Craig Sims, Dana Weber, Chris Johnson - A Guide To Pediatric Anesthesia (2020, Springer International Publishing)

A Guide to Pediatric
Anesthesia
Craig Sims
Dana Weber
Chris Johnson
Editors
Second Edition
123
A Guide to Pediatric Anesthesia
Craig Sims • Dana Weber • Chris Johnson
Editors
A Guide to Pediatric
Anesthesia
Second Edition
Editors
Craig Sims Dana Weber
Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Department of Anaesthesia and Pain
Management Management
Perth Children’s Hospital Perth Children’s Hospital
Nedlands Nedlands
WA WA
Australia Australia
Chris Johnson
Formerly Department of Anaesthesia and
Pain Management
Princess Margaret Hospital for Children
Subiaco
WA
Australia
ISBN 978-3-030-19245-7 ISBN 978-3-030-19246-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

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Ten Current Issues in Pediatric Anesthesia and
Where to Find Them
1. Emergence Delirium
Young children sometimes wake from anesthesia crying and unhappy. There
are many reasons for this, although sevoflurane dysphoria is commonly blamed.
See Chap. 2.
2. The Uncooperative Child
Many children become anxious during induction of anesthesia, and their anxi-
ety may cause them to become uncooperative. There are many ways to reduce
children’s anxiety. See Chap. 3.
3. Videolaryngoscopes
Many types of videolaryngoscopes are now available in sizes suitable for chil-
dren. Their use is being informed by new studies, including the PediRegistry
study of difficult airway management in children. See Chap. 4.
4. Reducing Perioperative Respiratory Complications
Respiratory complications are the leading cause of morbidity in pediatric anes-
thesia, and there has been a surge in studies looking at the risk factors for them
and how to modify the risk. See Chap. 11.
5. Shorter Fasting Times for Clear Fluids
It is now realized clear fluids leave the stomach quickly, and allowing them up
to 1 h or less before anesthesia has become common. See Chap. 5.
6. Neurotoxicity of Anesthetic Agents
There is laboratory evidence that many anesthetic agents, including volatiles,
affect the developing brain of neonates. See Chap. 2.
7. The Airway
Many anesthetists do not like caring for children because of difficulties manag-
ing the pediatric airway. See Chap. 4 for many practical tips.
8. RSI and Cricoid Pressure
The adult technique of rapid sequence induction is dangerous if directly applied
to young children. There are calls to abandon the technique and cricoid pressure
altogether. See Chap. 1.
v
vi Ten Current Issues in Pediatric Anesthesia and Where to Find Them
9. Reducing Pain and Distress During Procedures

Holding a child down to perform a procedure is becoming less and less accept-
able. Many techniques and drugs are now used to make procedures more com-
fortable and less distressing for the child, parents, and staff. See Chap. 27.
10. Hypotonic IV Fluids for Children
Hypotonic, dextrose-containing solutions have been traditionally used for IV
fluids in children. The risk of hyponatremia from these fluids is so high that
salt-rich fluids are recommended nowadays. See Chap. 5.
Useful Formulae in Pediatric Anesthesia
Weight
Body weight for infants = (age in months/2) + 4 kg (APLS)

Body weight for children 1–10 years = (age + 4) × 2 kg (UK Resuscitation
Council)
Body weight for children older than 10 years = age × 3.3 kg (large variation in
normal adolescent weight however) (APLS)
Blood Pressure
Expected systolic blood pressure for children older than 1 year = 80 + (age in
years × 2) mmHg.
Fluids
Maintenance fluid rate in mL/h: (4:2:1 rule)

4 mL/kg first 10 kg weight + 2 mL/kg next 10 kg weight + 1 mL/kg for rest of
weight (e.g., for a 19 kg child: (10 × 4) + (9 × 2) = 58 mL/h).
Minimum 10% dextrose infusion for neonate day one (4 mg/kg/min) in
mL/h = 2.5 × weight in kg (e.g., 3 kg neonate needs at least 7.5 mL/h 10%
dextrose)
ETT Size
Uncuffed ETT size for a child over 2 years: Age/4 + 4 = ETT size (inside diameter,
mm) (modified Cole formula)
Cuffed ETT size for a child over 2 years: Age/4 + 3.5 = ETT size (ID, mm)
(Motoyama formula)
vii
viii Useful Formulae in Pediatric Anesthesia
ETT Depth
Position at vocal cords = ID size of ETT (e.g., 4.5 ETT should be 4.5 cm at vocal
cords)
Oral ETT length (at lips in cm) = age/2 + 12
Nasal ETT length (at nostril in cm) = age/2 + 15 (and diameter of correct-size
nasal ETT same as oral ETT for children)
Neonates: Oral ETT length (at lips in cm) = weight(kg) + 6
Neonates: Nasal ETT length (at lips in cm) = (weight(kg) × 1.5) + 7
Suction Catheter for ETT
Size of suction catheter for ETT (in French Gauge) = 2 × size of ETT (ID)
Urinary Catheter
Urinary catheter size (FG) = 2 × size of ETT (ID)
CVC
Depth for central line placement in right IJV = 10% of height (e.g., 8 cm in an 80 cm
long child)
Contents
1 An Overview of Pediatric Anesthesia �� 1

Craig Sims and Tanya Farrell
2 Pharmacology of Anesthetic Agents in Children�� 27
Craig Sims and John Thompson
3 Behavioral Management of Children�� 55
Craig Sims and Lisa Khoo
4 Airway Management in Children�� 77
Britta von Ungern-Sternberg and Craig Sims
5 Fluid Management in Children Undergoing Surgery
and Anesthesia�� 115
Ric Bergesio and Marlene Johnson
6 Equipment and Monitoring for Pediatric Anesthesia�� 135
Craig Sims and Tom Flett
7 Resuscitation and Emergency Drugs �� 155
Philip Russell
8 Crises and Other Scenarios in Pediatric Anesthesia�� 181
Tom Rawlings and Tom Flett
9 Acute Pain Management in Children�� 199
Priya Thalayasingam and Dana Weber
10 Regional Anesthesia for Infants and Children�� 221
Chris Johnson and Chris Gibson
11 Respiratory Illnesses and Their Influence on Anesthesia
in Children�� 241
Britta von Ungern-Sternberg and David Sommerfield
12 Chronic Disease of Childhood�� 259
Alison Carlyle and Soo-Im Lim
ix
x Contents
13 Congenital Syndromes and Conditions�� 281

Prani Shrivastava and Dana Weber
14 Neonatal Anesthesia �� 287
Chris Johnson and Dan Durack
15 Anesthesia for Pediatric General Surgery �� 315
Claudia Rebmann
16 Anesthesia for Ear, Nose and Throat Surgery in Children�� 335
Ian Forsyth and Rohan Mahendran
17 Bronchoscopy and Removal of Foreign Bodies from
the Trachea �� 351
Marlene Johnson and Craig Sims
18 Anesthesia for Dental Procedures in Children�� 365
Lisa Khoo
19 Anesthesia for Orthopedic Surgery in Children �� 373
Martyn Lethbridge and Erik Anderson
20 Congenital Heart Disease�� 381
Serge Kaplanian
21 Anesthesia for Thoracic Surgery in Children�� 397
Neil Chambers and Siva Subramaniam
22 Anesthesia for Plastic Surgery in Children �� 405
Rohan Mahendran
23 Pediatric Neuroanesthesia�� 411
Mairead Heaney
24 Anesthesia for Ophthalmic Surgery�� 421
Elaine Christiansen
25 Trauma and Burns �� 427
Mary Hegarty
26 Malignancy and Treatment of Malignancies in Children�� 443
Bruce Hullett
27 Procedural Sedation: Anesthesia and Sedation of Children
Away from the OR �� 453
Tanya Farrell
28 Central Venous and Arterial Access for Children �� 465
Neil Chambers and Yu-Ping Chen
29 The Child at Risk: Child Protection and the Anesthetist �� 475
Craig Sims and Dana Weber
Contents xi
30 Pediatric Intensive Care�� 479

Daniel Alexander
31 A Selection of Clinical Scenarios�� 493
Dana Weber and Craig Sims
32 Glossary of Syndromes and Diseases �� 503
Charlotte Jorgensen
33 Short-Answer Questions from Past FANZCA
and FRCA Examinations�� 515
Craig Sims
Index�� 521
An Overview of Pediatric Anesthesia
1
Craig Sims and Tanya Farrell
‘Pediatric’ or ‘child’ applies to someone aged less than 18 years. The American
Academy of Pediatrics defines ‘pediatric’ as less than 21 years, while some centers
use 16 years. An infant is a child aged between 1 and 12 months. The term ‘neonate’
applies to the first 4 weeks of life. Children make up a quarter of the population in
most Western countries and a higher proportion in developing countries. Pediatric
anesthesia is very common—5.5% of children have an anesthetic each year, and
about half are preschool age. The commonest indication for anesthesia is ENT sur-
gery, but children often need anesthesia for procedures such as scans and dental
treatment that an adult would tolerate without anesthesia.
Pediatric anesthetists have several special attributes described by the late Dr.
Kester Brown: they have expertise in caring for neonates and infants during anesthe-
sia and surgery; they understand the anesthetic implications of congenital disease
and disability; and they have knowledge of the psychological, physiological, phar-
macological and anatomical differences with age.
1.1 Safety of Pediatric Anesthesia
Anesthesia for children has become very safe. Parents can be reassured that the pro-
fession has taken many steps over the years to reduce risk. These steps include analy-
sis of past incidents (anesthesia was the first specialty to perform incident monitoring),
embracing new monitoring technologies, improved specialist training and taking
C. Sims (*) ∙ T. Farrell

Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management, Perth Children’s Hospital,
Nedlands, WA, Australia
e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au; Tanya.Farrell@health.wa.gov.au
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

C. Sims et al. (eds.), A Guide to Pediatric Anesthesia,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_1
2 C. Sims and T. Farrell
advantage of safer drugs. The overall mortality from anesthesia alone in a healthy,
older child is approximately 1 in 50,000 to 1 in 100,000. Tertiary pediatric centers
report overall mortality at 24 h after anesthesia and surgery at about 13 per 10,000
anesthetics. Anesthesia-related mortality in this group is reported as 0.7 per 10,000.
Morbidity is common with anesthesia in children. More than half of critical inci-
dents are respiratory incidents and are mostly airway related such as laryngospasm,
bronchospasm, hypoxia, and hypoventilation. The risk increases with decreasing
age, because of smaller airway diameter and a predisposition to develop apnea and
airway obstruction from airway irritation (Fig. 1.1). Infants and young children also
desaturate rapidly. Children 3 years and younger have a higher risk than older chil-
dren. Infants are particularly at risk, with critical incidents four times more likely
compared to older children. Surveys show critical incidents (again most commonly
respiratory) occurring in 3–5% of infants. Risk is also increased by underlying
pathology including congenital disease, the urgency of the procedure, and the hos-
pital setting (Table 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 The incidence of

6
critical respiratory events
(those requiring immediate
Incidence of critical respiratory event (%)
intervention and that led

(or could have led) to
major disability or death)
during anesthesia in 4
children of different age
groups. Based on data from
APRICOT study, Lancet
Respir Med 2017;
5:412–25
2
<1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Age (y)
Table 1.1 Patient, surgical and anesthetist factors that may increase the risk of anesthesia in
children
Factors increasing risk of morbidity and mortality
High risk Medium risk Low risk
Age Neonates, infants 1–3 years >3 years
ASA status 3–5 2 (includes recent 1
URTI)
Surgery Cardiothoracic, neurosurgery, Airway and dental
Peripheral, minor
scoliosis surgery surgery surgery
Emergency surgery Increases risk
Experience of the Increased risk with small case load of children of similar age to patient
anaesthetist
1 An Overview of Pediatric Anesthesia 3
Keypoint
Most critical incidents are respiratory and airway related. Proficiency in air-
way management is the cornerstone of safe pediatric anesthesia practice.
The risk of morbidity is lower if the anesthetist is experienced and has a large
pediatric case load (Table 1.2). Although there are no formal requirements for anes-
thetists caring for children, it is generally agreed that practitioners anesthetizing
children aged 3 years and less should regularly anesthetize this age group, and anes-
thetists caring for children aged less than 1 year should regularly anesthetize infants.
Neonatal anesthesia should be performed by those who have a fellowship in pediat-
ric anesthesia.
Keypoint
Children aged less than 3 years, and especially aged less than 1 year are at a
higher risk from anesthesia than older children.
1.2 Organization of Services
If you are anesthetizing a child in a non-pediatric hospital it is important to make

sure it is safe to do so. Several factors determine if a child can be safely cared for at
a particular facility. Broadly, there are factors relating to the patient and the type of
surgery planned (Table 1.3), and factors relating to the hospital such as the level of
staffing, equipment and facilities (Table 1.4). An older child undergoing day stay
surgery has different health facility requirements compared with an infant with
coexisting medical problems requiring overnight admission after surgery.
The Australian and New Zealand College (ANZCA) guideline PS29 (2019) and
the United Kingdom College guidelines (2018) discuss staffing for the care of chil-
dren in non-pediatric hospitals. These policies particularly apply to infants and neo-
nates because of their greater risk. Anesthetists looking after children should have
Table 1.2 The pediatric Number of anesthetics given per year Complications
caseload of the anesthetist 1–100 children 7/1000
affects the rate of 100–200 children 2.8/1000
complications More than 200 children 1.3/1000
Based on Auroy and Ecoffey, Anesth Analg 1997
Table 1.3 Patient factors to consider in Patient factor

determining level of staff and facilities needed to Age of child, esp. if <12 months
safely care for children Type of surgery
ASA status/General health of the child
Overnight admission
Emergency procedure
Table 1.4 Summary of requirements to safely anesthetize children (based on ANZCA PS29 and
RCOA guidelines)
Organization of services
Staff Experience and case load to maintain competency in relevant ages and case
mix of:
anesthetist
assistant
recovery
ward nurses
Equipment In addition to equipment and facilities needed to safely anesthetize adult patients:
Size-appropriate breathing circuit, airway equipment and monitoring
Anesthetic machine and ventilator suitable for ages of children being
anesthetized
Suitable fluid administration devices (may include burette)
Resuscitation drugs and equipment (including defibrillator and pads suitable
for children)
Ability to control temperature of OR
Beds and cots suitable to contain child and prevent falls
Facilities Ability for parents to accompany child to theater and be present in recovery
Separated areas from adults-wards, OR, PACU
Accommodation for parents if overnight admission
Links to tertiary pediatric centers for advice and transfer of patients if
postoperative problems occur
Pharmacy knowledgeable in pediatric doses
Acute pain service, HDU/ICU if relevant to case-mix
Governance Local hospital group with oversight of scope of practice and suitability of staff
involved
Local protocols and regulations for selection of patients and aspects of their care
Gradual implementation of any changes and ongoing quality assurance
training in the relevant age group, and should not anesthetize children if they are not
comfortable to do so due to either lack of recent experience or inadequate case load.
Having a second anesthetist to help should be considered for infants and children
ASA3 status or higher. The anesthetic assistant and perioperative staff should have
training in the care of children. Not all children can be cared for in tertiary chil-
dren’s hospitals, so most countries have networks in which information, guidelines
and training are exchanged between central specialist and peripheral general hospi-
tals. As part of this, there is generally a lead consultant to oversee provision of
pediatric anesthetic services in general hospitals.
1.3 Preoperative Assessment
As in adults, assessment of children before anesthesia includes a history and exami-

