probably won’t be able to attempt the
questions). You should then revisit Chapter 35 from time to time. The same

e
goes for Chapter 33 (Maths in physics) where you will find an outline of the
mathematical requirements for A level physics, together with lots of simple
pl
(and not so simple!) examples for you to try.
The authors have enjoyed writing this book – we hope you enjoy reading it
and find it, along with the supporting material, a valuable resource to help
m
you with your studies. Good luck!
sa

vi Introduction

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 6 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Get the most from this book
Welcome to the Pearson Edexcel A level Physics Student’s Book! This
book covers all content for the Year 1 and Year 2 of the Pearson Edexcel A level
Physics specification.
The following features have been included to help you get the most from this book.

Prior knowledge
This is a short list of topics that Fluids 12.2 Density, pressure and flotation

12
Density of fluids

you should be familiar with before Prior knowledge

Key term
Density is given by the following
Liquids and gases expand much more than solids when they are heated, so
a fixed mass of fluid occupies a bigger volume than the solid form and so its
density is reduced. Liquids are generally
Table 12.1 Densities of some fluids.

starting a chapter. The questions expression:

considered to be incompressible, but
In this chapter you will need to be able to: Fluid Density/kg m –3 gases are readily squeezed (try putting
mass
➜ be aware of the physical and molecular differences between liquids and gases density = volume your finger over the outlet of a bicycle
mercury 13 600
➜ be familiar with the terms density and pressure. pump and pushing in the handle).
ρ= m

will help to test your understanding.

water 1000 Because of this, the pressure needs to
The key facts that will be useful are: V
➜ density is the mass per unit volume ethanol 790 be stated in addition to the temperature
➜ pressure is the force per unit area when the density of a gas is quoted.
carbon dioxide 1.78
➜ fluid pressure acts in all directions Density is given the symbol ρ (‘rho’).
air 1.24
➜ fluid molecules do not occupy fixed positions and can move relative to each other. Table 12.1 gives some examples of the
helium 0.161 densities of fluids. The values are at
hydrogen 0.081 293 K and gas pressure of 1.01 × 105 Pa.
Test yourself on prior knowledge
1 Calculate the density of a liquid if 230 cm3 has a mass of 250 g.
Activity 12.1
2 The density of air is 1.3 kg m –3. Calculate the mass of air in a room of
length 5.20 m, width 4.00 m and height 2.30 m.
Finding the density of air
3 Write down the units of pressure in base units. A flask and its attachments are placed onto a balance (sensitivity ±0.01 g or less) and the
4 Calculate the force exerted by the air on a wall of area 11.0 m2 if the total mass is recorded. A vacuum pump is used to remove as much air as possible from the
atmospheric pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa. flask (Figure 12.1). The flask should be encased with a stiff wire mesh as a precaution against
5 Describe the differences in molecular structure of liquids and implosion and safety goggles must be worn. A protective screen between the flask and observers
gases. is also recommended. The flask and attachments are reweighed so that the mass of the gas
removed from the flask can be found.
To measure the volume of gas (at its screw clip
12.1 Properties of fluids initial pressure), the end of the rubber rubber tube
tube is immersed in a beaker of water
A fluid is a material that flows. Unlike a solid, in which the atoms occupy
and the clip is released. Water is forced
fixed positions, the particles of a fluid can move relative to one another.
into the tube by the external air pressure,
Generally we can consider fluids as liquids or gases, but plasma and some

e
and the volume of the water in the flask to
amorphous solids can display fluid behaviour.
equals the volume of the evacuated air. vacuum
pump borosilicate
This chapter will concentrate on the properties of static fluids such as density, glass flask
The following results were obtained:
pressure and flotation as well as the motion of objects within fluids and how beaker
viscosity affects the flow of liquids and gases. ● mass of flask plus attachments plus
air = 421.38 g
The study of fluids is important in the food industry where sugar
● mass of flask plus attachments after
concentrations affect the rate of flow of confectionary, the transportation of
air removed = 420.80 g
oil and gas and the flow of blood through our veins and arteries.
volume of water used to replace the
pl The study of how gases behave when heat energy is transferred in or out
is a major topic in physics. Thermodynamics will be studied in detail in
Chapter 29.
●

air removed = 450 ml.

Question
1 Use these readings to determine the
density of air.
water replacing
evacuated air

Figure 12.1 Finding the volume of air removed from a flask.

water

12.1 Properties of fluids 183 184 12 Fluids

m
470033_12_P_E_A_Level_Physics_183-198.indd 183 3/30/19 8:54 AM 470033_12_P_E_A_Level_Physics_183-198.indd 184 14/03/19 1:07 PM

20 V
V

Activity 8.1 a circuit .

ences in
tial differand Table 8.1 is prepared
sa

ting poten up
Investiga wn in Figure 8.3 is set er supply
is
sho l pow
at The circuit the four-cel
s energy e V across R3
lf ne, it use l differenc R2
Test yourse rger is cha
rging a pho
y’ (i.e. plu
gged in but The potentia table.
resistor s R1
, R2 R1

Test yourself questions

the
phone cha on ‘standb recorded in each of the es recorded
. 4.7 kΩ
a mobile rger is left 3 W. Calcula
te:
nec ted across l differenc 2.2 kΩ
1 When If the cha uses 0.1 r er is now con
ing pote ntia
of 3.0 W. d) it still for one hou The voltmet correspond
1.0 kΩ
the rate cha rge pho ne and the ed.
ne being n chargin
g the
and R 3 in
turn
V is then
calculat
with no pho used whe standby
for
V , V2 and 3 s instead
of four. Figure 8.3
rgy (in kJ) r is left on The sum of 1 g three cell
a) the ene the charge repeated usin (V + V2 + 3
V ).
(in kJ) if ent is then d that V = 1
rgy used The experim
b) the ene error it is foun ed in

These short questions, found

W erimental rge convert V3)/V
23 hours. s. a pow er of 1.0 Within exp ene rgy per unit cha (V1 + V2 +
wer ing of the V3/V
on your ans LED torc
h as hav were to be that the sum per unit Table 8.1
Comment ertises an h a torch This shows the energy V2/V
es. If suc is equal to resistor s V1/V
acturer adv V) batteri each resistor d by the cells. As the V/V
2 A manuf ng three AAA (1.5

throughout each chapter, are useful ulate: charge prod

uce current, or
and requiri s, calc cells, the
15 minute es with the in each
left on for LED are in seri rge, is the same The
rent in the time of cha e 97).
a) the cur it in this rate of flow 7.3 on pag
g through (see Section resistor s
rge passin component verted in the

for checking your understanding as b) the cha batteries. energy con of energy
from the amount of the amount
ene rgy taken e equal to ple of the
c) the is therefor is an exam
cells. This
eter energy
d by the n of
produce
g a voltm
by servatio
measured law of con

you progress through a topic.

circuit is
8.2 Usin
a fundamental e 85).
nts in a connecting 6.2 on pag 9 V power
supply.
en two poi talk about en (see Sec tion
mW from a
nce bet we the points. We p.d. bet we d at 6 V, 300
ial differe en asure the ent lamp rate
The potent a voltmeter bet we a component to me Questions rate a filam
ting llel wit h, wants to ope wn in Figure 8.4. reduces the 9V
connec ss, or in para p.d. across A student circuit sho ce and then also battery
ter acro rin g the up the m resi stan resi stor
voltme measu to be She sets maximu variable
tmeter is uld have stor to its ces that the
its ends. 8.2, the vol , the voltmeter wo uld variable resi htly. She noti
in Fig ure cell, it wo She sets the the lamp shines brig
uit shown the resistor . across the until
In the circ find the p.d. across to measure the p.d resistance e across
To warm.
the lamp. B, and gets slightly ntial differenc
ted bet ween A and en A and C. ely, will be the pote
connec we roximat
Tip set be con nected bet 1 What, app variable
uit, always have to
a) the lam
p resistor
ing up a circ first and the lamp. 6V
When sett the circuit stor ? filament. as that in
es part of the A b) the resi ent in the the same tly warm. lamp
up the seri n connect ulate the curr ent in the resistor is stor gets sligh ce.
it works. The ition. 2 a) Calc variable resi stan Figure 8.4
check that ired pos I lain why the curr ion, why the imum resi
in the requ b) Exp a calculat stor at max
voltmeter I–i lain , with the aid of to star t with the resi
I–i
3 Exp essential
C why it was ed otherwis
e?
I I 4 Explain
have happen
B
i What could

Tips
rce
motive fotor) does work on Ch Key term
A
i as a
charges just rgy
8.3 Electortro
trical
e of an elec
em ical ene otive forc unit
V or alterna le on page 109). rgy (for The electrom energy per
(dynamo mp nical ene ned as the energy
genera the Exa mecha in an source is defi electrical
ss a lamp. A cell or water (see cell, wh ile electrical energy verted into
ng the p.d.
acro circuit s work on rgy in a ce. charge con
er measuri . In the pump doe into electrical ene ) is conver ted into otive for
to operate electrom rce.

These highlight important facts,

Voltmet the cur ren
t ted a car sfer! by the sou
Figure 8.2 in order is conver eng ine of produce an energy tran ε.
e cur rent rent, I, but ter. from the tor is said to a form of bol
take som ords the circuit cur taken by the voltme h exa mp le,
The cell or
alte rna e at all but
is given the
sym
ter must rent not a forc
alternator. mislead ing as it is rev iated to e.m.f. and
ter rec y hig 111
A voltme am me the cur e a ver e force
8.2, the where i is tmeters should hav ce of er abb tromotiv
in Fig ure lamp is only I – i, stan Th is is rath is usually 8.3 Elec

common misconceptions and

vol a resi
possible, ht hav e ly tive force
through the keep i as sma ll as tmeter mig and are like Electromo
to dig ital vol for their operation
In order ly, a 20 V rent
. Typical more cur 9:00 AM
resistance ters need
3/30/19
log ue me order of kΩ
.

signpost you towards other relevant 10 MΩ; ana

to have resi stances in the

topics.
111
21.indd
e and power Level_Phy
sics_107-1
otive forc 470033_0
8_P_E_A_
, electrom 1:14 PM
ial difference 14/03/19

110 8 Potent

470033_0
8_P_E_A_
Level_Phy
sics_107-1
21.indd
110

Key terms and formulae

These are highlighted in the text and
definitions are given in the margin to help you
pick out and learn these important concepts.

Get the most from this book vii

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 7 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Examples Power and
mo
If, for exampl
e,
tion
retarding forc a canoeist paddles at

Examples of questions and

e F, she wil spee
l be workin d v for distance Δx aga
ΔW = F ×
Δx
g at a constan
t rate:
inst a uniform
Exam prac
Power = ∆W F × ∆x tic e questions
calculations feature full workings
1 A barge
∆t = = F × ∆x is pulled alon
∆t each apply ga
Power (W
) = retardin ∆t = F × v a force of 100 canal by two men who
g force (N) the banks. N to a rope
P = Fv × speed (m –1 at 60 ° to
s )

and sample answers.

The total wor
k done by
barge 100 m the
Example along the can men in moving the canal 100 N
A 5000 J al is
A motoris C 10 000
ed wheelch J 60 °
force of 80 air is driven B 8660 J barge
N. Calculat at 2.5 m s –1 D 17 400
power ratin e against an
g of 250 W. the efficiency of the average resi 2 A woman J [Total
1 Mark]
wheelchair stive perf
a bridge with orms a ‘bungee jump’,
60 °
Answer if its motor
has a a length of falling from
Useful pow her ankles. elastic cord
The gravitati tied
er output,
Po = 80 N lost by the onal potentia around 100 N
× 2.5 m s –1 woman at l energy
Efficiency usef ul pow = 200 W transfer red the lowest Figure 6.10
= er output as: point has bee
power inpu n
t × 100% A elastic
200 W strain energy
= in the cord
250 W × 100% = 80% B elastic
strain energy
Test yourse and internal
lf C kinetic energy in the
energy of the cord
7 By taking jumper
measuremen D kinetic
ts from the
energy of the
in Figure 6.8 in the cord jumper and
, make an Sankey diag internal ene
the power estimate ram rgy
station. of the effic 9 Calculat 3 A forklift
8 a) Calc iency of e the average truck raises
ulate the travelling power gen shelf 2.4 m ten 100 kg [Total 1 Ma
efficiency at a constan erated by high in 8.0 sacks rk]
the operato
r pulls on
of a pulley
system if average resi t speed of a cycl
12 m s –1 aga ist s. The average of rice off the floor onto
the rope with stive force A 300W power generat a stor
40 N over
a distance a force of 10 Calculat
e the average
of 15 N. inst an
C 3000W ed by the truc age
100 kg mas of 2.0 m in orde power B 2400W k is about:
s by a heig pulling a plou
b) Give a ht of 6 cm.
r to raise
a gh if the hori generated by a hors D 24 000
reason why are 1200 zontal, resi e 4 A toy trac W
such a syst N and the stive forces
efficient. em is not leng th 186 hors e ploughs tor with a
100% m in 5 min a furrow of of 2.0 m s –1 120W elec [Total 1 Ma
utes. . If the mot tric mot rk]
tractor is: or is 75% effic or is driven at a con
ient, the aver stan
age resistive t speed
A 45 N force on the
It is interest C 180 N
ing to not B 60 N
now named) e that Jam D 240 N
es Wa
this as a mar invented a unit of pow tt (after whom the 5 Define wor
keting ploy er called a unit k and state
compared
wit to give som ‘horsepower of power is 6 a) Define
the unit of
work.
[Total 1 Ma
rk]
e ’ (hp). He
eng ine wou h the power that cou idea of the power of potential ene
ld supposed ld be obtaine his steam eng did rgy. [Total 2 Ma
rks]
50 years ago ly generate d ines b) Describ
, cars in Brit the same pow from a horse. Thus e the differenc
For exampl ain were taxe er as five hor a 5 hp elastic pote e between
e, d ses. Unt il abo ntial energy. gravitationa [1]
actually dev the icon ic Morris Min according to a calculat ut l potential
energy and
eloped 48 hp). or 100 0 was ed
Minor dev In today’s rated at 10 horsepower.
eloped a pow terms, 1 hp hp (althoug 7 a) Define [2]
er of 48 × = 746 wat h it kinetic ene
746 W = 36 ts, so the Mo rgy. [Total 3 Ma
kW. rris rks]
b) Calcula
te the kine
at 20 m s –1. tic energy
of a golf ball [1]
88 of mass 50 g trav
6 Work,
ene elling
rgy and pow
er
8 Explain [2]
wha t is meant
by the effic [Total 3 Ma
iency of a rks]
470033_06_ system.
P_E_A_Lev
el_Physics_ [Total 3 Ma
076-093.ind
d 88 rks]
90
6 Work,
ene rgy and pow
er
14/03/19
1:27 PM
470033_06_
P_E_A_Lev
el_Physics_
076-093.ind
d 90