nation, aiming to assess previous anesthetic problems and the severity of co-existing
diseases. It is also an opportunity to establish rapport with the child and parents,
assess the child’s behavior and reassure the parents with your manner and profes-
sionalism. Most children are healthy and active, although there is always the possi-
bility of an unrecognized abnormality or syndrome. Some children have dysmorphic
Table 1.5 Facial dysmorphic features that Dysmorphic feature

may indicate a congenital syndrome Widely spaced eyes (hypertelorism)
Beaked or other nose abnormality
Low hairline on forehead
Low slung or malformed ears
Craniosynostosis
Microcephaly
features suggesting an underlying syndrome (Table 1.5). If a child has one congeni-
tal malformation it is more likely that there will be another. Common conditions to
specifically ask about include preterm delivery, recent upper respiratory tract infec-
tion, obstructive sleep disorder, developmental concerns and bleeding disorders.
Examination needs to take into consideration the modesty of the child, particu-
larly with school-aged children and adolescents. Examination may occasionally
reveal a previously unrecognized heart murmur (see Chap. 20, Sect. 20.3.1), signs of
asthma or URTI (see Chap. 11, Sects. 11.2 and 11.3), or loose teeth. The most impor-
tant aspect of airway assessment is mandibular size (see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2).
Investigations such as hemoglobin, CXR and urinalysis are not routinely performed
in healthy children undergoing minor surgery. Hemoglobin is not tested because sig-
nificant anemia is rare in children and mild anemia does not affect the decision to
proceed with anesthesia. Some centers use the Sickledex test in patients at risk of
sickle cell anemia.
Pre-anesthetic clinics are not always used for healthy children. Clinics are
unlikely to reveal significant medical problems, are inconvenient for the family, and
do not influence the most likely reason for cancellation of surgery, which is a viral
illness just before surgery. Assessment is commonly by a telephone interview before
admission and review by the anesthetist on the day of surgery. However, this
approach reduces the time available for informed consent for anesthesia.
1.3.1 Loose Teeth
Children lose deciduous teeth from 5 years of age. A very loose tooth may dislodge
and be aspirated during anesthesia and is sometimes removed (with parental permis-
sion) after induction. The tooth needs to be very loose before trying this, and usually
has no visible root (it is resorbed). If the tooth is not very loose it can be surprisingly
difficult and unpleasant to remove, and the gum may bleed. A tooth that is not on the
verge of falling out can be watched carefully during airway manipulation and
checked at the end of the case to make sure it has not been dislodged.
1.4 Consent
The legal age for consent is usually between 16 and 18 years, depending on the
jurisdiction. Consent for a child is therefore obtained from the parent or legal guard-
ian. However, there is growing recognition of the rights of younger people. It is
usual to at least obtain the assent (permission) to proceed with anesthesia and sur-
gery in older school aged children, even though they may not be able to give legal
consent. Further complicating this area is the increasing recognition by courts of
children’s abilities to make their own decisions about treatment. Some health areas
have policies in place that allow children as young as 14 years to consent to treat-
ment. However, these policies are not a replacement for laws and it is still usual to
obtain parental consent when the child is younger than 16–18 years.
Young people at 16 years of age have the legal ability in most countries to make
decisions about their own care, and they must be presumed to be competent to make
such decisions unless it can be shown otherwise. A valid refusal of surgery by a
child who is competent should usually be respected. Legal advice should be sought
if the procedure is felt to be in their best interests despite their refusal, especially if
the refusal of treatment could result in death or serious harm.
Children younger than 16 years can consent if they demonstrate Gillick-
competency. The Gillick competency test establishes the legal principles to decide
a child’s ability to make health care decisions. The Gillick case considered consent
for prescription of the oral contraceptive to a 16 year old girl, and whether or not a
parent’s permission was required. The findings of this case have been used to deter-
mine consent issues in general. For a child to be deemed competent to decide about
their healthcare they must have the ability to understand the factual, moral and emo-
tional consequences of their decision. Competence is not reliant on a fixed age, and
competence for one situation does not imply competence for all. The child’s age is
still considered—the younger the child, the less likely the child can understand the
implications of their decision and be considered Gillick-competent.
Keypoint
Although some adolescents are mature enough to consent to anesthesia and
surgery, it is wise to obtain the parent’s consent in most perioperative
situations.
In certain life-threatening circumstances, society allows the wishes of a child or

the parents to be overridden. This is firstly because a child is unlikely to compe-
tently rationalize life and death decisions, especially when they are so easily influ-
enced by authority figures. Secondly, society is unwilling to allow any person to
make life and death decisions for someone else, including one’s own child. Hence
laws make it possible in an emergency to override the wishes of a person aged less
than 18 years. The exact legal mechanisms for this vary between jurisdictions, and
the involvement of the hospital’s medical administrator is usual. These emergency
provisions only apply if the procedure is critical and life-saving—a blood transfu-
sion in severe hypovolemic shock may be permitted, but not force feeding an
anorexic child who is not critically ill. As a practical matter, it is best to negotiate a
compromise before proceeding to the courts for permission. Consent to treatment is
more likely to be given when the child’s and parent’s wishes and concerns are
considered.
Fortunately for pediatric anesthetists, consent issues are usually resolved by the
time a child presents for surgery. However, consent issues for anesthetists may arise
at the time of induction—is it reasonable to proceed when the child withdraws their
hand from the IV cannula, or pushes away the facemask? Children older than about
8–10 years who are developmentally normal probably should not be restrained. Fear
is often a large part of the child’s refusal, and this can be allayed with discussion,
parental involvement, involvement of play therapists in children having many anes-
thetics, and pharmacological premedication if agreed. Younger children are proba-
bly not able to understand the importance of their treatment and it may be reasonable
to restrain the child and proceed if other strategies fail. Supervising the parent to
help restrain a younger child can help parents to accept this course of action.
Although restraining a 2 or 3 year old child is straightforward and not uncommon,
restraining a young school-aged child is unpleasant for the child, parent and staff,
and should be avoided as much as possible by paying attention to the behavioral
management aspects of the child. The age beyond which restraint is not reasonable
depends on many surgical, patient, practical, societal and reality factors. A great
deal of judgement is involved from case to case. Sometimes during induction, a
decision must be made quickly to take one path or another before the child’s coop-
eration deteriorates further.
1.4.1 Blood Transfusion in a Jehovah’s Witness Child
A blood transfusion critical to survival of the child (usually as determined by more

than one doctor) can be given legally without the consent of the parents. In fact,
doctors have a legal obligation not to allow a child to die by withholding treatment.
In the elective situation, children older than 14–16 years may be able to refuse a
transfusion themselves, but the legality of this would need to be determined before
proceeding with surgery.
When a child’s parents refuse permission for a blood transfusion, they are usu-
ally only trying to do what is best for their child. Indeed, anesthetists should be
trying to minimize blood transfusion in every child-there are many risks of transfu-
sion, and children have a long life ahead for these risks to become apparent.
Confrontation over this issue can be minimized by listening to the parents, telling
them all the things that you will do to try and avoid blood products, and telling them
that you are legally obliged not to let their child die. There is no need to force par-
ents to explicitly agree with this plan and thus refute their own beliefs. There is also
little to be gained from a confrontation with parents who are under stress about their
child’s anesthesia and surgery when the likelihood of transfusion is extremely low.
As medical providers, the legal obligation is straightforward and most parents are
aware of this. Ongoing argument serves only to put parents and sometimes the child
under further stress.
1.5 Intravenous Access
A short 24G or 22G cannula in the dorsum of the hand is the commonest method of
securing IV access in children. The finer 24G cannula may be more difficult to
insert, but it is less likely to be felt by the child. The lack of feeling may allow a
second attempt to insert the IV if the first attempt failed. The 24G cannula is the
usual size for neonates and small infants, but in older children it tends to kink when
the child moves post op.
1.5.1 Positioning of the Awake Child for IV Access
Tapes and equipment should be prepared before inserting the cannula to facilitate
quick fixation, as the child may move and dislodge the cannula. If the child lies on
the bed, blankets can be placed to hide their hand and restrict movement. Younger
children can also sit across the parent’s lap, with the child’s arm brought under the
parent’s arm (Fig. 1.2). This position hides the hand from the view of the child and
parent and helps to keep the hand still by placing the child at a mechanical
disadvantage.
1.5.2 Assistance
A good assistant is vital to maximize the chances of successful venipuncture. Just

using a tourniquet for a young child is unlikely to work. It is important that the
assistant holds the child’s hand and arm correctly, aiming to distend the veins and
prevent withdrawal of the child’s hand. The assistant needs to hold the forearm tight
enough to act as a tourniquet, but not so tight that the hand turns white from arterial
compression. The assistant also gently retracts the child’s skin up the limb, which
helps to fix the vein. The assistant’s other hand can be placed across the child’s
elbow joint, which helps prevent sudden limb movement if the child feels the needle
(Fig. 1.3). The anesthetist can stabilize their own arm by resting their elbow on
something to compensate for sudden movements by the child.
1.5.3 Tips for Venipuncture
If no veins are visible, using the index finger to very gently feel the dorsum of the
hand may detect the faint bulge of an underlying vein. It is best to try this before
using antiseptic, as this makes the skin very slightly sticky and much harder to feel
subtle variations. Sometimes a faint blue tinge can be seen as an indication of a vein.
The child’s feet can also be used for induction. IV insertion in the foot, however, is
more painful than in the hand. An IV can be left in the foot for post op use depend-
ing on the child’s age, length of stay and postoperative ambulation.
Seated parent, back to

anaesthetist and with
child sideways on lap.
Child’s arm brought
under parent’s arm and
behind parent’s back
Assistant stabilising
child’s arm and acting
as a tourniquet
Anaesthetist holding
child’s hand for cannula
insertion
Fig. 1.2 Positioning the clingy or uncooperative toddler for insertion of an IV. All equipment,
including tape, is prepared beforehand. The child sits sideways across the seated parent’s lap
and is distracted with stickers or a toy. The parent’s arm hugs the child’s back and the child’s
arm is brought under the parent’s arm. An assistant stabilizes the child’s arm and squeezes it as
a tourniquet. The anesthetist holds the child’s hand and stabilizes it for insertion of the
cannula
Some veins are constant in position and can be accessed on the basis of land-
marks only. These sites are:
1. The long saphenous vein just in front of the medial malleolus—feel for the
groove in the malleolus that contains the vein.
2. Between the fourth and fifth metacarpal bones on the dorsum of the hand;
3. The cephalic vein on the lateral aspect of the forearm—it tends to be in line with
the skin crease between the thumb and index finger, 1–3 cm proximal to the wrist.
Injection of air bubbles is always avoided in children as they may have undiag-
nosed congenital heart disease or a patent foramen ovale allowing bubbles to cross
into the arterial circulation. Care to remove air bubbles is required every time a
venous line is used.
Assistant
gently retracts
Assistant’s hand
child’s skin
encircling and stabilising
child’s arm and acting
as tourniquet
Anaesthetist
stabilising child’s
hand while
inserting IV
cannula
Fig. 1.3 The assistant’s hand encircles the child’s forearm. It acts as a tourniquet, retracts the skin
on the dorsum of the hand, and prevents the child pulling away
1.5.4 Equipment to Find Veins
Transillumination with visible light can help find veins in some neonates. Several
devices use near infrared light to highlight veins. These are sometimes useful for
superficial veins, but do not necessarily increase the rate of first attempt success.
They have not been rigorously studied and are difficult to recommend. Ultrasound
is useful for vascular access, but not so much for superficial, collapsible veins on the
dorsum of the hand. Nevertheless, in difficult cases it can help identify veins in the
cubital fossa, forearm or saphenous vein. Some have suggested using a thin gel pad
between the probe and skin to increase the distance between the probe and vein, and
to reduce compression of the vein by the probe.
1.6 Induction
Both inhalational and intravenous induction are suitable for children, and there is
often an institutional preference for one or the other. There are advantages and dis-
advantages to each induction type (Table 1.6). IV induction became more popular
after the introduction of topical anesthetic creams. However, an IV can still be sited
using nitrous oxide/oxygen and distraction. Possibly the greatest advantage of the
IV induction is that IV access is present from the outset, and IV inductions have a
lower incidence of adverse respiratory events compared to inhalational induction.
Some children still hate needles even though they may be old enough to under-
stand the anesthetic cream will work. Inhalational induction requires skill in distrac-
tion and behavioral management to enable the child to keep the mask on long
enough for the volatile agent to work. Parental presence at induction is standard in
most pediatric hospitals and is discussed in the Chap. 3.
During induction, there is a period in which the child can be distracted and kept
calm, but after which stress and fear can make the induction increasingly difficult.
It is important to be organized with an induction plan, to brief your assistant before
starting and make sure that all equipment is ready to use.
1.6.1 Inhalational Induction
Sevoflurane is the only available inhalational agent suitable for induction. A routine
induction includes 66% nitrous oxide in oxygen for 20–40 s, followed by 8% sevo-
flurane. The timing of nitrous administration is critical—if too short, the child may
reject the mask when sevoflurane is started, and if too long the child will either lose
interest and cooperation or become dysphoric from the nitrous oxide. Induction is
possible without nitrous, but it is more likely that the mask will be rejected. If the
T-piece is used for induction, it is best to give the child a few breaths at 0.5% sevo-
flurane before increasing to 8% (the fresh gas flow enters T-piece very close to the
facemask, and the sudden smell of 8% sevoflurane may be noticed by the child). In
a circle circuit, sevoflurane washes into the circuit more slowly and can be started at
Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of IV and inhalational induction