3/30/19
9:09 AM

Exam practice questions

You will find Exam practice questions at the end of every chapter. These
follow the style of the different types of questions you might see in your
e
pl
examination, including multiple-choice questions, and are colour coded to
highlight the level of difficulty. Test your understanding even further, with
Maths questions and Stretch and challenge questions.
m
sa

Activities and Core

practicals Core practical 2
Measuring the resistivity of graphite
A standard technique for determining the resistivity of a material A
Test yourself
3 The material in the table below is taken from a data book:

Material Gauge Diameter/ Area/mm2 Ohms per Resistivity/

These practical-based activities

in the form of a wire is to calculate the cross-sectional area from no. mm metre Ωm
R
measurements of the diameter and then get a value for by a graphical
l V copper 26 0.4572 0.1642 a) 1.72 × 10–8
method.
constantan 30 b) 0.0779 6.29 c)

will help consolidate your learning

An interesting experiment is to do this for graphite in the form of a pencil
‘lead’. The diameter, d, of the lead is measured with a micrometer, or nichrome 34 0.2337 d) 25.2 e)
digital calipers, at four places along its length, at different orientations, Calculate the missing data a)–e).
to give a good average. The lead is then taped to a half-metre rule, with

and test your practical skills.

4 The ‘lead’ in a pencil is made of graphite, with clay added to make it
about 1 cm protruding beyond the zero end of the rule, and the circuit in
l harder. Data for two types of pencil lead are shown in the table.
Figure 10.7 is set up.
Firm contact is made at different lengths, l, along the lead. The current, Type of Length/cm Diameter/mm Resistance/Ω Resistivity/Ω m

Pearson Edexcel's Core practicals

pencil
I, and potential difference, V, are recorded, and the corresponding Figure 10.7
resistance, R, is calculated for each value of l. A graph of R against l is R /Ω
B (soft) 17.5 0.69 15.8
then plotted – it is sensible to plot l in metres at this stage (Figure 10.8). 2H (hard) 17.0 2.61 33.8
ρl

are clearly highlighted. R=

A
where A =
πd 2
4
R
and is the gradient of the graph.
l
a) Copy and complete the table by calculating the resistivity of the two
types of pencil. (You might like to use a spreadsheet.)
b) You should find that the resistivity of the 2H pencil is about
Questions
30 times that of the B pencil. What can you deduce about the
A typical set of results is shown in Table 10.1.
electrical nature of clay from these observations?
Table 10.1 0
0
l /m
d/mm 2.24 2.23 2.25 2.24
Figure 10.8 10.4 Effect of temperature on the
1 Why is a micrometer, or digital calipers, a suitable choice of
instrument for measuring the diameter of the pencil lead? l/mm V/V I/A R/Ω resistivity of a metal
2 What check should you make before using this instrument? 20 1.48 0.925 In Section 9.5, we looked at the I–V characteristics for a tungsten filament
3 Explain why it is a good technique to measure the diameter 40 1.51 0.786
lamp and produced the graph shown in Figure 10.9.
of the pencil lead at four places along its length, at different
60 1.53 0.648 We said that the tungsten filament did not obey Ohm’s law because the
orientations.
temperature of the filament rises as the current increases. We can infer from
4 Using the data in Table 10.1, plot a graph of resistance R 80 1.55 0.587
the graph that the resistance of the filament increases as its temperature rises.
against length l and hence find a value for the resistivity of 100 1.58 0.527
graphite. (You should get a figure of about 7 × 10 –5 Ω m.) 2.0
120 1.60 0.465

1.6

R
The experiment shows the value of using a graphical technique for finding . 1.2
l
The scatter of the points on the graph (Figure 10.8) indicates that there is
I/ A

considerable random error – probably caused by variation in the pressure applied 0.8
when making contact with the pencil lead or possibly by inconsistencies in the
composition of the graphite. The fact that the graph does not go through the
origin shows that there is also a significant systematic error caused by contact 0.4
resistance due to poor contact between the crocodile clip and the pencil lead.
A graphical method minimises the random error by averaging out the values and
0
virtually eliminates the systematic error when the gradient is taken. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
V/ V
Figure 10.9

142 10 Resistance and resistivity 10.4 Effect of temperature on the resistivity of a metal 143

470033_10_P_E_A_Level_Physics_136-153.indd 142 14/03/19 1:29 PM 470033_10_P_E_A_Level_Physics_136-153.indd 143 14/03/19 1:29 PM

Dedicated chapters for developing your Maths and Practical skills and
Preparing for your exam are also included in this book.

viii Get the most from this book

470033_FM_P_E_A_Level_Physics_i-x.indd 8 4/10/19 11:06 AM

 Rectilinear motion

3 Prior knowledge
In this chapter you will need to be able to:
➜ substitute numerical values into formulae and equations using appropriate units.
➜ plot and draw graphs to show how distance and speed change with time
➜ determine the gradient of linear graphs.