IV induction Inhalational induction
IV access present No needle
Less cooperation from child required Gradual loss of airway
Less excitatory movement No pain from propofol
No smelly gas Faster wake up than after IV induction
Less pollution Parent can see what is happening to child
8% after nitrous oxide has been given as before. There is no need to incrementally
increase the sevoflurane during induction as this slows induction and increases
excitatory phenomena. The child’s cooperation is needed for a calm inhalational
induction, and techniques to help achieve this are discussed in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.4.
Keypoint
There is no need to incrementally increase sevoflurane concentration during
gas induction—this slows induction and increases the incidence of excitatory
phenomena. The incremental technique is a hangover from the technique of
halothane induction.
Some airway obstruction is common after consciousness is lost due partly to

excitatory phenomena that occur with sevoflurane (see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.6.5), and
partly due to loss of upper airway tone. CPAP and gentle jaw thrust are used to
overcome this. Nitrous oxide can be eliminated at this stage if desired and sevoflu-
rane given in 100% oxygen. An oral airway should not be inserted at this stage. It is
important to maintain the sevoflurane at 8% until a deeper level of anesthesia is
reached and this partly obstructed, excitatory stage has ended. Listening to the heart
rate and observing tidal volume will also give a guide to depth and the need to
reduce the sevoflurane concentration. Cardiovascular depression occurs with high
concentrations of sevoflurane, but in these early stages of inhalational induction it is
the airway that will cause problems, not hypotension.
1.6.2 Intravenous Induction
IV access is obtained and anesthesia is induced with propofol. Co-induction tech-

niques using benzodiazepines and opioids are uncommonly used in children because
it is less important in children to blunt the hemodynamic responses to induction and
intubation, and the priority is often to induce an upset child as quickly as possible.
Preoxygenation and application of monitors before induction are omitted in many
centers to reduce the child’s anxiety.
1.6.3 Rapid Sequence Induction
The classic rapid sequence induction technique used in adults is not suitable for
children. Children quickly become hypoxic during apnea, and although preoxygen-
ation can reduce this, children may be difficult to preoxygenate correctly. The con-
sequence of these factors is a hurried, ‘crash’ intubation with the risk of morbidity.
Children must be gently mask- ventilated between induction and intubation. Cricoid
pressure protects the stomach from inflation during mask ventilation. If mask
ventilation cannot be achieved during cricoid pressure, the pressure is reduced or it

is removed completely if ventilation is still difficult.
Keypoint
The adult technique of RSI with apnea before intubation is a dangerous tech-
nique in children. RSI in children includes gentle mask ventilation before
intubation.
The technique of RSI is now questioned as it prioritizes aspiration over everything

else and increases other risks. These risks include hypoxia, awareness, hemodynamic
changes, and a hurried, traumatic intubation that may be more stressful and difficult
than it might otherwise have been. The role of cricoid pressure is also questioned, as
there is no clear evidence it is of benefit. It is difficult to perform correctly, and ana-
tomical variations mean even properly performed cricoid might not compress the
esophagus. Young children have a soft, compliant trachea and cricoid pressure can
obstruct their airway. As a result, cricoid pressure is often omitted in neonates and
infants, and some anesthetists also omit it in older children. Head-up tilt and the child’s
lower esophageal sphincter tone are relied on instead of cricoid pressure. Cricoid pres-
sure is still strongly recommended in children with intestinal obstruction.
Keypoint
Cricoid pressure is often omitted in neonates and infants because it com-
presses and obstructs the soft trachea. Its role in older children is also being
questioned. Cricoid pressure is still recommended in children with intestinal
obstruction.
Classic rapid sequence induction includes intubation within 1 min of induction.

In children, ‘rapid’ does not need to be so rapid because there is mask ventilation
and no period of apnea to manage. Whether intubation is performed within 1 min or
a longer period becomes less important. Some authors argue it is more important to
check there is complete muscle relaxation before intubation, rather than intubating
within an arbitrary time. As a result, the rapid onset of muscle relaxation becomes
less important. Although suxamethonium may be used for rapid sequence induction
in children, non-depolarizing relaxants are commonly used—they have a relatively
fast onset in children and ventilation with volatile anesthetic agents before intuba-
tion enhances their effect. The high doses of relaxants used in adults is not neces-
sary in younger children.
Finally, use of a rapid sequence induction does not mandate a cuffed ETT. Either
a cuffed or uncuffed ETT may be chosen for children with full stomachs—uncuffed
ETTs have a long history of safe use in children in this situation. If suxamethonium
has been used to facilitate intubation with an uncuffed ETT that then needs to be
changed because of excessive leak, consider giving a long-acting relaxant before the
tube change. Many would re-apply the cricoid pressure during the tube change if it
was used for the initial intubation.
1.7 Maintenance
The choice of technique during maintenance follows the same principles as with
adults. The choice of airway management and type of ventilation depends on a vari-
ety of patient, procedure and anesthetic factors. Neonates and small infants are com-
monly intubated and ventilated for all but the briefest case. Otherwise great care
must be taken with the issues of rebreathing, respiratory muscle fatigue, and loss of
a clear airway. Furthermore, as the patient is so small, the surgical field is close to the
airway and it is difficult to instrument the airway during surgery if problems arise.
Another important difference between children (especially preschool age) and
adults is that more care is required during maintenance to ensure calm and safe
emergence. Pain and delirium are two important reasons for children waking upset
and distressed, and these can be minimized during maintenance. Unlike adults who
may suffer in silence from inadequate analgesia, children will let everyone know if
they are uncomfortable or distressed.
1.7.1 Hypothermia
Hypothermia during anesthesia is common in both children and adults. Children,

however, are more at risk—they have a large surface area relative to body weight, so
heat production is relatively low compared to environmental losses. Infants and
neonates also have reduced ability to generate heat because of absent or reduced
shivering. A child’s head is large in proportion to the rest of the body, and the head
is a site of significant heat loss if it is not covered.
Most heat is lost through the skin via radiation and convection. Losses are mini-
mized by keeping the child covered, warming the OR (typically to about 21 °C for
children, higher for neonates) and using a forced air warmer.
Conductive heat loss may be large if gel pads are placed under the child to pre-
vent pressure injuries. These gel pads are made of dense visco-elastic polymer with
a large thermal mass and will draw heat from the child. They should either not be
used, or pre-warmed with a forced air warmer. Only about 10% of heat loss is
through the airway, and passive humidification is adequate in pediatric anesthesia.
Equipment to keep children warm during surgery is discussed in the Chap. 5.
1.8 Recovery
The facilities required for pediatric recovery are the same as for adults and are cov-
ered in professional and College guidelines. Staff should have experience in pediat-
ric recovery and receive ongoing training in resuscitation. Staffing numbers in
pediatric recovery need to be higher as even an awake child needs to be watched

closely. For example, a child may try to climb out of their cot or bed. As in theater,
pediatric recovery requires the full-size range of airway and resuscitation
equipment.
Parents are usually allowed into recovery. This requires staff to escort them into
recovery, having enough room around the bed space for them, and a method to
ensure privacy for other patients. Most centers wait until the child is awake and not
at risk of airway problems before allowing the parent in.
1.8.1 Common Recovery Problems
1.8.1.1 Emergence Delirium and Agitation

Children will soon let everyone know if they wake up sore or unhappy. Anesthetists
looking after children are careful to ensure good analgesia on awakening. Children
can be agitated when they wake up for many different reasons, however pain is the
most important one to exclude before considering other causes (Table 1.7). Agitated
children cry and are unhappy, but are consolable, recognize their parent and can
usually communicate. This is quite different to a child with delirium.
Emergence delirium is a drug-induced disorientation. The reported incidence
varies enormously because of differences in definition, but is typically up to 18% in
children 3–7 years old. The child cries or screams, may be hallucinating, is uncoop-
erative, inconsolable and thrashes around. The child often does not appear to recog-
nize their parent. This scenario is different to children who are agitated children for
other reasons—they cry and are unhappy, but are consolable, recognize their parent
and can usually communicate. Delirium begins as the child awakens and usually
lasts less than 30 min, although it can be longer. It is common in preschool-aged
children, especially preschool aged boys, after anesthesia with sevoflurane and des-
flurane. Other risk factors are listed in Table 1.8. Midazolam may cause emergence
delirium in some children, particularly when used at higher doses in young children
for short procedures, when the child is still affected by midazolam at the time of
wake-up.
The Cochrane review found four effective ways of reducing emergence delirium:
propofol, fentanyl, dexmedetomidine and clonidine. Propofol anesthesia is the most
Table 1.7 Causes of a child Cause of agitation at awakening

waking agitated and crying Pain; full bladder
after anesthesia Unfamiliar surroundings; feeling unwell or out of sorts;
parent not present
Hungry; bad taste in mouth
Hypoxia
Delirium
Difficult induction; child’s temperament
Although the terms ‘emergence delirium’ and ‘emergence
agitation’ are often used interchangeably, emergence
delirium tends to refer to the anesthesia-induced disorien-
tation, and agitation to a broad group of causes for an
unhappy child at wake-up
Table 1.8 Signs indicating a child is likely to have emergence delirium, and factors making emer-
gence delirium more likely to happen after anesthesia
Signs of emergence delirium Risk factors
No eye contact Patient:
Non-purposeful movement Preschool age, especially boys
Unaware of surroundings or parent Child’s temperament, particularly anxiety
Restless, inconsolable
Surgery:
ENT and ophthalmology
Anesthesia:
Emergence from sevoflurane or desflurane
Rapid awakening
Midazolam in some children
Fig. 1.4 The effect of Sevoflurane Effect on

propofol on emergence
Propofol emergence delirium
delirium when used alone
or in conjunction with Not effective
Sevoflurane control
sevoflurane anesthesia.
From D Costi, Australian Effective
Propofol TIVA
and New Zealand College
of Anaesthetists Annual Sevoflurane induction only Effective
Scientific Meeting,
Adelaide 2015 Propofol induction only Not effective
Propofol bolus during Not effective
Propofol 1 mg/kg at end Sometimes effective
Propofol 3 mg/kg transition late Effective
effective way of preventing emergence delirium. The greater the proportion of anes-
thesia that is propofol, the better the effect (Fig. 1.4). Fentanyl is effective and worth
giving to at-risk children, even if a regional block is adequate for analgesia. Any
increased risk of PONV from fentanyl can be effectively reduced. Dexmedetomidine
is expensive, making clonidine an attractive alternative. Clonidine however, is not
effective in reducing emergence delirium after tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy.
Treatment begins with eliminating other causes including hypoxia (although it
can be difficult to get accurate oximeter readings on a thrashing child) and pain.
Reassure the parents who are usually very distressed at seeing their child behaving
like this and ensure that the child avoids injury. Most children just need observation
and time to settle, but others benefit from intervention. Consider small doses of
propofol 0.5–2 mg/kg (ensuring equipment is available in case of apnea), IV cloni-
dine (0.5–1 μg/kg), or fentanyl 0.5–1 μg/kg. Ketamine or dexmedetomidine may
also be effective, but midazolam is not. It often helps if the child sleeps again for 10
or 15 min and re-awakens gradually. Sedation calms the child but also gives the
recovery staff and parents time to regroup from what can be a very harrowing
experience.
1.8.1.2 Oxygen Dependence

A proportion of children require oxygen to maintain their oxygen saturation at 96%
or above. Oxygen is given by facemask or with a mask nearby (‘blow-by’ oxygen).
Most children won’t tolerate nasal prongs. Small infants can be given oxygen using
a nasopharyngeal catheter and flow rates of 1 L/min or less. Prolonged oxygen
dependence after anesthesia is abnormal and a cause needs to be determined. The
commonest reason is a resolving URTI where the child has some underlying pneu-
monitis and simply needs time to wake up, cough, clear secretions and re-expand
their lungs. However, causes such as aspiration and other pulmonary events need to
be borne in mind and excluded if appropriate. A CXR will help if the child looks
unwell or if oxygen is still required for more than an hour or two. Routine chest
X-rays are not taken because of concerns about radiation exposure.
1.8.2 Discharge from Recovery
This is usually based on criteria or a scoring system rather than time. Scoring sys-
tems such as the modified Aldrete or Steward scores are commonly used. These
measure several parameters to give a score, and discharge occurs when a certain
score is reached. In general, the score ensures the child is conscious, maintaining
their airway, has acceptable oxygen saturation, good pain control, and is not
agitated.
1.9 Complications
This section deals with some of the causes of morbidity after anesthesia in
children.
1.9.1 Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting (PONV)
PONV is a common problem in children, as it is in adults. Several factors indicate

the child is at increased risk of PONV (Table 1.9). There is no evidence nitrous
oxide increases PONV in children.
Children under 3 years of age are at low risk of PONV and are not usually given
prophylactic antiemetic therapy (Fig. 1.5). However, PONV is a common problem
after this age. The incidence is the same in boys and girls until puberty, after which
it is higher in girls. There are several procedures with a particularly high incidence
of PONV. These include strabismus repair (up to 70% PONV incidence if no anti-
emetic given), umbilical hernia repair, prominent ear correction, middle ear surgery,
and procedures longer than 30 min. An important reason for PONV in all types of
surgery is too much opioid relative to the amount of pain.
Antiemetic drugs are discussed in Chap. 2, Sect. 2.13. The Association of
Paediatric Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland have released guidelines for
Table 1.9 There are several indicators a child has an increased risk of PONV and may require
more than a single antiemetic
Risk factor
Anesthetic Volatile agents
Excess opioids relative to level of pain
Patient Age 3 years and older
History of motion sickness or PONV
Post pubertal female
Procedure Longer than 30 min
Strabismus correction
Umbilical hernia repair
Orchidopexy
Prominent ear correction
Tonsillectomy
Fig. 1.5 PONV rates in 32%

children of different ages.
Data from Bourdaud et al. 26% 26%
Frequency of PONV
Pediatr Anesth
2014;24:945–52
10%
<3 3-5 6-13 >13

Age (y)
the PONV management. It recommends ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg when there is a

risk of PONV, and ondansetron in conjunction with dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg
when there is an increased risk of PONV.
1.9.2 Post Extubation Stridor
A croupy cough or inspiratory stridor is uncommon if care is taken with ETT size
selection. However, these symptoms occasionally occur and are due to edema at the
cricoid ring which narrows the airway and causes turbulent or obstructed airflow. It
is more likely in small children (who already have a small diameter airway), chil-
dren with a recent URTI (where there may already be some inflammation and edema
of the upper airway), or if an oversized ETT was used (ie no leak at 20 cmH2O pres-
sure or cuff too large to gently pass through cricoid ring). Observation alone may be
appropriate if there is no significant obstruction. IV dexamethasone would be
appropriate if obstruction is mild and not accompanied by increased work of breath-
ing or oxygen dependence, or if there is concern that obstruction may worsen.
Dexamethasone may work much quicker than expected by its mechanism of

action—oral prednisone reduces symptoms of croup in the emergency department
in under 30 min. Nebulized adrenaline (epinephrine) is given if obstruction is sig-
nificant (Table 1.10). Racemic adrenaline was incorrectly believed to cause less
arrhythmias and is no longer used. A 1% adrenaline (epinephrine) solution for nebu-
lizers is now used. If this is not available, the 1:1000 (0.1%) IV form of adrenaline
can be used. If treatment with adrenaline is required, overnight admission for obser-
vation should be considered.
1.9.3 enous Thromboembolism (VTE) and Deep Vein

V
Thrombosis (DVT)
VTE is rare in children, possibly due to their high levels of the thrombin-inhibitor
alpha-2 macroglobulin, which only reduces to adult levels during adolescence.
Seventy percent of VTE’s occur in neonates and teenagers. Sick neonates in ICU
who have a central venous catheter are at high risk for venous thromboembolism,
but also for complications from thromboprophylaxis. Factor V Leiden and deficien-
cies of the regulatory proteins C, S, or Anti-Thrombin III do not appear to be impor-
tant until puberty. Teenagers 13 years and older are at increased risk of DVT,
especially if they have malignancy, are undergoing major surgery of the pelvis or
lower limbs, or have a past history of VTE. Additional risk factors are listed in
Table 1.11. Mechanical prophylaxis is suggested if one or more of these factors are
present in a teenager, and pharmacotherapy (in the absence of contraindications) in
Table 1.10 Treatment of post extubation croup in recovery

Treatment for post extubation croup
Dexamethasone IV 0.5–0.6 mg/kg
Nebulized adrenaline (epinephrine)—two types available:
1. l-isomer adrenaline 1% nebulizer solution 0.05 mL/kg diluted with normal saline
to 4 mL
OR
2. Adrenaline 1:1000 (IV preparation) 0.5 mL/kg (maximum 5 mL), use undiluted in
nebulizer bowl
Table 1.11 Adolescents 13 years and older are at increased risk of VTE and DVT
Risk factor
Patient Underlying cancer, sepsis or systemic medical comorbidity
Personal or strong family history VTE
Severe trauma or burns
Procedure Surgery and anesthesia longer than 90 min
Major pelvic or lower limb procedure
Reduced mobility 3 or more days postop
Additional risk factors are listed above. Mechanical DVT prophylaxis is suggested if one or more
of these factors are present in an adolescent, and pharmacotherapy (in the absence of contraindica-
tions) in adolescents with more than two of these factors
teenagers with more than two of these factors. Anti-embolic and compression stock-
ings are used for DVT prevention in children at risk and large enough for them to fit,
usually about 40 kg. Low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) 0.75 mg/kg (max-
imum 20 mg) twice a day is given to children older than 6 months by vertical sub-
cutaneous injection in the lower abdomen. This is preferably given 2 h before
surgery, but otherwise after induction. The adult dose of 40 mg once a day can be
used in children heavier than 40 kg. Factor Xa levels and platelet count are checked
on day one if heparin is continued postop. Heparin induced thrombocytopenia is
less common in children than adults.
1.9.4 Aspiration
Aspiration is rare but slightly more common in children than adults. The incidence
in children is about 1 in 2–3000. Children have less sequelae than adults, and even
when there are chest X-ray changes, usually improve very quickly without specific
therapy. Reflux symptoms are common in infants and young children, but are not
necessarily an indication for a rapid sequence induction. Medications to reduce the
risk of aspiration are not usually used in children because of the rarity of aspiration
and sequelae. A child who aspirates a small amount is usually oxygen dependent for
a period after anesthesia and is admitted for observation.
1.9.5 Awareness
Awareness in children (0.5–1.0%) is quite different to adults (0.1–0.2%). It is more

common, may occur in non-paralyzed children without signs of inadequate anesthe-
sia, and does not seem to cause distress or post-traumatic stress disorder. The reason
for the high incidence of awareness in children is not known. There is concern that
it may reflect problems in the questionnaire methodology used in studies of aware-
ness—children may be more suggestible and more likely to report memories on
repeated questioning. They may also have a diminished ability to encode and con-
solidate memory, making it difficult to differentiate true memories from actual
events and dreams.
1.9.6 Laryngospasm
Laryngospasm most commonly occurs at induction and emergence, but occasion-

ally in recovery. All pediatric recovery areas should have the equipment, training
and procedures to deal with this. It can be prevented by having all children awake
on arrival in recovery. However, the rapid awakening required to achieve this may
not always be practicable and may increase the likelihood of emergence agitation.
Laryngospasm is discussed in detail in the Chap. 4, Sect. 4.11.
Note
Always remember to let the child’s parent know about any intraoperative
problems—it is unprofessional and unfair for the parent to find out later from
nursing staff and increases the likelihood of a complaint.
1.10 Day Surgery
At least half of all procedures in children are performed as day cases, although the
proportion at any given center varies with its case mix.
1.10.1 Suitability for Day Surgery
As with adults, suitability for day surgery depends on the type of procedure and the
requirements for postoperative observation, care and pain control, underlying medi-
cal conditions, age of child, ability of the parent to care for the child and the location
of the child’s home relative to the hospital. Not all infants are suitable for day sur-
gery: Former preterm infants whose postmenstrual age (PMA) is less than
52–60 weeks and term infants who are less than 44 weeks PMA are at risk of apnea
after anesthesia and must be admitted for observation (see Chap. 14, Sect. 14.4.4).
Children at risk of malignant hyperthermia who have been given a trigger-free anes-
thetic are suitable for day surgery.
1.10.2 Discharge Criteria
Discharge occurs when a set of criteria are met. The exact criteria vary between
centers, but all aim to allow time to detect any complications that may cause prob-
lems at home after discharge (Table 1.12).
If the child was intubated, some centers include a minimum time to stay to
observe for post extubation stridor. However, stridor usually develops within the
first hour after extubation and most centers do not alter their criteria for discharge
according to anesthetic technique. Voiding of urine is not usually required, even if
the child had a caudal block. Two adults are recommended to accompany the child
home in the car—the child may be sleepy, is likely to be in the back seat or even a
rear-facing seat, and it is difficult for the driver to closely observe the child. Patients
who live in the country or regional areas distant to the hospital may still be able to
Table 1.12 Discharge criteria after anesthesia

Criteria for discharge after anesthesia in children
Awake, not dizzy
Observations, including oxygen saturations, satisfactory
Pain controlled, with no intravenous analgesics recently (usually within last 60–90 min)
No nausea and vomiting. Tolerating, (or likely to tolerate) oral fluids
No croup or upper airway obstruction
Parent or carer willing to take child home, preferably by car or taxi
Instructions (preferably written and procedure specific) about postoperative care (surgical and
anesthetic) including a contact if problems
undergo day surgery. This depends on institutional preferences, surgical procedure

and how well the child recovers early on. Well children who have undergone short
procedures or scans with a very low risk of complications and a good early recovery
may be allowed to return to the country if it is not too late in the day. However,
nausea and vomiting during a long car journey home is a concern of this approach.
1.10.3 Problems After Day Surgery
About 1% of children require unplanned hospital admission after day surgery, although
the exact number varies according to the case mix of the center. The unplanned admis-
sion rate is used to audit the effectiveness of the day surgery unit’s preparation and
selection processes. The main reasons for admission are shown in Table 1.13.
1.10.3.1 Postoperative Fever

Fever on the night after surgery is not uncommon, although the incidence depends on
the definition of fever used and the patient population. It is common for no definite
cause to be found, but it is important to make sure the fever is not due to an infection.
A persistent fever (not just a spike) needs examination and investigation. Possibilities
to consider in the child with a fever postoperative are listed in Table 1.14.
Table 1.13 Reasons for unplanned overnight Reasons for admission

hospital admission after day surgery Nausea and vomiting
Uncontrolled pain
Drowsiness or dizziness
More complicated surgery than planned
Family request
Table 1.14 Causes of fever after anesthesia Cause of postoperative fever

and surgery in children Chest infection
Other infection
Unrelated viral illness
Inflammatory reaction to surgery
Malignant hyperthermia
An inflammatory reaction to surgery is thought to be the most common reason

for postoperative fever. However, the chest is a likely source in a child with a pre-
existing URTI or after an undetected endobronchial intubation. Atelectasis alone is
no longer thought to cause fever. MH is rare and may cause a high fever up to 10 h
post op in susceptible patients.
1.11 Vaccinations Before and During Anesthesia
Parents sometimes ask for their child to be given their vaccinations during anesthe-
sia to avoid them feeling the needle. They may also ask if their child’s vaccination
can go ahead in the days before surgery. Anesthesia, stress and trauma modulate the
immune system and may influence the effectiveness of the vaccination. However,
there is no clear evidence on this topic. Most countries have routine immunization
schemes which include several vaccinations within the first year of life and many
anesthetic procedures are performed in this age group without apparent sequelae.
Vaccinations can cause systemic effects such as fever, rash, malaise and myalgia for
several days afterwards. If the child is vaccinated just before surgery, these symp-
toms may be confused with an URTI and delay surgery. Alternatively, if the child is
vaccinated during anesthesia, these symptoms may be confused with a febrile reac-
tion or illness secondary to anesthesia and surgery. For these reasons, it is suggested
to schedule or even delay (if possible) surgery so it does not affect the child’s immu-
nization schedule. Surgery is delayed 48 h if possible after vaccination with inacti-
vated viruses. These include influenza and polio, which may cause systemic
symptoms as above. Some in the UK suggest no delay after vaccination with live
attenuated viruses (measles/mumps/rubella, chickenpox), but others in Australia
suggest 3 weeks. It is preferable not to vaccinate during anesthesia and surgery, but
if the child is otherwise unlikely to be vaccinated, it would seem best to go ahead so
the child does not miss out.
Review Questions
1. A healthy but anxious 4 year old girl has anesthesia for myringotomy and tubes.
She was given oral paracetamol as a premed. She had an inhalational induction,
but did not willingly accept the mask at induction. After induction she was given
sevoflurane 2% in nitrous oxide/oxygen for surgery and transferred to PACU. She
woke soon after crying and thrashing. Why might she have woken like this?
Could anesthesia have been different to prevent this outcome?
2. Justify your use of perioperative antiemetics in children.
3. A 2 year old child requires anesthesia for myringotomy and tube (ear grommets)
insertion. What risks would you discuss with the parent?
4. A 12 year old girl is brought to theatre to have her broken arm treated. She is
frightened, crying, and refuses to let you look at her hand to insert an IV for
induction. What will you do?
5. A 15 year old has refused consent for open reduction of her forearm fracture. She
was told there was a risk of nerve damage from the surgery, and is concerned this
will stop her playing her much-loved musical instrument. Do you have to accept
the child’s refusal? Can you seek consent from the parent instead? What would
you discuss with the child?
6. An 18 month old boy has woken after anesthesia for laparotomy for intussuscep-
tion and has a croupy cough and hoarse cry. What is the likely cause, and how
will you decide if treatment is required? What are the treatment options?
7. You are asked to anaesthetize a 5 year old at a day surgery unit where you have
not worked at before. How will you decide if is safe to anaesthetize the child
there?
8. You are called to the day surgery ward to see a 2 year old who has a fever 1 h
postop. She had a 2 h orthopedic procedure with an uneventful GA. The esopha-
geal temperature at the end of anesthesia was 37.4°, and it was 37.7° when dis-
charged from PACU. Why might this child have a fever and what will you do?
Further Reading
Anesthesia Risk and Provision of Services
ANZCA Guideline PS29 Statement on anaesthesia care of children in healthcare facilities with-
out dedicated paediatric facilities. http://www.anzca.edu.au/resources/professional-documents.
Accessed Feb 2019.
Brown TCK. Helping trainees to become good pediatric anesthetists. Pediatr Anesth.
2013;23:751–3.
Guidelines for the provision of paediatric anaesthetic services. In: Guidelines for the provision of
anaesthetic services 2019. Chapter 10. Royal College of Anaesthetists 2018. https://www.rcoa.
ac.uk/gpas2019. Accessed July 2019.
Habre W. Pediatric anesthesia after APRICOT (Anaesthesia PRactice In Children Observational
Trial): who should do it? Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:292–6. A commentary written by
one of the authors of the large European APRICOT study of critical events during anesthesia.
Zgleszewski SE, et al. Anesthesiologist and system-related risk factors for risk-adjusted pediatric
anesthesia-related cardiac arrest. Anesth Analg. 2016;122:482–9. A US study showing a link
between anesthetist pediatric case load and outcome.
Preoperative Assessment
Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Habre W. Pediatric anesthesia—potential risks and their assessment:
part II. Pediatr Anesth. 2007;17:311–20.
Consent
Bird S. Consent to medical treatment: the mature minor. Aust Fam Physician. 2011;40:159–60.
General Medical Council of UK Ethical Guidance for Doctors. 0-18 years. Updated 2018. https://
www.gmc-uk.org/ethical-guidance/ethical-guidance-for-doctors/0-18-years/appendix-1.
Accessed July 2019.
Hivey S, Pace N, Garside JP, Wolf AR. Religious practice, blood transfusion, and major medical
procedures. Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:934–46. A long and detailed discussion from medical and
legal points of view. General issues in pediatric consent are covered as well as the specific issue
of blood transfusion in Jehovah’s Witness patients.
Lauro H. Pediatric anesthesia informed consent: “that’s the signpost up ahead—your next stop, the
twilight zone!”. Anesth Analg. 2018;127:1289–91.
RCOA Consent and Ethics; Children and young people. https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/consent-ethics/
children-young-people. Accessed July 2019. This webpage from the Royal College includes
links to various UK sites, and some very good scenario-based discussions about children refus-
ing treatment.
IV Access
Haile D, Suominen PK. Technologies in pediatric vascular access: have we improved the success
rate in peripheral vein cannulation? Acta Anesthesiol Scand. 2017;61:710–3.
Lampert M, Pittiruti M. Difficult peripheral veins: turn on the lights. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110:888–
91. An editorial summarizing studies on NIR devices to find veins.
Induction and Aspiration