The key facts that will be useful are:

➜ Velocity, acceleration and displacement are vector quantities.
displacement
➜ average velocity =
time
change in velocity
➜ acceleration =
time
➜ A body in free fall on Earth accelerates downwards at 9.81 m s−2.

e
Test yourself on prior knowledge
pl
1 What is meant by a vector quantity?
2 Calculate the displacement of an object that travels with an average
velocity of 4.5 m s−1 for 8.0 s.
m
3 The velocity of a car changes from 36 km h−1 to 18 km h−1 in 8.0 s.
Calculate the acceleration of the car in m s−2.
4 Calculate the velocity of a brick 2.2 s after it is accidentally dropped
from the top of a building.
sa

5 Sketch a displacement–time graph for a body moving at constant

velocity.

3.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration

Rectilinear motion means motion along a straight path. We saw earlier
that average speed is distance divided by time, and that velocity is a vector
quantity defined as displacement divided by time. As all the motion to be
studied in this chapter is rectilinear, it follows that velocity will be used
throughout.

Average and instantaneous velocity

A sprinter accelerates for 20 metres and then maintains a uniform velocity
for the remaining 80 metres of the 100-metre sprint. If the total time taken
is 10.0 s, the average velocity, vav, is found using:
displacement 100 m
vav = = = 10.0 m s−1
time 10.0 s

3.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration 25

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 25 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 During the first 20 m the runner’s velocity is continuously increasing to a
maximum of 12.0 m s−1. If the displacement for a small period of time, say
0.01 s, during the acceleration, is 0.06 m, the velocity at this instant will be:
0.06 m
v= = 6.0 m s−1
0.01 s
The instantaneous velocity is strictly defined as the velocity at an instant,
which may be much smaller than 0.01 s but, for practical purposes,
measurements of velocity taken over a time that is much shorter than the
time of the overall measurements will be regarded as instantaneous.
Average velocity and instantaneous velocity are sometimes represented by
the equations:
Δx
vav =
Δt
δx
vinst =
δt
where Δt represents an interval of time and δt represents a very small
interval.
dx

e
The instantaneous velocity is often given in the calculus notation that
dt
represents the value as δt tends to zero.
pl
Activity 3.1
Measuring average velocity and instantaneous velocity
m
A trolley is released at the top of an inclined plane and allowed to run to the bottom of the plane. The distance, Δx, travelled by the
trolley down the slope is measured, and the time, Δt, is measured using a stopclock. The average velocity is found by dividing the
distance moved down the plane by the time taken.
sa

An interrupter card cuts through the light beam directed at a light sensor (a ‘light gate’), and the time is electronically recorded. The
‘instantaneous’ velocity at that position is calculated by dividing the length of the card, δx, by the time, δt, taken to cross the beam.
A sensor placed near the top of the runway can be used interrupter card
to find the initial velocity, u, and a lower sensor can give light sensor
trolley interface
the final velocity, v. to computer
A data-logging interface (such as Philip Harris’ DL+) will
measure the times at each light gate and also the time
interval between the gates.

Δx
average velocity =
Δt
δx runway
initial velocity, u = lamp
δt1
Figure 3.1 Measuring velocity and acceleration (lamp and sensor
δx supports omitted for clarity).
final velocity, v =
δt2
(u + v)
If the acceleration down the slope is uniform, the average velocity will be .
2

26 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 26 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 This can be compared with the
measured average velocity:

Δx (u + v)
=
Δt 2

The results of the experiment are shown

in Figure 3.2. The time scale on the
computer display has been broken to
allow both timings to be observed.
Questions 0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 4.80 5.00 5.20 t/s

The length of the interrupter card is

5.0 cm, and the distance between the
sensors is 0.800 m. Figure 3.2 Computer display.
1 Use Figure 3.2 to determine:
a) the time intervals during which the interrupter card cuts the beams at the top and the bottom of the ramp
b) the time taken for the trolley to travel between the sensors.
2 a) Calculate the instantaneous velocity at the top and at the bottom of the slope.
b) Use the values in part (a) to determine the average velocity of the trolley.
3 Calculate the average velocity of the trolley using the total time taken between the sensors.

e
4 Suggest a reason why the two values for the average velocity differ.
pl
Acceleration
As the trolley moves down the slope, its velocity steadily increases. Any
m
change in velocity indicates that the trolley is accelerating. The magnitude of
the acceleration is a measure of the rate at which the velocity changes:
change in velocity Δv
acceleration, a = change in time = Δt
sa

The change in velocity is measured in metres per second (m s−1), so

acceleration has the unit m s−1 per second, which is written as m s−2.
For uniform acceleration, as in the experiment to measure average and
instantaneous velocity (in the Activity above), the acceleration is calculated
using the equation:
(v − u)
a=
t

Velocity and acceleration are vectors. If an object slows down, (v – u) will

be negative. This means that the acceleration is in the opposite direction to
the velocities and the object has a negative value of acceleration.

3.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration 27

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 27 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Example
In an experiment, a trolley runs down an inclined plane. An interrupter card
of length 20.0 cm cuts through light gates close to the top and the bottom of
the slope. The following results were recorded from such an investigation.
Time to cut the top gate, t1 = 0.30 s
Time to cut the bottom gate, t2 = 0.14 s
Time to travel between the gates, t = 0.50 s
Calculate:
a) the velocity of the trolley at each gate
b) the acceleration of the trolley.

Answers (0.200 m)
a) Velocity at top gate, u= = 0.67 m s−1
(0.30 s)

(0.200 m)
Velocity at bottom gate, v= = 1.43 m s−1
(0.14 s)

(v − u) (1.43 m s−1 − 0.67 m s−1)

b) Acceleration, a= = = 1.5 m s−2

e
pl t 0.50 s

Equations of motion
The motion of an object moving at constant velocity, or accelerating uniformly,
can be described by a set of equations known as the equations of motion. The
m
following symbols represent the physical quantities involved in the equations:
s = displacement (m)
u = initial velocity (m s−1) at t = 0 s
sa

v = final velocity (m s−1)

a = acceleration (m s−2)
t = time (s)
The first equation is simply the definition of acceleration rearranged so that
the final velocity, v, is the subject of the equation:
(v − u)
a=
t
giving
v = u + at Equation 1
Average velocity is defined as total displacement divided by time. For uniform
(u + v)
motion, the average velocity is , so:
2
s (u + v)
=
t 2

28 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 28 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 giving
(u + v)t
s= Equation 2
2
In order that any two quantities can be calculated if the other three are
given, a further two equations can be obtained by combining Equations 1
and 2. The resulting expressions are:
s = ut + 1 at2 Equation 3
2
v = u + 2as
2 2
Equation 4
You do not need to be able to perform these combinations, as Equations 3
and 4 will be included on the data sheet at the end of the AS (and A Level)
examination papers.