Englehardt T. Rapid sequence induction has no use in pediatric anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth.
2015;25:5–8.
Naik K, Frerk C. Cricoid force: time to put it to one side. Anesthesia. 2019;74:6–8.
Neuhaus D, et al. Controlled rapid sequence induction and intubation—an analysis of 1001 chil-
dren. Pediatr Anesth. 2013;23:734–40.
Newton R, Hack H. Place of rapid sequence induction in paediatric anaesthesia. BJA Educ.
2016;16:120–3.
Sommerfield D, Von Ungern Sternberg BS. The mask or the needle? Which induction should we
go for? Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2019;32:377–83.
Recovery
ANZCA Guideline PS4. Recommendations for the post-anaesthesia recovery room. 2006. http://
www.anzca.edu.au/resources/professional-documents. Accessed Feb 2019.
Costi D, et al. Effects of sevoflurane versus other general anaesthesia on emergence agitation in
children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(9):CD007084. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.
CD007084.pub2.
Martin S, et al. Guidelines on the prevention of post-operative nausea and vomiting in children.
Association Paediatric Anaesthetists Great Britain & Ireland; 2016. www.apagbi.org.uk.
DVT Prophylaxis
Gordan RJ, Lombard FW. Perioperative venous thrombembolism: a review. Anesth Analg.
2017;125:403–12. An adult-focused review which is contemporary and comprehensive.
Morgan J, et al. On behalf of the Association of Paediatric Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland
Guidelines Working Group on Thromboprophylaxis in Children. Prevention of perioperative
venous thromboembolism in paediatric patients: guidelines from the Association of Paediatric
Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland (APAGBI). Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:382–91.
Awareness
Malviya S, et al. The incidence of intraoperative awareness in children: childhood awareness and
recall evaluation. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:1421–7.
Vaccination During Anesthesia
Currie J, et al. The timing of vaccination with respect to anaesthesia and surgery. Association of
Paediatric Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. https://www.apagbi.org.uk/sites/default/
files/inline-files/Final%20Immunisation%20apa.pdf. Accessed July 2019.
Bertolizio G, et al. The implications of immunization in the daily practice of pediatric anesthesia.
Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2017;30:368–75.
Pharmacology of Anesthetic Agents
in Children 2
Craig Sims and John Thompson
As children grow, absorption, distribution and clearance change because anatomical

and physiological processes mature. Many drugs are poorly studied in children.
Data is often extrapolated from adults as there are financial and ethical problems
with clinical pediatric studies. These problems often mean newer drugs are not
approved for use in children. Fortunately, the pharmacokinetics of many drugs com-
monly used as part of anesthesia have been studied, though less so their pharmaco-
dynamics. This chapter focuses on the pharmacological differences between
children and adults.
2.1 Factors Affecting Dosage in Children
Size and age are the most important determinants of drug dose in children. Size is
most commonly dealt with by weight-based dosing but age affects organ function
and body composition, which require more complex adjustments to dosage.
2.1.1 Size
Children can be less than a kilogram or more than 100 kg. There are three alterna-
tives to allow for this. The first is weight-based dosing (mg/kg, up to a maximum
equal to the adult dose). This is simple, accurate enough for most drugs and
C. Sims (*) ∙ J. Thompson

e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au; John.Thompson@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_2
28 C. Sims and J. Thompson
commonly used in anesthetic practice. Size and metabolism are not linearly related
however, and the other two methods of dosing try to allow for this. Body surface
area is one method. This requires complex calculations and is used for drugs with
low therapeutic margins such as chemotherapy agents. The other alternative is to
scale the dose using a non-linear, allometric power technique. Allometric scaling
describes the nonlinear relationship between size and organ function. It also requires
complex calculations and is not used clinically.
2.1.2 Age
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences between children and adults

are maximal in the first 2 years of life, making neonates and young infants at high
risk of side effects.
2.1.3 Pharmacokinetic Changes
The pharmacokinetics of drugs change with age due to several factors (Table 2.1).
The two most important are differences in body composition and immature meta-
bolic pathways.
Changes in body composition affect the physiological spaces into which drugs dis-
tribute. The high proportion of total body water (TBW) and extracellular fluid (ECF) in
neonates (75% and 50% of body weight respectively) are the major factors, along with
changes to fat, muscle, plasma protein levels and regional blood flow differences.
Keypoint
Neonates are ‘wet’ and ‘skinny’ at birth, increasing the apparent volume of
distribution for many drugs.
Table 2.1 Pharmacokinetic differences in neonates and infants that affect their response to drugs
Absorption
Slow gastric emptying until 6–8 months and reduced gastric acidity in infancy
Thin neonatal skin, increasing absorption of EMLA and chlorhexidine antiseptic
Volume of distribution increased
Increased total body water (mostly as increased ECF)
Decreased fat and muscle as a proportion of body weight in neonate; increased and more
sustained peak concentration of drugs that redistribute into fat and muscle
Decreased albumin (and affinity), decreased alpha-1 acid glycoprotein
Clearance
Decreased metabolism in neonate, especially if preterm. Varies with different P450
isoenzymes. Most conjugation enzymes also decreased
Renal function immature during first 6 months, adult level by 1–2 years
ECF extracellular fluid
2 Pharmacology of Anesthetic Agents in Children 29
Remifentanil
Atracurium
100
% Adult metabolic capacity L-bupivacaine
Propofol
80 Paracetamol
Morphine
60
40
20
Term 6 12 18 24
Age (mo)
Fig. 2.1 Maturation of clearance, expressed as a percentage of adult capacity. Glucuronide conju-
gation, responsible for paracetamol and morphine metabolism, matures slower than the cyto-
chrome P450 isoenzymes responsible for l-bupivacaine metabolism. Cytochrome P450 isoenzymes
also contribute to the metabolism of propofol during infancy, whereas propofol undergoes glucuro-
nide conjugation in older children. Blood and tissue esterases which metabolise remifentanil and
atracurium are fully active in term, and probably preterm, infants. Adapted from Anderson, Eur J
Anaesthesiol 2012;29: 261–70
Metabolic pathways are immature at term. The activity of most enzymes respon-
sible for drug metabolism is low at birth and increases after birth, but may take
2 years to reach adult levels (Fig. 2.1). Drug metabolism begins developing even
before birth, making the post menstrual age (PMA) more important than the age
since birth for determining metabolism in former preterm children. Esterases are an
exception to this pattern of development, and are fully developed at birth. As metabo-
lism matures, clearance also increases and is highest at 1–2 years of age (Fig. 2.2).
Clearance peaks at this age because of a mathematical artefact caused by expressing
clearance in terms of weight. Clearance and weight are not linearly related (doubling
weight does not double clearance), and there comes an age when clearance has
increased more than weight. Renal excretion also develops with age. At term, the
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is about one quarter that of an adult, and reaches
adult levels by 1–2 years.
These pharmacokinetic changes combine to affect drug doses in different ways
as age increases. For the first several months of life, and especially the first 3 months,
reduced metabolism is the most important factor determining dose. Doses are there-
fore generally lower in neonates and infants. With age, metabolism matures, clear-
ance is relatively high, but body water volumes are relatively large too. Doses
expressed in mg/kg are then even higher than in adults (Fig. 2.3).
Clearance (ml/kg/h)
Term neonate 1-2y Adult
Age
Fig. 2.2 Schematic representation of weight-based clearance of many drugs during childhood.
Clearance is generally lower in neonates compared with adults due to reduced metabolism, then
increases in toddlers and decreases gradually during childhood to the adult level. Although the
shape of this curve is helpful in the clinical setting, it is an artefact caused by the weight-based
calculation of clearance
Fig. 2.3 The dose in mg/ Reflects Exceptions:

kg of many drugs is larger mature atracurium
in infants and young metabolism, remifentanil
children large Vd suxamethonium
Reflects
near-adult
Reflects p/kinetics
Dose (mg/kg)
immature
metabolism
Neonate Infant Child Adult
Keypoint
The speed of maturation of metabolism varies between children and increases
inter-individual variability of drug effects in children.
Note
The doses of three anesthetic drugs do not change with age because they are
metabolized by esterases which are fully active at birth: suxamethonium,
remifentanil and atracurium.
2.1.4 Pharmacodynamic Changes
The neuromuscular junction is not fully developed in neonates, affecting muscle

relaxant action. The CNS is not fully developed, affecting the MAC of volatile
agents. Although end-organ maturation has an effect on the action of other drugs, it
is the pharmacokinetic changes that are most important beyond infancy.
Keypoint
In general, drugs have longer duration of effect in neonates. Children aged
1–2 years need higher doses in mg/kg, and these doses are shorter in effect.
The dose and effects of drugs in children beyond 2 years age gradually change
to adult levels during childhood.
2.1.5 Pharmacogenomics
Genetic influences on drug metabolism is another factor affecting drug dosage.

Genetic polymorphisms affect how a drug is used in an individual child, or what
drug-drug interactions might occur. Phenotyping will become more available for
children requiring treatment with drugs dependent on polymorphic enzymes for
metabolism. The recent understanding of genetic influences on codeine metabolism
has led to its removal from pediatric practice. Another example is the metabolism of
tramadol.
2.2 Licensure of Drugs in Children
Many drugs commonly used in the care of children are not recommended for use in
children by the drug’s manufacturer (Table 2.2). This off-label use has occurred due
to the pharmaceutical companies balancing the costs of research and licensure
against potential market increase in a small market segment. Strict adherence to the
licensure would severely restrict access to safe and useful agents for children. The
defensibility of using drugs off-label relies on following contemporary practice and
using drugs that are supported by evidence. Related to licensure, many useful drugs
Table 2.2 Commonly used drugs and Drug License age

minimum age recommended by Propofol Over 3 years
manufacturer Fentanyl Over 2 years
Remifentanil Over 1 year
Oxycodone Adults
Ropivacaine Term neonate
Atracurium Over 1 month
Ondansetron Over 2 years
Dolasetron, Tropisetron Adults
Sugammadex Over 2 years
do not have a commercially made oral liquid preparation. Work-arounds include

preparation by a compounding pharmacy or using the IV preparation orally, both
with uncertain bioavailability. Various strategies are used to improve taste and toler-
ability of oral preparations.
2.3 Drug Errors
Drug errors are common in pediatric anesthesia. The dose has to be calculated and
taken from an adult-sized ampoule. Pediatric doses may not be a whole number and
misplacing decimal places and trailing zeroes are risks. Medication errors are twice
as common in children compared with adults, most commonly at the prescribing
stage. The commonest error is a dosing error, and the commonest (and classic pedi-
atric error) is a ten times overdose. Drug infusions are a high risk for errors because
of the complexities of variable weight and concentration. Oral drugs have the added
risk of different strengths (such as paracetamol elixir 120 mg or 250 mg per 5 mL).
Finally, small amounts of drug remaining in a three-way tap, injection port or IV
line can be enough to cause serious complications in children. A running IV does
not remove residual drug traces, and each injected dose must be followed with a
saline flush through the same injection site. Techniques to reduce errors specific to
children are listed in Table 2.3.
2.4 Local Anesthetic Creams
Local anesthetic creams are used to reduce the pain of venipuncture. However, chil-
dren still often fear needles and do not believe the cream will work. EMLA® is a
eutectic mixture of lidocaine, prilocaine and excipients. It takes 45–60 min to work,
although a longer duration is more effective. The larger the needle, the more likely
it is to be felt. The cream continues to penetrate deeper and work better for at least
Table 2.3 Reducing drug errors in children

Techniques to reduce drug errors in children
Have another person in theater check unusual doses, unusual drugs, or difficult calculations
Have another person in theater check the preparation of infusions
Label drugs carefully. Do not rely on color of a drug or memory
Avoid diluting drugs if possible, or always use the same or a standard dilution for each drug
For drugs that are not titrated to effect such as antibiotics, draw up only the dose to be given
Cross check by comparing the dose with an adult dose—“If an adult dose is for 50 kg and the
child is 10 kg, how does the dose I’m about to give compare?”
Prescribe practical doses for postop use that are not complex for staff to calculate (such as
110 mg of paracetamol rather than 113 mg); or use increments of dose that match the strength
of the drug preparation—paracetamol 24 mg/mL for example
Write ‘micrograms’ in full to prevent one thousand times overdose from misreading
abbreviation
Flush the IV injection point after every dose of drug
the first few hours, though the skin can become ‘soggy’ if the cream is left on more
than 3 or 4 h. It works for 1–2 h after removal, depending on duration of application.
It vasoconstricts micro vessels which may make larger veins more obvious against
a pale background. Prilocaine toxicity (methemoglobinemia) is a concern in neo-
nates. Absorption of EMLA through their thin skin is increased, and methemoglo-
bin reductase activity is reduced. During the first 3 months, application to only one
site for up to 1 h in a 24 h period is recommended.
Tetracaine (amethocaine) gel (‘Ametop’ or ‘AnGEL’ cream) is faster in onset
(30 min) and penetrates better than EMLA for IV insertion. It vasodilates microves-
sels and makes the skin red. Local skin reactions are rare, but more common than
after EMLA. It should be left on no longer than 60 min and continues to work for 2
or 3 h after removal. Four percent of lidocaine cream (LMX-4) also takes 30 min to
have a similar efficacy to EMLA.
2.5 IV Induction Agents
2.5.1 Propofol
Propofol is particularly useful in children because it suppresses airway reflexes and

reduces emergence delirium.
2.5.1.1 Pharmacokinetics
Children have a central volume of distribution almost twice that of adults and an
increased rate of clearance (Table 2.4). They need larger doses to achieve the same
plasma concentrations as adults, mainly because of increased distribution from
plasma to peripheral compartments. After its administration, more propofol remains
in the body for any given plasma concentration, increasing the context sensitive half
time and slowing recovery. Rapid awakening is not a feature of TIVA with propofol
in children. Neonates and infants have lower clearance of propofol as glucuronida-
tion, which is the major metabolic pathway for propofol metabolism. The immature
glucuronidation is partially offset by the faster maturing P450 system. However,
neonates remain at an increased risk for accumulation during either intermittent
bolus or continuous administration of propofol.
2.5.1.2 Clinical Use

The induction dose is often stated as 2.5–3.5 mg/kg in unpremedicated children.
However, doses of 4–5 mg/kg are routinely used in younger children to reduce
spontaneous movements and facilitate instrumentation of the airway (Table 2.5).
Table 2.4 Pharmacokinetic data Age group Vd (L/kg) Clearance (mL/min/kg)

for propofol at different ages Neonates 5.6 20
Child <3 years 9.5 53
Child >3 years 9.7 34
Adult 4.7 28
Table 2.5 Summary of IV induction Age group

agent doses Infants and
Agent (dose mg/kg) Neonates children
Propofol 3 3–5
Thiopentone 3 5–7
Ketamine 1–2 1–3
Fig. 2.4 A propofol bolus 60

may cause a prolonged fall
in blood pressure in
neonates. Based on 50
Welzing et al., Pediatr
Anesth 2010;21: 605–11
40
MAP (mmHg)
30
20
10
20 40 60
Minutes after propofol 1 mg/kg
Lower doses are required in neonates, after sedative premedication, and if there is
hypovolemia. Many children have food allergies to eggs and although propofol can
still be used, more information should be sought if the history is of anaphylaxis to
egg. Stinging with injection is a problem in children, as small veins on the dorsum
of the hand are commonly used for induction. Lidocaine 0.2 mg/kg for every 3 mg/
kg of propofol is effective. Propofol induction in children causes more hypotension
than thiopentone, but propofol causes less hypotension in children than in adults.
However in some neonates a bolus dose causes significant hypotension lasting up to
an hour (Fig. 2.4). Propofol causes apnea of more than 20 s in up to 50% of children
and depresses pharyngeal and laryngeal reflexes (making a bolus of 1–2 mg/kg use-
ful to avert coughing or laryngospasm). A propofol bolus or transition technique at
the end of sevoflurane anesthesia, or TIVA are effective methods to prevent emer-
gence delirium (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.8.1).
2.5.1.3 Propofol Infusions in Children

Propofol infusions reduce airway responsiveness, emergence delirium and nausea
and vomiting in children. Children do not usually wake quickly after propofol anes-
thesia due to the high doses needed and long context-sensitive half time. They tend
to sleep for a period in recovery but then usually wake in a calmer and less
distressed manner if analgesia is adequate. Starting an infusion at some point after

an inhalational induction is quite acceptable, and most of the benefits of propofol
are still gained. The propofol dose is reduced by the concomitant use of remifentanil
or alfentanil, and to a lesser extent by nitrous oxide (Table 2.6).
2.5.1.4 Target Controlled Infusions (TCI)