Example
1 A train starts from rest at a station and 2 u = 12 m s−1, a = 0.4 m s−2, s = 540 m, v = ?, t = ?
accelerates at 0.2 m s−2 for one minute until it
Using Equation 4:
clears the platform. Calculate the velocity of the
train after this time, and the length of the platform. v2 = u2 + 2as
2 The train now accelerates at 0.4 m s−2 for the next = (12 m s−1)2 + 2 × 0.4 m s−2 × 540 m
540 m. Calculate its final velocity and the time
taken to travel this distance.

e giving
= 576 m2 s−2
pl
Answers v = 24 m s−1
1 u = 0 m s , a = 0.2 m s , t = 60 s, v = ?, s = ?
−1 −2
Using Equation 1:
m
Using Equation 1: v = u + at
v = u + at 24 m s = 12 m s−1 + 0.4 m s−2 × t
−1

= 0 + 0.2 m s × 60 s
−2
giving
sa

= 12 m s−1
t = 30 s
Using Equation 3:
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= 0 + × 0.2 m s−2 × (60 s)2
2
= 360 m

Test yourself Tip

1 Explain why the quantities u, v, a and s must be vectors for rectilinear Always write down the values of s, u,
motion. v, a and t that you are given and then
2 Calculate the acceleration of an object that increases in velocity from select the appropriate equation to
2.0 m s−1 to 5.0 m s−1 in 0.5 s. obtain the unknown quantity.
3 How long will it take a dog running at 4.0 m s−1 to increase its velocity
to 6.0 m s−1 if it accelerates at 0.8 m s−1?
4 How far will a car travel when it accelerates at 0.5 m s−2 from rest
for 20 s?
5 Calculate the final velocity of a cyclist who accelerates at 0.8 m s−2
from an initial velocity of 5.0 m s−1 over a distance of 12 m.

3.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration 29

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 29 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Core practical 1
Measuring the acceleration of a free-falling object
For an object dropped from rest, the acceleration due to gravity can be calculated using the
equations of motion:
1
s = ut + at2
2
or
ν2 = u2 + 2as
As u = 0 m s−1 and a = g, these equations become:
1
s (or h) = gt2
2
and
ν2 = 2gs (or 2gh)
Method 1
A ball-bearing is held by an electromagnet at height, h, above a trapdoor switch (Figure 3.3a).
When the switch is thrown (downwards in the diagram), the circuit to the electromagnet is broken
and the ball begins to fall. At that instant the stopclock starts timing. When the ball strikes the
trapdoor, the lower circuit is broken and the clock is stopped.
The height is measured using a metre rule. The timing is repeated several times, and an average
value of t is recorded.

e
electromagnet Method 1
The experiment is repeated for a range of different heights. A graph of t2 against h is plotted.
1 2h 2
2
pl
Rearranging h = gt2 gives t2 = g , so the gradient of the line will be g .
+ power
Method 2 ball supply
bearing –
A cylinder is dropped down a clear plastic tube so that it cuts through a light beam
m
(Figure 3.3b). The length of the cylinder, l, and the height of the top of the tube, h, above the
light gate are measured, and the time, t, for which the cylinder cuts the beam is recorded. switch
h
sa

electromagnet Method 1 trap-door

switch

stopclock
+ power
ball supply
bearing –
cylinder
l
switch
h Method 2 plastic tube

light sensor
h
trap-door
switch
lamp to computer
stopclock

a b

Figure 3.3 Two methods of measuring acceleration due to gravity.

cylinder
l

Method 2 plastic tube

30 3 Rectilinear motionlight sensor

h

lamp to computer

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 30 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 The experiment is repeated several times, and an average value of t is obtained. The velocity, v,
of the cylinder passing through the gate is calculated using v = l .
t
The experiment is repeated for a range of heights, and a graph of v2 against h is plotted.
As v2 = 2gh, the gradient of the line will be 2g.
A student performing experiments 1 and 2 obtained the results in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Results for Methods 1 and 2.

Method 1 Method 2 (l = 0.050 m)

h/m t/s t2 /s2 h/m t/s v2 /(m s−1)2
0.400 0.29 0.200 0.025

0.800 0.40 0.400 0.018

1.200 0.49 0.600 0.015

1.600 0.57 0.800 0.013

2.000 0.65 1.000 0.011

(The values of t are the average of three readings.)
Method 3
If no specialist equipment is available, the principle of Method 1 can be used by measuring

e
the time taken with a stopwatch for the object to be dropped over a range of heights measured
with a metre rule. The times for each height should be taken several times and an average value
calculated.
pl
The data analysis is the same as for Method 2.
Questions
m
1 Copy and complete Table 3.1 to show the values of t2/s2 for Method 1 and v2/(m s−1)2 for Method
2. You may use a spreadsheet if you wish.
2 Plot a graph of t2/s2 against h/m for Method 1. Measure the gradient and calculate a value for the
sa

acceleration due to gravity.

3 Plot a graph of v2/(m s−1)2 against h/m for Method 2. Measure the gradient and calculate a
value for the acceleration due to gravity.
4 Another student, performing Method 1, noticed that the graph did not pass through the origin,
but was a straight line with a small intercept on the h axis. Suggest a reason for this.
5 Explain, with reference to the time measurements, why the uncertainty in the value of g is
greater using Method 2.
6 Give one advantage of using Method 2.
7 A student using Method 3 has a manually operated stopwatch. She takes five readings for an
object to fall from a height of 2.00 m into a sand tray.
The recorded values are: 0.65 s, 0.61 s, 0.70 s, 0.63 s, 0.60 s
a) Explain why five separate readings are taken at this height.
b) Calculate the average time and determine the percentage uncertainty in this measurement.
c) It is suggested that the experiment would be better performed from an upper storey of a tall
building. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of such a change.

3.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration 31

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 31 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Free fall
In the absence of air resistance, all objects, whatever their mass, will fall
freely with the same acceleration. Galileo Galilei tested this hypothesis by
dropping different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Similarly, the
astronauts on an Apollo Moon-landing mission showed that a hammer and a
feather fall at the same rate on the Moon (where there is no air).
The acceleration of free fall on Earth, commonly termed the acceleration
due to gravity, g, has a value of 9.8 m s−2.
When using the equations of motion for free-falling bodies, we need to
be aware that displacement, velocity and acceleration are vector quantities
and that the acceleration due to gravity always acts downward towards
the Earth. If an object is thrown upwards, it will still be accelerating
downwards at 9.8 m s−2. If the upward velocity is assigned a positive value,
it follows that the acceleration must be negative. If the body was thrown
downwards, its direction would be the same as that of g, so both can be
given positive values.

Example

e
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 10 m s−1.
Calculate the maximum height it will reach above its starting position,
and the time it will take to reach this height.
pl
Answer
At the instant the ball is at its maximum height, its velocity will be zero.
m
u = +10 m s−1, v = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−1, s = ?, t = ?
Using v2 = u2 + 2as:
sa

0 = (+10 m s−1)2 + 2 × (−9.8 m s−2) × s

100 m2 s−2 = 19.6 m s−2 × s
s = 5.1 m
Using v = u + at:
0 = +10 m s−1 + (−9.8 m s−2) × t
t = 1.0 s

Test yourself

6 A football is dropped from the top of a building 7 A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an
30 m above the road below. initial velocity of 8.0 m s−1 from a height of 1.8 m.
a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the Calculate:
road. a) the stone’s velocity after 0.50 s
b) Calculate its velocity on impact with the road. b) the maximum height it reaches
c) State an assumption that you have made for c) the time taken for the stone to fall from the
these calculations. highest point to the ground.

32 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 32 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 3.2 Projectiles
Objects projected horizontally will still fall freely with a vertical downward
acceleration of 9.8 m s−2.
Figure 3.4 Falling spheres
illuminated by a strobe lamp.

ball released ball projected

from rest horizontally

Figure 3.4 shows two balls – one released from rest and the other projected
horizontally – photographed while illuminated by a strobe lamp. It is clear that the

e
vertical acceleration of the projected ball is unaffected by its horizontal motion.
The horizontal distance travelled by projectiles can be found by considering
pl
the vertical and horizontal motions separately. In the vertical plane, the
object will accelerate down at 9.8 m s−2, while the horizontal velocity remains
constant (in the assumed absence of air resistance). The equations of motion
can be applied to the vertical motion to ascertain the time spent by the
m
object in free fall, and then the horizontal displacement is the product of the
constant horizontal velocity and this time.

Example
sa

A tennis ball is volleyed horizontally at a height of 1.5 m with a speed of

20 m s−1. Calculate the time taken by the ball to hit the ground and the
horizontal distance travelled by the ball.

Answer
The instant the ball is struck, in addition to moving horizontally it will
begin to fall downwards due to the gravitational force acting on it. The
vertical motion of the ball is identical to that of a ball dropped from rest
and falling to the ground.
In the vertical plane: u = 0 m s−1, a = 9.8 m s−2, s = 1.5 m, t = ?
1
Using s = ut + at2:
2
1
1.5 m = 0 + × 9.8 m s−2 × t2
2
giving
t = 0.55 s
In the horizontal plane: u = 20 m s−1 (constant), t = 0.55 s, s = ?
s=u×t
= 20 m s−1 × 0.55 s
= 11 m

3.2 Projectiles 33

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 33 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Activity 3.2
Monkey and hunter
A monkey hangs from the branch of a tree. A hunter aims
his gun accurately at the monkey and fires. The sharp-eyed
primate spots the bullet as it leaves the gun, releases
its grip on the branch and falls to the ground. Does the
monkey survive?
A laboratory model of the situation is shown in Figure 3.5.
The ‘gun’ is clamped horizontally to the bench so that it
is aimed directly at the ‘monkey’, which is held by the
electromagnet 2 or 3 metres away. The ‘bullet’ is fired,
breaking the circuit as it leaves the end of the barrel. The electromagnet
‘monkey’ is released and falls freely to the ground.
spring-loaded ‘gun’
For safety reasons all observers should be behind the ‘gun’
and protective glasses must be worn. L.V. power supply

Question
Explain why the ‘bullet’ always hits the can, regardless marble
of the distance from the ‘gun’.

e aluminium foil food can (monkey)

pl Figure 3.5 The ‘monkey and hunter’ scenario.

If an object is projected at an angle, the vertical and horizontal motion can

m
still be treated separately by considering the components of the velocity in
each plane.
Consider the motion of an object projected at an angle, θ, with an initial
sa

velocity, u.
path of projectile

u
u sin h
u h
initial
velocity u cos h
h

Figure 3.6 Projectile motion.

In the vertical plane, the initial velocity is u sin θ (upwards) and the
acceleration is 9.8 m s−2 (downwards). As both are vectors, if a positive
value is assigned to the initial velocity, the acceleration and the downward
velocities and displacements will have negative values.
Neglecting air resistance, the horizontal component of the initial velocity,
u cos θ, will remain constant throughout the motion.

34 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 34 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Example Tip
The independence of the vertical and
A football is kicked with a velocity of 12 m s−1 at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal motion of bodies in free
ground.
fall is an important concept. It allows
Neglecting any effects of the air on the motion of the ball, calculate: you to use the equations of motion
separately in each plane.
a) the vertical height reached by the ball
b) the time taken for the ball to rise to this height
c) the horizontal displacement of the ball when it falls to the ground.

Answers
In the vertical plane:
a) u = 12 sin 30 m s−1 = 6.0 m s−1, v = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−1, s = h = ?
Using v2 = u2 + 2as:
(0 m −1)2 = (6.0 m −1)2 + 2 × (−9.8 m s−2) × h
(6.0 m s−1)2
h= = 1.8 m
19.6 m s−2

e
b) u = 12 sin 30 m s−1 = 6.0 m s−1, v = 0 m s−1, a = −9.8 m s−2, t = ?
Using v = u + at:
0 m s−1 = 6.0 m s−1 + (−9.8 m s−2) × t
pl
6.0 m s−1
t= = 0.61 s
9.8 m s−2
m
In the horizontal plane:
c) u = 12 cos 30 = 11 m s−1, t = 2 × 0.61 = 1.2 s, s = ?
sa

s=u×t
= 11 m s−1 × 1.2 s = 13 m

Test yourself
8 A coin is projected horizontally from a table top at the same time as
an identical coin is dropped from the same point. Explain why they
both strike the floor at the same time.
9 A cannonball is fired horizontally from the top of a vertical cliff, 60 m
above sea level, with a velocity of 200 m s−1.
a) How far from the cliff face does the cannonball enter the sea?
b) What assumption have you made?
10 An arrow is fired at 40° to the horizontal with velocity 40 m s−1.
Calculate:
a) the horizontal component of this velocity
b) the vertical component of this velocity
c) the time taken to hit a target in the same horizontal plane as the
release point of the arrow
d) the horizontal distance of the target from the archer.

3.2 Projectiles 35

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 35 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 3.3 Displacement–time and velocity–
time graphs
Displacement–time graphs
Figure 3.7 shows the displacement–time graph for an object moving at
constant velocity.
Constant, or uniform, velocity is calculated using the equation:
displacement ∆s
velocity = =
time ∆t
The velocity is represented by the gradient of a displacement–time graph.
The motion represented in Figure 3.8 is that of a trolley accelerating down
an inclined plane. The gradient of the line gets steeper, which indicates an
increase in velocity.
The instantaneous velocity is the gradient, δs , of the graph at a point on
δt
the line.
To measure the small values of δs and δt would be very difficult
and this would lead to large uncertainties in the measured velocity. The

e
instantaneous velocity is more accurately measured by drawing a tangent
to the graph line at the appropriate point. The gradient of this line is
pl
calculated using the larger values Δs and Δt.
m
displacement s/m

∆s
sa

∆t

0
0 time t/s
Figure 3.7 Displacement–time graph for constant velocity.
displacement s/m

δs
∆s

δt
∆t

0
0 time t/s
Figure 3.8 Determining the instantaneous velocity for accelerating object.