There are two TCI models licensed in some countries for children—the Paedfusor
and Kataria. Both have minimum age and weight settings and target plasma rather
than effect site concentration. Age however is ignored as a variable by both models,
although the Paedfusor does adjust assumed volumes when the when age is more
than 12 years. In general, TCI pumps give children a bolus dose about 50% higher
and a maintenance rate 25% higher compared to adult TCI models.
TCI propofol is a useful technique in children, but the algorithms can’t entirely
allow for the marked inter-individual variability of propofol in children and for the
pharmacokinetic changes over a broad range of ages. These issues and some practi-
cal points are given in Table 2.7.
2.5.1.5 Manual Propofol Infusions

Manual infusions of propofol are commonly used because they can follow a manual
IV induction or inhalational induction. The doses are much higher than in adults.
Table 2.6 Initial target Target concentration

propofol concentration in Intraoperative analgesic propofol (μg/mL)
adolescents during mainte- Propofol alone 4–6
nance with propofol given Remifentanil or regional block 3–4
with analgesic agents Nitrous oxide 4–5
Titration of dose according to observed anesthetic depth is
critical. Adapted from McCormack, Curr Anesth Crit Care
2008;19:309–14
Table 2.7 Problems and practical points of propofol TCI in children

Propofol TCI
in children Comments
Problems Pump algorithms use averaged pharmacokinetic variables. Titration of the
dose is still needed to allow for interindividual differences
Target concentration in children is probably the same as in adults, but it is not
known why this is the case when MAC for volatiles varies with age
Induction slower than manual propofol bolus which may prolong induction
process in unhappy or uncooperative child
Practical points If gas induction, start TCI target 1–2 μg/mL then increase as sevoflurane
washes out. Closely observe depth of anesthesia and watch for hypotension
Always add an analgesic component to reduce propofol dose: An effective
regional block; remifentanil infusion; alfentanil infusion if short anesthesia;
even just nitrous
If propofol used alone, need target about 6 μg/mL or more to prevent
involuntary movement. Huge dose and PACU recovery is prolonged
Wake-up concentration reported as 1.3–1.8 μg/mL
Table 2.8 Macfarlan manual infusion scheme for propofol to achieve plasma concentration of
3 μg/mL in children aged 3–11 years
Infusion rate Time
First 15 min 15–30 min 30–60 min Thereafter
Propofol (mg/kg/h) 15 13 11 10 and titrate
Propofol (μg/kg/min) 250 220 180 170 and titrate
Doses can be titrated lower with concomitant use of opioid, regional block or nitrous oxide
One technique is the MacFarlan scheme, in which a 2.5 mg/kg induction dose is
given followed by an infusion with the rate decreased at 15 min intervals (Table 2.8).
2.5.1.6 Propofol Infusion After Inhalational Induction

Manual propofol infusions can be started after an inhalational induction, but either
a small bolus or high initial infusion rate is needed to replace the volatile agent. TCI
propofol after inhalational induction is started at a low target, then progressively
increased as the volatile concentration falls. This approach avoids a large initial
bolus which would cause hypotension. It is kinetically imprecise to change from a
volatile to an IV technique because the volatile concentration in the brain is falling
while the propofol concentration is rising, but is a practical solution to the problem.
The anesthetic depth must be closely watched, and erring on the ‘too deep’ side
while avoiding hypotension seems wise.
2.5.1.7 Propofol Infusion Syndrome

Propofol infusion syndrome consists of metabolic acidosis, myocardial failure and
rhabdomyolysis and has a mortality of 50%. The likely mechanism is disruption of
mitochondrial fatty-acid oxidation, either by an unidentified metabolite or an under-
lying neuromuscular defect. It is triggered by the combination of high metabolic
energy demand, low carbohydrate availability and high lipid availability. It is more
common in children than adults, possibly because of their lower carbohydrate
stores. The syndrome is associated with prolonged, high-dose propofol infusion in
young children—more than 5 mg/kg/h for longer than 48 h. However, several large
series have found prolonged propofol infusions to be safe, and children may need an
underlying genetic predisposition to develop the syndrome. The development of
lactic acidosis may be a warning sign, and dextrose-containing IV fluids may reduce
the risk of the syndrome. Nevertheless, prolonged sedation of children in ICU with
propofol is contraindicated, and it is probably best to limit the duration of anesthesia
in children using a propofol infusion to less than 6 h and to reduce the dose of pro-
pofol with the concomitant use of remifentanil.
2.5.2 Ketamine
Ketamine is best reserved for special situations in children. Its strengths are preser-
vation of airway tone, functional residual capacity of the lungs and cardiovascular
stability. A dose of 1–2 mg/kg IV gives 5 min of anesthesia for short procedures. An
intramuscular dose of 3–5 mg/kg is an alternative. When used as an induction agent,

there is no clear ‘drop off point’, and the eyes often remain open. Oral secretions are
increased and some anesthetists routinely give an antisialogogue.
Its use in theater is restricted to situations where cardiovascular depression from
propofol is a concern (particularly in shock states, cyanotic congenital heart disease
or pulmonary hypertension). It is also used by some for upper airway procedures,
although apnea, coughing, airway obstruction and laryngospasm can occur. It is also
useful for anesthesia in children with anterior mediastinal masses as it preserves the
functional residual capacity of the lungs.
Outside the OR environment, it is used for short, painful procedures such as
burns dressings because the relative preservation of airway tone may improve safety,
although some would argue against this. The airway can still be lost during ket-
amine anesthesia, and there is concern about its use by non-anesthetists such as
physicians providing sedation or anesthesia in the emergency department. In inten-
sive care, it is useful for induction of the septic or shocked child.
The quality of recovery is often not good, and many anesthetists consider it a
poor alternative to modern agents. Recovery is slow, and hallucinations, agitation
and behavioral disturbances are a significant problem, although they are not as com-
mon in children aged 5 years or younger (5–10%) compared to adults (30–50%).
Nausea and vomiting are also common after ketamine anesthesia. Other uses include
premedication of autistic or combative patients, as discussed in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.3.
2.6 Inhalational Agents
Inhalational agents are widely used in children. Pharmacokinetic differences facili-

tate inhalational induction, a technique that is very commonly used.
2.6.1 Speed of Induction
Inhalational induction is faster in children than in adults. The reasons for this are:
firstly, alveolar ventilation is high relative to FRC in children (5–1 in neonates,
1.5–1 in adults) so that the alveolar concentration reaches the inspired concentration
quickly. Secondly, a higher proportion of the cardiac output goes to the brain so that
the brain concentration reaches the alveolar concentration quickly. A third reason is
that volatile agents have lower tissue/blood solubility in neonates compared with
adults. Although this difference was significant for halothane, it is not an important
factor with modern insoluble agents such as sevoflurane.
2.6.2 MAC
The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) at which 50% of patients do not move
in response to incision changes with age. MAC is highest at age 1–6 months and
then decreases with age (Fig. 2.5). MAC is lower in neonates compared to both
children and adults. MAC is probably even lower in preterm neonates, but this has
only been studied with isoflurane. The mechanism for MAC changing with age is
not known, but may be due to changes in regional blood flow or receptors.
Sevoflurane differs from the other agents because its MAC is similar (not lower) in
both neonates and infants.
2.6.3 Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is still commonly used in pediatric practice. It facilitates inhalational

induction and intubation under deep volatile anesthesia (Table 2.9) and it is a potent
analgesic for suppressing responses to intense stimulation during surgery. This is
especially useful if postoperative pain is not expected to warrant opioids. Although
nitrous oxide probably increases respiratory morbidity in adults, the ENIGMA trial
Fig. 2.5 MAC for volatile 10

agents at ages ranging
from preterm neonates to 9
adults. Note that generally
MAC is highest in infants 8
and decreases with age.
Sevoflurane is different 7
because MAC is not lower
in neonates compared to 6
MAC50 (%Agent)
infants
0
m at
e nt ild en
t
ul
t
ter n fa Ch c Ad
re eo In es
P n ol
rm Ad
Te
Table 2.9 Effect of nitrous MAC for intubation sevoflurane (%)

oxide on MAC for intubation MAC in oxygen 2.7–3.2
in children MAC in 60% N2O 1.6
results cannot be translated directly to children—adults often have co-morbidities,

while most children have healthy lungs and do not develop respiratory effects.
Finally, there is no evidence that nitrous oxide added to volatile agents increases
nausea and vomiting in children.
2.6.4 Neurotoxicity of Anesthetic Agents
Studies in young animals consistently show anesthetic agents cause neuronal apop-
tosis (programmed cell death). All commonly used anesthetics including inhala-
tional agents, nitrous oxide, ketamine, propofol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines
have this effect. Exceptions are opioids, dexmedetomidine, clonidine, and xenon.
The applicability to humans of these animal studies is not certain.
Subsequent human studies have not consistently shown an effect of anesthesia at
a young age on later neurodevelopment—some studies have found an association
while others have not. However these studies are difficult to interpret. They are ret-
rospective and aim to detect an effect from a brief exposure to anesthesia amongst
all the confounding factors that could affect development during a child’s life,
including the reason the child required surgery and anesthesia. Also, such studies
can only detect an association, not causality. Further complicating the issue is a
debate that careful control of respiratory, hemodynamic and metabolic variables
might be more important than choice of a particular anesthetic agent in avoiding
neurodevelopmental changes after anesthesia.
In response to these animal and human studies, the FDA issued a warning in
2016 to US physicians that anesthesia lasting more than 3 h in children younger
than 3 years old may affect subsequent neurodevelopment. However the assertions
of the warning have not been accepted by anesthetic associations outside the US.
More recently, results of the first prospective randomized trial became available.
Infants were randomized to spinal or general anesthesia for herniotomy, and chil-
dren’s development followed for 5 years (the GAS study). This study found general
anesthesia did not affect developmental outcomes. The weakness of the study how-
ever, was that anesthetic exposure was less than 1 h. Another recent prospective
study compared the development of twins, one of whom had received a GA and one
of whom had not (the MASK study). This study also found general anesthesia did
not affect developmental outcomes.
Parents may raise the issue of potential toxicity prior to surgery and this should
prompt a discussion of the points above. At present, there is no good evidence anes-
thetic agents affect neurodevelopment of humans. There is currently no need to
change practice or delay surgery, but children should not have surgery during
infancy if it can be avoided (although there is no evidence for a ‘safe’ age with no
risk, young infants are undergoing rapid brain development, and all risks from anes-
thesia are higher in the first year). Furthermore, delaying surgery to avoid an
ambiguous and unknown risk of neurotoxicity must be balanced against the added
real risk of delaying treatment.
Tip
What to say to a parent who asks if anesthesia will damage their child’s brain?
There is animal work suggesting anesthesia affects brain development, but
it is not clear how this research applies to children.
There is no evidence a single short GA affects brain development in
humans.
Avoiding or delaying surgery and anesthesia may have a much greater risk.
There may be a possibility some brain delays occur in very specific areas
and under very specific circumstances, but it is not known if this is due to
anesthesia or the reason the child is having surgery, and it has to be balanced
against the need for the procedure.
There is no evidence to suggest a specific ‘safe’ age with no risk.
2.6.5 Sevoflurane
Sevoflurane is widely used because it causes minimal irritation to the airway during
induction and maintenance and is the only agent suitable for inhalational induction.
It causes less cardiovascular depression and is a safer agent than halothane which
was used in the past. It reduces laryngeal and pharyngeal muscle tone which con-
tributes to upper airway obstruction, but also facilitates insertion of an oral airway
or LMA.
Inhalational induction with sevoflurane using a circle circuit is achieved by giv-
ing the child 66% nitrous oxide in oxygen for 20–30 s, then 8% sevoflurane.
Gradually increasing the sevoflurane concentration is a hangover from the halo-
thane induction technique which slows induction and increases the incidence of
excitatory phenomena. However, when the T-piece is used for induction, the sudden
odor of 8% sevoflurane can cause mask rejection, and a couple of breaths at 0.25–
0.5% before turning to 8% is better accepted. The inspired concentration should be
kept at 6–8% until excitatory phenomena and respiratory obstruction have reduced.
2.6.5.1 Excitatory Phenomena with Sevoflurane

A series of excitatory phenomena occur during inhalational induction with sevoflu-
rane, including movements of the limbs, upper airway obstruction and hypertonicity
of the trunk. They are a common and normal part of inhalational induction. Their
incidence is reduced with premedication but increased if sevoflurane is incremen-
tally raised during induction. Sevoflurane often causes seizure-like EEG changes at
concentrations over 4%, and may rarely cause overt seizures in children who have a
reduced seizure threshold. The seizures usually occur during induction shortly after
consciousness is lost, when brain concentration of sevoflurane is highest.
Emergence delirium describes a condition in which children wake after anesthe-

sia crying or screaming inconsolably, thrashing their limbs and appearing disorien-
tated. However it can be difficult to determine if the child’s behavior is due to pain
(see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.8.1). Emergence delirium is more common after sevoflurane
and desflurane than after other agents. The incidence is highest in preschool aged
boys and when children awake quickly after sevoflurane. Various strategies have
been tried to reduce it, including giving clonidine and opioids during anesthesia, or
giving propofol towards the end of anesthesia. There is no evidence changing to
isoflurane after sevoflurane induction reduces emergence delirium, whereas chang-
ing to propofol is effective.
2.6.6 Isoflurane and Desflurane
Isoflurane and desflurane are pungent and irritant to the upper airway and will cause
coughing, breath holding or laryngospasm if used for inhalational induction. Using
isoflurane for anesthesia maintenance does not reduce the incidence of emergence
delirium. The tachycardia that occurs in adults when desflurane is rapidly increased
in concentration is less of a problem in children and easily blunted with opioids. The
airway irritation caused by desflurane has prevented it from having a major impact
in pediatric anesthesia.
2.7 Fentanyl
Fentanyl is commonly used in pediatric anesthesia, although perhaps not as often as

in adult practice where it is used for hemodynamic stability. The clearance of fen-
tanyl is higher in infants and children compared to adults, while it is reduced in
neonates (reflecting reduced hepatic metabolism) and in cyanotic heart disease
(reduced liver blood flow). However the volume of distribution is much higher in
neonates than adults and the plasma concentration after a single bolus dose is a
lower than in adults. As a result, neonates may tolerate high doses with less respira-
tory depression than in adults (Fig. 2.6). However fentanyl has a reduced clearance
in this age group, and it accumulates with repeat doses. It is popular as an anesthetic
agent in neonatal and cardiac anesthesia, but in children it is generally used for its
analgesic properties. It is useful as an analgesic component to anesthesia, particu-
larly if neither nitrous oxide nor a regional technique is used. An intraoperative
bolus has a short duration and does not provide adequate postoperative analgesia
after many types of surgery. However, fentanyl 1–2 μg/kg reduces the incidence of
emergence dysphoria after sevoflurane, albeit increasing the incidence of
PONV. Intranasal fentanyl is used for procedural pain in the emergency department,
and fentanyl infusions are used as an alternative to morphine for postoperative opi-
oid infusions (see Chap. 9, Sect. 9.3.3).
Vdss l/kg
0
Neonate Infant Child Adult
Fig. 2.6 Volume of distribution at steady state (Vdss) for fentanyl at different ages. A bolus dose
is distributed into a relatively large volume in neonates, and blood concentration is lower. Neonates
can tolerate relatively high doses without respiratory depression. Clearance however is lower in
neonates, prolonging the duration of any fentanyl given. Based on Johnson et al. Anesthesiology
1984;61: A441
0.4
Fig. 2.7 Remifentanil
dose required for
Remifentanil (mcg/kg/min)
respiratory rate of
0.3 Dose for
10 breaths/min at different
ages. Spontaneous RR = 10/min
respiration is maintained at
higher doses of 0.2
remifentanil in infants and
young children than older
children. (Based on Barker 0.1
et al., Pediatr Anesth
2007;17:948–55)
3 6 9
Age (y)
2.8 Remifentanil
Remifentanil is unique among opioids because the non-specific esterases responsi-