36 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 36 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Activity 3.3
Measuring the displacement of a moving object
The transmitter of a motion sensor sends out pulses of
receiver
ultrasound and infrared radiation that are picked up by the transmitter
receiver. The distance of the transmitter from the sensor trolley
is continuously recorded. The sensor is interfaced with
a computer with data-sampling software to measure the
position of the trolley at fixed time intervals. The trolley may
be pulled along the runway at constant velocity or allowed
to accelerate down an inclined plane.
Displacement–time graphs can be drawn from the results
to computer
or the graphs may be displayed on the computer. inclined plane
Figure 3.9 Measuring displacement using a motion sensor.
The following readings were taken using the equipment
shown in Figure 3.9.
Table 3.2 Experiment 1

t/s 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

s/m 0.120 0.250 0.404 0.538 0.681 0.822

Table 3.3 Experiment 2

t/s 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

e
pl
s/m 0.078 0.165 0.250 0.332 0.448 0.600

Questions
m
1 On the same axes, plot displacement–time graphs for both experiments.
2 Describe the motion of the trolley in each experiment.
3 Use the graphs to determine the velocity of the trolley after 0.50 s in each case.
sa

Velocity–time graphs
The results of the displacement–time experiment above can be used to
illustrate how the velocity of the trolley changes as it moves along the
runway. The gradient of the displacement–time graph is taken for a range
of times, and a velocity–time graph is plotted. This is quite a tricky
exercise, and one that is usually better left to the computer program.

Figure 3.10 Velocity–time graphs.

v
velocity/ms–1

velocity/ms–1

area = v × t
area = u + v× t
2
0 u=0
0 t 0 t
time/s time/s

The graphs in Figure 3.10 represent (left) an object moving at constant

velocity and (right) an object with uniform acceleration.

3.3 Displacement–time and velocity–time graphs 37

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 37 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Acceleration is defined by the expression:
change in velocity Δv
acceleration = =
change in time Δt
The acceleration of an object is therefore equal to the gradient of a
velocity–time graph. If the object is slowing down, the gradient will be
negative. A negative value of acceleration indicates that the vector has the
opposite direction to the velocity.

Finding displacement from velocity–time graphs

Average velocity is displacement divided by time. For uniform motion in a
straight line, this leads to the equation:
(u + v)
s= ×t
2
At constant velocity, the displacement is simply the product of velocity and
time and will be the area under the horizontal line on the left-hand graph
in Figure 3.10.
For the accelerating object (right-hand graph), the area under the line is
1

e
× base × height of the triangle, which is the same as the expression for
2
displacement given above (since the value of u in this case is zero.)
pl
For any velocity–time graph, the displacement is equal to the area between
the line and the time axis.

Example
m
30
The velocity–time graph in Figure 3.11 represents the motion of a train as 25
it travels from station A to station D, via B and C.
velocity/ms–1

B C
20
sa

1 Describe the changes in the motion of the train. 15

2 Calculate: 10

a) the acceleration from A to B 5

A D
0
b) the acceleration from C to D 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time/minutes
c) the total displacement from A to D.
Figure 3.11 Velocity-time graph
Answers
1 The train accelerates uniformly from A to B, travels at 20 m s–1 until it reaches C and then decelerates,
uniformly, to D.
20 m s−1
2 a) acceleration = gradient = = 0.33 m s−2
60 s
−20 m s−1
b) acceleration = gradient = = −0.17 m s−2
120 s
c) displacement = area under graph
1 1
= × 20 m s−1 × 60 s + (20 m s−1 × 300 s) + × 20 m s−1 × 120 s
2 2
= 7800 m

38 3 Rectilinear motion

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 38 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 Test yourself
11 Sketch a displacement–time graph for:
a) a stationary object
b) an object moving at constant velocity
c) an object moving with uniform acceleration.
12 How would you determine the velocity of an object at a given time
using a displacement–time graph?
13 Sketch a velocity–time graph for:
a) an object moving at constant velocity
b) an object moving with uniform acceleration.
14  How would you determine the acceleration at a given time using a
velocity–time graph?
15 How would you determine the displacement of an object over a given
time interval using a velocity–time graph?

Bouncing motion
The motion of a bouncing ball provides a good example of how motion is
represented graphically.

e
pl
Activity 3.4
m
receiver
Investigating the motion of a to PC
bouncing ball
An advanced motion sensor with the appropriate
sa

transmitter
data logger is ideal for this investigation. The
transmitter is attached to a basketball, or similar
large ball, using Blu-tack. The receiver is clamped
in position vertically above the transmitter, as
shown in Figure 3.12. The motion sensor uses
a mixture of infrared and ultrasonic signals to
measure accurately the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver.
The sensor is activated, and the ball is
ball
dropped and allowed to bounce two or three
times. Practice is needed to ensure that the Figure 3.12 The set-up.
ball does not rotate and that the transmitter
stays beneath the receiver throughout.

3.3 Displacement–time and velocity–time graphs 39

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 39 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 The data can be displayed +
Tip as a displacement–time,
To describe the motion represented by a velocity–time or an

displacement/m
a graph, always look at the gradient. acceleration–time graph.
Check if it is constant, positive, The graphs in Figure 3.13
negative or zero. For a displacement– show the variations in
time graph, the gradient will give you displacement, velocity and
the velocity at any time; for a velocity– acceleration on a common
time graph, the gradient gives you the timescale. The initial 0
time/s
acceleration. displacement (the height
above the floor) is positive,
as are all upward values of +
displacement, velocity and
acceleration; all downward

velocity/m s–1
values will be negative.
0
Questions time/s
Explain the following features
of the velocity–time graph.
a) The gradient between –

e
bounces is always the
same.
b) The gradient during +
pl
the bounce has a large
acceleration/m s–2

positive value.
c) The area above and below
m
the time axis is the same
for a given bounce.
d) The velocity of the ball 0
time/s
immediately after it has
sa

bounced is always smaller –9.8

than that with which it
strikes the ground. Figure 3.13 Bouncing ball graphs.