ble for its metabolism are fully active at birth. It has an increased volume of distribu-
tion in infants and children, but also a higher clearance so that elimination half-life
is similar at all ages. Remifentanil is the only opioid with a clearance that is higher
in infants than children. As a result of these pharmacokinetic differences, infusion
rates that would cause apnea in adults are possible in spontaneously breathing chil-
dren (Fig. 2.7). Children aged 3–11 years require about twice the infusion rate of
adults during anesthesia to block the response to skin incision. The usual dose in
controlled ventilation is 0.2–0.5 μg/kg/min, and doses as high as 0.3 μg/kg/min are
tolerated during spontaneous ventilation in infants. A remifentanil bolus of 1–3 μg/
kg has been used to facilitate intubation without muscle relaxants in children,
although bradycardia is a concern with these doses. There is no TCI model for remi-
fentanil in children.
Keypoint
Remifentanil is unique among opioids. The enzymes that metabolize it are
fully active at birth, and its dose is higher in neonates than children—the
opposite to every other opioid.
2.9 Muscle Relaxants
The role of muscle relaxants in pediatric anesthesia has changed over the years—
intubation is less common since the LMA has been widely used and can be achieved
with a combination of volatile agent, propofol and opioid in young children. Volatile
anesthesia either alone or in combination with remifentanil can prevent involuntary
movement, and muscle relaxation is not needed to be able to ventilate children.
Nevertheless, relaxants retain a role in many cases.
2.9.1 Pharmacokinetic Changes
The volume of distribution of relaxants is higher throughout childhood compared

with adults due to children’s larger ECF volume. Clearance is also higher through-
out childhood compared to adults. As a result, children require higher doses in mg/
kg compared to adults, and these doses have a shorter duration. The ED95 for most
relaxants is higher in children compared to adults (Table 2.10). The onset of relax-
ants is faster in children compared to adults because of the relatively high cardiac
output in children (Table 2.11).
Table 2.10 Approximate ED95 doses of muscle relaxants in children

ED95 dose (μg/kg)
Infants Child Adult
Suxamethonium 700 430 270
Atracurium 165 200 220
Rocuronium 240 400 350
Note the higher doses in children compared to adults
Table 2.11 Onset time of muscle relaxants in children

Onset time (min)
Infants Child Adult
Suxamethonium 0.6 0.7 0.9
Atracurium 1.2 1.7 2.2
Rocuronium 1.1 1.3 1.6
Note the faster onset due to increased cardiac output
Table 2.12 Neonates are sensitive to non-depolarizing relaxants

Differences of relaxants in neonates
Low proportion of muscle (10% body weight compared to 33% in child)
Neuromuscular junction is immature until 2 months of age
– Less acetylcholine (ACh) is released with each action potential
– ACh vesicles deplete during tetanic stimulation and muscle fade is normal
– Full blockade is reached with only 40% receptor occupancy in neonates, compared to
75% in adults
Metabolic enzymes immature
More type II slow fibers resistant to blockade in respiratory muscles
2.9.2 Relaxants in the Neonate
Neonates are sensitive to non-depolarizing relaxants and have a reduced margin of

safety. There are several reasons for this (Table 2.12). The dose of most non-
depolarizing relaxants is lower in neonates. Both vecuronium and rocuronium have
a longer duration of action in neonates. A typical dose of rocuronium in neonates is
0.3–0.4 mg/kg. Most relaxants in neonates last longer. This general rule holds true
except for two important relaxants that have a shorter duration in neonates than
children: suxamethonium and atracurium, which are both metabolized by esterases
that are fully active at birth.
Keypoint
Muscle relaxants have a faster onset and shorter duration in children. Neonates
are sensitive to non-depolarizing relaxants but resistant to suxamethonium.
Pharmacokinetic changes result in doses of relaxants being the same at all
ages.
2.9.2.1 Volatile Agents Potentiate Relaxants

As in adults, the dose and duration of relaxants are affected by the use of volatile
agents. However, healthy children are better able to tolerate brief, high concentra-
tions of volatile agents that can greatly improve the effect of small doses of relax-
ants. For example, 0.3 mg/kg of rocuronium or 0.3 mg/kg of atracurium given with
sevoflurane are effective for intubation after 2 min and give a short blockade for
brief procedures.
2.9.3 Suxamethonium
Suxamethonium is used less nowadays due to its poor side effect profile and the use
of alternative drugs to achieve rapid intubation. It is not used in routine practice, but
reserved for emergency airway management such as rapid sequence induction and
laryngospasm with falling oxygen saturation. It has a faster onset and shorter dura-
tion throughout childhood compared to adults.
2.9.3.1 Dosage and Administration

The dose in children is 2 mg/kg IV. The intramuscular route is used for the treatment
of laryngospasm when no IV access is present. The dose is 4 mg/kg, onset is within
60 s and duration under 20 min. The deltoid muscle is the best site for injection.
Although the tongue has been suggested, its use requires the facemask and oxygen
to be removed and causes bleeding into the mouth and airway.
2.9.3.2 Side Effects

Although a mild tachycardia is usual after suxamethonium, bradycardia very occa-
sionally occurs, mostly in infants. There is no need to routinely give atropine before
suxamethonium. However atropine should always be given before a second dose of
suxamethonium to prevent severe bradycardia or asystole. Muscle fasciculations are
milder in children and absent in infants, and muscle pain is uncommon until adoles-
cence. Hyperkalemia occurs in the same patient groups as adults. Although rare,
suxamethonium causing hyperkalemic cardiac arrest in children with an unrecog-
nized myopathy (particularly boys with Duchenne dystrophy) is one of the causes
of the declining use of the drug. Suxamethonium is contraindicated in any child
with myopathy, recent large burn or spinal cord injury. It increases intraocular pres-
sure for several minutes, but on balance, this is not an issue in the management of
penetrating eye injuries (see Chap. 24, Sect. 24.7).
Keypoint
Atropine must always be given before a second dose of suxamethonium.
2.9.3.3 Butyrylcholinesterase (Plasma Cholinesterase) Deficiency

A mild form of plasma cholinesterase deficiency (heterozygous for one of several
abnormal genes) is common but only increases the duration of suxamethonium by a
few minutes, so it is not usually noticed. Children who are homozygote for the
genes are rare (1 in 2000–4000, prolonging the action of suxamethonium to 2–12 h),
but about 25% of the population have variants with some prolongation of duration
(though usually by only a few minutes). Management is sedation and ventilation
followed by measuring the cholinesterase activity. Although neonates and infants
under 6 months have only about half the adult level of butyrylcholinesterase, this
does not prolong the effect of suxamethonium.
2.9.3.4 Masseter Spasm

The tone in the masseter muscle often increases slightly after suxamethonium, but
the term ‘masseter muscle spasm’ refers to rigidity of the jaw that prevents mouth
opening for more than 2 min. This rare occurrence has been described as ‘jaws of
steel’. Many children with this later develop markedly raised creatine kinase (CK)
levels and myoglobinuria and are found to have a myopathy. Masseter spasm after
suxamethonium may be an early sign of malignant hyperthermia (MH), and 50% of
patients who have masseter spasm later test positive for MH on muscle biopsy.
During masseter spasm, the mouth cannot be opened and intubation is impossi-
ble. Mask ventilation occurs through the nostrils and is not affected. It may be
appropriate to terminate anesthesia after masseter spasm has occurred. However for
urgent surgery anesthesia can be continued with a non-triggering technique provid-
ing other signs of MH are not present. There is no need to change the machine, but
volatile agents should be stopped and high flows used to wash out any volatile agent
from the patient and circuit. The child must be admitted for monitoring and mea-
surement of CK levels post op.
2.9.4 Atracurium
Atracurium has a fast onset, short and predictable duration of action and is a good
choice for routine use in all ages. The dose is 0.5 mg/kg, although it differs from all
other relaxants in that it has a shorter duration in neonates than children. Smaller
doses can be used if supplemented briefly by high concentrations of volatile agent,
or short-acting opioids. Histamine release is uncommon in children.
2.9.5 Cisatracurium
Cisatracurium has a slower onset and longer duration compared to atracurium and
has no advantage over atracurium in children. The dose is 0.15 mg/kg.
2.9.6 Vecuronium
Vecuronium should be considered a long acting relaxant in neonates and infants less
than 12 months. It has a large volume of distribution in this age group so that the
duration of block after 0.1 mg/kg is 1 h in neonates but only 20 min in children.
2.9.7 Rocuronium
Rocuronium has a faster onset than other relaxants, although the difference is less
marked in children than adults. It has a longer duration in neonates and infants than
in children. A dose of 0.6 mg/kg lasts about 50% longer in infants than children
(42 min and 27 min respectively), but intubation can be readily achieved with lower
doses such as 0.3 mg/kg supplemented with sevoflurane. A high dose of 1.2 mg/kg
provides good intubating conditions in 33 s in children and lasts about 75 min.
However this type of modified rapid sequence technique is being questioned, with
concerns about the safety of trying to hurriedly secure the airway after a period of
apnea (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.6.3).
2.9.8 Reversal of Relaxants
Relaxants should always be reversed in neonates and infants. This age group are at
risk of residual neuromuscular block because of increased sensitivity to relaxants,
longer elimination half-life of relaxants, susceptibility to hypothermia and less type
I muscle fibers in the diaphragm that leave it prone to fatigue. Furthermore, it is dif-
ficult to monitor neuromuscular blockade in small infants as direct muscle stimula-
tion often occurs. However older children having long procedures often don’t need
reversal (after checking with a nerve stimulator). Children are reversed faster and
with smaller doses of antagonists than adults.
2.9.8.1 Neostigmine
Neostigmine has a faster onset and slightly shorter duration in children compared
with adults. The dose of neostigmine required in infants and children is 20–35 μg/
kg, although 50 μg/kg mixed with atropine 20 μg/kg (the same dose as adults) is
commonly used for simplicity. Calculating and drawing up the doses of neostigmine
and atropine are complicated and prone to errors. A technique that dilutes the adult
dose reduces calculation errors and is shown in Fig. 2.8. In this technique, 1 mL of
the diluted mixture is given per 10 kg body weight. For neonates, a 1 mL syringe is
used to withdraw the diluted mixture, and a portion given based on weight—a 4 kg
baby would be given 4/10 of a milliliter.
Glycopyrrolate can be used in place of atropine. It is less commonly used in
children as atropine rarely causes arrhythmias or problematic tachycardia. Both
atropine and glycopyrrolate can cause flushing in the ‘blush’ area of the face and
neck in infants. This is usually delayed and typically noticed in PACU. Parents
should be reassured this is not an allergic reaction and will fade within hours.
Fig. 2.8 Method of Draw up “adult’ mix of

drawing up neostigmine neostigmine 2.5mg &
for children atropine 1.2mg (2.5ml total)
Dilute the mix to 5mls.
The dose is 1ml per 10kg body weight. As

always, reduce the contents to the correct dose
to be given before administering.
2.9.8.2 Sugammadex
The role of sugammadex in children is not as clear as in adults, as muscle relaxants
have a shorter duration in children and the side effects of neostigmine are less prob-
lematic in children. It has not been investigated in children as much as adults.
Nevertheless, sugammadex reverses rocuronium rapidly and more effectively than
neostigmine. Dosing is based on the TOF response: 2 mg/kg if there are two or more
twitches of the TOF, and 4 mg/kg if the block is deeper. The maximum dose of
16 mg/kg is used for reversal immediately following an intubating dose of 1.2 mg/
kg of rocuronium, (an ‘off-label’ use of sugammadex in children).
2.10 Midazolam
Oral midazolam is commonly given as a premed at an oral dose of 0.3–0.5 mg/kg.

IV midazolam is used as a co-induction agent in adolescents and for sedation of
ventilated children in intensive care, but is uncommonly used during anesthesia in
younger children. Hepatic metabolism and clearance of midazolam are reduced in
neonates, causing a prolonged action in this age group. Children aged between 1
and 4 years have increased clearance but also are resistant to sedation from mid-
azolam. This age group often requires higher doses than adults or infants.
Flumazenil is rarely needed in children. The dose is 5 μg/kg to a maximum of
40 μg/kg.
2.11 Clonidine
Clonidine has sedative, anxiolytic and analgesic effects in children. It is used as a

premedication, as an adjunct to epidural local anesthetics and to prevent or treat
emergence delirium. It is also given orally to treat some children with ADHD,
autism and to manage opioid withdrawal. Bioavailability is nearly 100% orally.
Nasal administration is not recommended as absorption is unreliable. The elimina-
tion half-life is about 5 h, shorter than in adults, but in infants its clearance is reduced
and half-life prolonged.
In clinical use, clonidine produces sedation and reduces heart rate and blood
pressure although these hemodynamic responses are not usually of concern. Oral
clonidine 3–4 μg/kg 60–90 min preoperatively is used as a premed. When combined
with local anesthetics, clonidine 1–2 μg/kg prolongs analgesia by at least a few
hours. Sedation and hypotension occur mostly in infants, and apnea may occur in
neonates. Clonidine prevents emergence delirium, although the Cochrane review
showed this was true only when anesthesia included a regional block. It does not
reduce delirium after tonsillectomy. IV clonidine 1–2 mcg/kg can be used to treat
emergence dysphoria in young children, but this dose often makes the child sleepy
for up to 4 h after surgery.
2.12 Dexmedetomidine
Dexmedetomidine has many potential uses in pediatric anesthesia, but its eventual
role is not yet known. It produces a sleep-like sedation. It causes little respiratory
depression but can cause upper airway obstruction. It is used as a premed and to
provide sedation for non-painful procedures such as radiology and EEG. In anesthe-
sia, it is used as a TIVA-sparing agent when maintenance of spontaneous ventilation
is important, such as during airway procedures. It also It is one of a few agents
thought to be non-toxic to the developing brain. It is only licensed in children for
ICU sedation where it is a useful to stabilize postoperative cardiac patients and pos-
sibly prevent junctional ectopic tachycardia.
Its advantage over clonidine is a shorter elimination half-life of about 2 h.
Metabolism is reduced in the first 1–2 years, especially in infants in whom it has a
longer half-life. The IV dose is 0.5 μg/kg gently titrated and repeated if required,
followed by an infusion of 0.3–0.7 μg/kg/h. As a premed, 3–4 μg/kg given nasally
is preferable, as oral bioavailability is low and variable. The buccal route is an alter-
native and with a lower dose.
Dexmedetomidine has some disadvantages apart from cost. It causes bradycardia
in a dose dependent manner, which is often just monitored because anticholinergics
given as treatment may cause significant hypertension if not carefully titrated.
Hypotension can also be a problem in older children. Excessive postoperative seda-
tion can be a problem, particularly for infusions longer than 1.5–2 h. It is usually
best to halve the infusion rate at this time, and stop the infusion 20 or 30 min before
the end of the procedure.
2.13 Antiemetics
The incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) increases with age. It
is low during infancy but increases from the age of 3 years. Prophylactic antiemetics
are commonly given to older children.
Tip
High-risk procedures for PONV are strabismus repair, prominent ear correc-
tion, umbilical hernia repair and open orthopedic procedures.
A common reason for PONV after all types of surgery is too much opioid
relative to the severity of pain.
2.13.1 Ondansetron
Ondansetron is the only 5HT3 antagonist licensed for PONV in children, and has an
optimal dose of 0.15 mg/kg (maximum 4 mg). The time it is given to children dur-
ing anesthesia does not affect its efficacy. Doses can be repeated every 6–8 h if
required. It is also available as an oral wafer in a dose of 4 mg, which can be used
as a single dose in children without IV access weighing more than 20 kg. Ondansetron
causes a clinically insignificant lengthening of the QT interval, but should be
avoided in children with known or suspected prolonged QT interval. Tropisetron
and granisetron are probably less effective than ondansetron and are not licensed in
children. Dolasetron is contraindicated in children as it may change the QT interval
and cause arrhythmias.
APA PONV Guidelines