40 3 Rectilinear motion

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 Chapter summary
l Rectilinear motion means motion along a straight path.
l Speed is a scalar and is distance divided by time; velocity is a vector quantity
defined as displacement divided by time. The instantaneous velocity is defined as
the velocity at any instant.
l Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which the velocity changes.
l The equations of motion used to describe the motion of an object moving at
constant velocity, or accelerating uniformly, are:
v = u + at
(u + v) t
s=
2
s = ut + 1 at 2
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
where:
s = displacement (m)
u = initial velocity (m s–1) at t = 0 s
v = final velocity (m s–1)
a = acceleration (m s–2)
t = time (s).

e
l
pl
All objects in the absence of air resistance, whatever their mass, will fall freely
with the same acceleration. The acceleration of free fall on Earth, commonly
termed the acceleration due to gravity, g, has a value of 9.8 m s–2.
m
l Objects projected horizontally will still fall freely with a vertical downward
acceleration of 9.8 m s–2.
l For objects projected at an angle to the horizontal, the vertical and horizontal
motion should be treated separately by considering the components of the velocity
sa

in each plane.
l Velocity is represented by the gradient of a displacement–time graph and the
instantaneous velocity is the gradient of the graph at a point on the line found
using a tangent. Displacement is represented by the area under a velocity–time
graph.
l The acceleration of an object is equal to the gradient of a velocity–time graph.
If the object is slowing down, the gradient will be negative. A negative value of
acceleration indicates that the vector has the opposite direction to the velocity.

Chapter summary 41

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 Exam practice questions
1 A train accelerated from rest to a velocity of 40 m s−1 in a time
of 1 minute and 20 seconds.
a) What was the average acceleration of the train?
A 0.33 m s−2 C 2.0 m s−2
B 0.50 m s−2 D 3.0 m s−2 [Total 1 Mark]
b) What was the distance travelled by the train?
A 48 m C 3200 m
B 1600 m D 4800 m [Total 1 Mark]
2 The gradient of a displacement–time graph represents:
A acceleration C speed
B distance D velocity [Total 1 Mark]
3 The area under a velocity-time graph represents:
A acceleration C speed
B displacement D velocity

e [Total 1 Mark]
4 Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous
velocity.
pl [Total 4 Marks]
5 Give the four equations of motion. [Total 4 Marks]
m
6 a) Define acceleration. [1]
b) The road-test information for a car states that it can travel from
0 to 60 mph in 8.0 s.
sa

(1 mph ≈ 0.4 m s−1)

i) Estimate the average acceleration of the car during this time.
ii) Explain why the acceleration is unlikely to be uniform.  [2]
 [Total 3 Marks]
7 A cyclist travelling at 4.0 m s−1 accelerates at a uniform rate of
0.4 m s−2 for 20 s. Calculate:
a) the final velocity of the cyclist
b) the distance travelled by the cyclist in this time. [Total 2 Marks]
8 A stone was dropped down a well. The splash was heard 2.2 s later.
Calculate:
a) the depth of the well
b) the velocity of the stone when it hit the water. [Total 4 Marks]

42
3 Rectilinear motion

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 9 A ball was thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of
12 m s−1 on release. Calculate:
a) the maximum height from point of release reached by the ball
b) the time taken for the ball to reach this height
c) the velocity of the ball 2.0 s after it was released.  [Total 3 Marks]
10 A football player kicked a ball downfield. The ball left the boot
at 30 ° to the ground and with a velocity of 20 m s−1. Calculate:
a) the vertical and horizontal components of the initial
velocity of the ball
B
b) the time taken for the ball to strike the ground D

c) the horizontal distance travelled by the ball before it A

bounced  [Total 3 Marks]
11 Describe the motion of an object represented by each of
the lines A, B, C and D on the graph (Figure 3.14) for:
a) displacement-time graph [4]
b) a velocity-time graph. [4] C

e
 [Total 8 Marks]
Figure 3.14
12 The graph in Figure 3.15 shows the variation of velocity
with time for a body moving in a straight line.
pl 12
Calculate:
velocity/ms–1
a) the acceleration of the body during the final minute
m
b) the total distance travelled in 3 minutes
c) the average velocity over this time. [Total 5 Marks]
13 a) Describe a method of determining the acceleration due
sa

to gravity in the laboratory. Include a labelled diagram 0

0 1 2 3 time/min
of the equipment you would use and describe all the
measurements you would take. [6] Figure 3.15
b) State which of your readings is most likely to have the biggest
effect on the uncertainty of the final answer and explain why. [3]
 [Total 9 Marks]
14 An Olympic ski-jump run has a downhill
slope with a take-off ramp and a landing slope. runway

The ski-jumper jumps upwards to leave

the ramp at an angle θ to the horizontal ramp
and lands at the ‘K-point’ 120 m down the 
landing slope.
The landing slope is at an angle of 36 ° to the landing
slope path of
horizontal with its top point 3.0 m below the jumper
take-off ramp. 120 m

The time taken between take-off and landing K-point

is 4.5 s. 36°

Figure 3.16

43
Exam practice questions

470033_03_P_E_A_Level_Physics_025-044.indd 43 10/04/19 11:00 AM

 a) Calculate:
i) the horizontal distance travelled between take-off and landing [1]
ii) the horizontal component of the take-off velocity [1]
iii) the vertical downward displacement of the jumper [1]
iv) the vertical component of the take-off velocity [1]
v) the take-off angle, θ [1]
vi) the speed of take-off. [1]
b) Explain why the jumper would need a take-off speed much
bigger than this to achieve this distance on this slope. [2]
 [Total 8 Marks]
15 A friction-driven toy car, with an ultrasound emitter attached, is
t/ms s/m
energised and then released on a flat bench. An ultrasound receiver,
0 0
placed at the starting point, is connected to a data logger that
100 0.082
records the displacement from that point at regular time intervals.
The results in the table were displayed on a computer loaded with 200 0.240
suitable software. 300 0.538
400 0.903
a) i) Use the data in the table to plot a graph of displacement

e
500 0.981
against time. [3]
600 1.000
ii) Use your graph to determine values of the velocity of the
car at 100 ms intervals.
pl [3]
iii) Plot a graph of velocity against time. [3]
m
iv) Use your second graph to describe the motion of the car
over the complete journey. [3]
b) The computer program is able to use the data to display
instantaneous values of the velocity at the times used in part (a).
sa

Explain how this is achieved and why it is likely to give more

accurate velocity values than the graphical method. [2]
 [Total 14 Marks]

Stretch and challenge

16 A tennis player returns a shot when the ball is 1.40 m from the net
and 0.20 m above ground. She hits the ball at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal and the ball leaves the racquet with a speed of 12 m s−1.
a) Show that the ball will clear the net, which is 0.90 m high. [6]
The distance from the net to the baseline on the other side is 11.9 m.
The player’s opponent allows the ball to bounce after it has crossed
the net.
b) Determine using suitable calculations whether the ball bounced in
play (short of the baseline) or out of play (beyond the baseline). [4]
Some players apply ‘backspin’ when playing such a shot.
c) Describe how the trajectory of the ball is likely to be affected
by such spin. [2]
 [Total 12 Marks]
44
3 Rectilinear motion

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