Children at risk of PONV: ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg.
Children at high risk of PONV: ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg plus dexametha-
sone 0.15 mg/kg.
2.13.2 Dexamethasone
Dexamethasone is an effective antiemetic by itself and in combination with ondan-

setron. The ideal dose of dexamethasone is not known, but 0.15 mg/kg (maximum
8 mg) is effective, recommended and simple as the dose is the same for the two
drugs. Rather than acting on a cell-surface receptor like ondansetron, it enters cells
and affects the expression of 37 different genes. The effects of this, and why dexa-
methasone has an anti-emetic effect are not known. Although dexamethasone is
generally safe and is widely used, there are several concerns about its effects
(Table 2.13).
Note
Ondansetron combined with dexamethasone is more effective than ondanse-
tron alone.
2.13.3 Droperidol
Droperidol is used in children as a rescue antiemetic, or in combination with ondan-

setron when dexamethasone cannot be used. It has mostly been superseded in chil-
dren by more recent antiemetics with a better side effect profile. It causes sedation,
Table 2.13 Side effects and other concerns about dexamethasone in children
Concerns about dexamethasone in children
Unknown mechanism of action
Increases BSL for several hours postop and may affect control of BSL in children with labile
diabetes
Increases the return-to-theatre rate after tonsillectomy
Causes sensation of perineal warmth when given to awake children
Some evidence it affects wound infection in adults
May cause tumor lysis syndrome in some children with untreated hematological malignancy
and infrequently causes extrapyramidal effects at higher doses and in teenage girls.
The FDA issued a warning about prolongation of the QT interval in adults and at
higher doses, and it is obviously contraindicated in children with prolonged QT
interval. The dose of droperidol is 10 μg/kg as a single dose.
2.13.4 Promethazine
Promethazine (phenergan) is a rescue treatment for PONV unresponsive to other

treatments. Sedation and cardiovascular side effects are complications of its use.
The dose is 0.1 mg/kg given slowly IV (maximum 12.5 mg). It should not be used
in children at risk from sedation, including those with obstructive sleep disorder.
Review Questions
1. Why is remifentanil different to all other opioids in neonates?

2. Name a suitable antiemetic and dose for routine use in children. What combina-
tion and doses is suitable for children at high risk of PONV?
3. Why are neonates ‘sensitive’ to rocuronium?
4. A child has been given suxamethonium as part of a rapid sequence induction for
emergency surgery, but 1 min after giving it, the mouth cannot be opened at all.
What might this signify? What will you do?
Further Reading
Pharmacology in Childhood
Allegaert K, et al. Neonatal clinical pharmacology: recent observations of relevance for anaesthe-
siologists. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2008;59:283–8.
Anderson BJ, Allegaert K. The pharmacology of anesthetics in the neonate. Best Pract Res Clin
Anesthesiol. 2010;24:419–31. A comprehensive review of the pharmacokinetic and pharmaco-
dynamic changes during the neonatal period and includes an introduction to allometric power
analysis.
Anderson BJ. Drug error in paediatric anaesthesia: current status and where to go now. Curr Opin
Anesthesiol. 2018;31:333–41.
Broome RI, Gibson AA. The importance of flushing injection ports. Anesthesia. 2019;74:394.
Doherty DR, et al. Off-label drug use in pediatric anesthesia and intensive care according to offi-
cial and pediatric reference formularies. Can J Anesth. 2010;57:1078–88. A survey in Canada
that includes a good overview of off-label drug use in children.
Sumpter A, Anderson BJ. Pediatric pharmacology in the first year of life. Curr Opin Anesthesiol.
2009;22:469–75.
Local Anesthetic Creams
Zempsky WT. Pharmacologic approaches for reducing venous access pain in children. Pediatrics.
2008;122:S140–53.
Volatile Agents
Constant I, Seeman R. Inhalational anesthetics in pediatric anesthesia. Curr Opin Anesthesiol.

2005;18:277–81.
Creeley CE, Olney JW. The young: neuroapoptosis induced by anesthetics and what to do about it.
Anesth Analg. 2010;110:442–8.
Lerman J, Johr M. Pro-Con debate: inhalational anesthesia vs total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA)
for pediatric anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:521–34.
Neurotoxicity
Davidson A, Sun L. Clinical evidence of any effect of anesthesia on the developing brain.
Anesthesiology. 2018;128:840–53.
Hansen TG, Engelhardt T. Long-term neurocognitive outcomes following surgery and anesthesia
in early life. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:297–301.
McCann ME, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or
awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, con-
trolled equivalence trial. Lancet. 2019;393:664–77.
Morton NS. Anesthesia and the developing nervous system: advice for clinicians and families.
BJA Educ. 2015;15:118–22.
Propofol
Anderson BJ, Bagshaw O. Practicalities of total intravenous anesthesia and target-controlled infu-
sion in children. Anesthesiology. 2019;131:164–85.
Constant I, Rigouzzo A. Which model for propofol TCI in children. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:233–9.
Gaynor J, Ansermino JM. Paediatric total intravenous anesthesia. BJA Educ. 2016;11:369–73.
Mani V, Morton N. Overview of total intravenous anesthesia in children. Pediatr Anaesth.
2010;20:211–22.
McCormack JG. Total intravenous anesthesia in children. Curr Anesth Crit Care. 2008;19:309–14.
Ketamine
Roelofse J. The evolution of ketamine applications in children. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:240–5.
Opioids
Marsh DF, Hodkinson B. Remifentanil in paediatric practice. Anaesthesia. 2009;64:301–8.

Muscle Relaxants
Bretlau C. Response to succinylcholine in patients carrying the K-variant of the butyrylcholines-

terase gene. Anesth Analg. 2013;116:596–601.
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Meretoja OA. Neuromuscular block and current treatment strategies for its reversal in children.
Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:591–604. A detailed review of the neuromuscular junction and block-
ade and reversal, including suggamadex.
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Anesth. 2009;19:561–70. A pro-con debate that nicely summarizes the pharmacology and
clinical uses of suxamethonium.
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Dexmedetomidine and Clonidine
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perioperative and periprocedural applications and limitation. Br J Anaesth. 2015;115(2):171–82.
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imaging studies. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:265–72.
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Opin Anesthesiol. 2017;30:441–51.
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Antiemetics
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Association Paediatric Anaesthetists Great Britain & Ireland; 2016. www.apagbi.org.uk.
Behavioral Management of Children
3
Craig Sims and Lisa Khoo
Children are anxious before anesthesia and surgery because of unfamiliar surround-
ings, a sense of loss of control, the presence of strangers, parental anxiety and many
other perceived threats. Like adults, they respond to stress depending on their tem-
perament and personality. At induction of anesthesia some children will say they are
frightened, others will cry, withdraw, cling to their parent or become uncooperative.
Unlike adults who will remain cooperative despite being nervous, young children
will let you know one way or another they are frightened. Many anesthetists may be
uncomfortable caring for children because of the potential for frightened children to
become uncooperative. Behavioral management includes techniques to reduce chil-
dren’s anxiety at induction and improve cooperation.
3.1 Anxiety at Induction of Anesthesia
Anxiety increases from admission to induction, with induction of anesthesia being

the most stressful part of a child’s hospital admission (Fig. 3.1). Children can display
their anxiety with verbal or physical resistance, crying, screaming, becoming quiet
and withdrawn, or expressing fear or sadness. These signs of anxiety are more fre-
quent in younger children and are unfortunately very common: 42% of 2–10 year
olds show one of these signs and 17% show three or more. Up to 25% of children
who have not had a premed or parent present require restraint at induction. The anxi-
ety experienced by the child depends on many factors, including temperament, their
coping strategies, past experiences, the anxiety of parent and the behaviors of staff.
C. Sims (*) ∙ L. Khoo

e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au; Lisa.Khoo@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_3
56 C. Sims and L. Khoo
Fig. 3.1 A child’s anxiety

increases during the
different preoperative
stages towards induction,
although there is great
variation between children
depending on their
temperament, past
Level of anxiety
experiences and many
other factors. Based on
Chorney JM, Kain
ZN. Anesth Analg
2009;109: 1434–40
Ward Theater Entry to Induction

suite theater
3.2 Consequences of Anxiety at Induction
There are five consequences of anxiety at induction:
• Reduced cooperation
• Agitation during emergence from anesthesia
• Possibly increased postoperative pain
• Regression of behavior for up to several weeks afterwards.
• Increased anxiety at subsequent hospital admissions and anesthetics.
The stress associated with hospitalization and surgery contributes to postopera-

tive behavior changes (Table 3.1). Initial studies have found these changes in chil-
dren admitted overnight to hospital, and more recent studies also found them in
children having surgery as outpatients. These behavioral changes may persist long
after discharge, and a small proportion of children may have them for a few weeks
or months (Fig. 3.2). Their incidence depends on the temperament and personality
of the child but they are more likely to occur in preschool-aged children and those
who were anxious at induction. Children who have a ‘stormy’ induction are more
likely to be agitated when awakening and more likely to have postoperative behav-
ioral disturbances (Fig. 3.3). They may also become more anxious about future
anesthetics (Fig. 3.4). These effects are probably reduced with premedication or
other strategies to reduce pre-operative anxiety.
3 Behavioral Management of Children 57
Table 3.1 A child’s behavior may regress Behavior change after anesthesia and surgery
to that of a younger child in response to Sleep disturbances and night terrors
the stress of hospitalization and surgery Clingy and separation anxiety
Withdrawn and quiet
Fear of doctors or hospital
Food refusal; disobedience
Tantrums
Enuresis
Fig. 3.2 Percentage of

children aged 1–7 years
with behavior changes at
different times after
anesthesia and surgery.
% children with behavioral changes
Based on Kain ZN et al.

Anesth Analg 1999;88: 63%
1042–7
45%
23%
Day 1 Day 2 Week 2
Fig. 3.3 A difficult, 80 ‘Stormy’ induction

‘stormy’ induction is
associated with an Calm induction
Children with behavioral changes (%)
increased incidence of
behavioral changes after
60
anesthesia. Since children
can’t be randomized to
calm or stormy inductions,
it isn’t known if the child’s
temperament that 40
predisposed them to
anxiety also predisposed
them to behavioral changes
afterwards. Data from Kain
20
ZN et al. Anesth Analg
1999;88: 1042–7
Day 1 Week 1 Week 2

Fig. 3.4 Preoperative anxiety may affect

emergence from anesthesia and cause dysfunctional
behavior in the postoperative period. This Preoperative Emergence
experience may then increase the child’s anxiety at anxiety agitation
the next anesthetic
Postoperative
behavior
changes
3.3 Reduction of Anxiety at Induction
Most strategies to reduce anxiety are aimed at the child and parent, and include
psychological preparation or education programs, parental presence at induction,
and pharmacological premedication. The child’s anxiety however, is greatly affected
by the behavior of the anesthetist.
3.3.1 Psychological Preparation for Anesthesia and Surgery
The aim of psychological preparation is to reduce the child’s anxiety and improve
their behavior at induction. A range of preparation techniques are required and must
be appropriate to the child’s developmental age, temperament and personality.
The most intensive preparation is performed by Child Life Therapists (Play
Therapists) and Occupational therapists. They are experts in child development and
promote coping strategies through play, education, and self-expression activities.
This preparation teaches children coping and relaxation skills, provides information
about events and procedures, and supports the child and parents during the preop-
erative period. Another form of preparation is modelling, in which the child indi-
rectly experiences the theatre environment through video, puppet shows and other
media. These programs are labor-intensive and expensive, and are usually reserved
for children who have behavioral issues from frequent medical procedures.
Unfortunately, although these techniques reduce anxiety leading up to anesthesia,
they do not reduce the intense anxiety at the time of induction in most children. The
anesthetist can teach simple relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and mus-
cle relaxation on the day of surgery. Younger children can be taught to hold their
breath. These techniques then can be brought out if anxiety and distress occur:
“remember your job is to take a big breath and hold it still like a statue, so go ahead
now and take that breath”.
Hospital tours are another form of preparation, but time and economic factors
mean that in practice this high-level preparation is given only to a small proportion
of children, and often to well-motivated families whose children are least likely to
need or benefit from the preparation.
Table 3.2 Summary of recommendations for preoperative information to children

Recommendations for preoperative information
Methods of delivering information:
– Video format
– Written, especially with illustrations (book)
Information to be included:
– Specific, age appropriate information
– Include both what will happen and what will be felt or seen
– Specifically mention pain if likely to happen, but care with word choices and suggestion
– Choices or preferences for aspects of anesthesia can be discussed with adolescents to
help them feel more in control and reduce anxiety, but younger children unlikely to
comprehend
– Provide all children opportunity for questions
Best time to give:
– 6 years or younger, give closer to time of procedure
– Older than 6 years, give more than 5 days beforehand
The commonest, though least effective form of preparation is written or video

information for the child and parent (Table 3.2). The information needs to be spe-
cific and contain a description of what will happen, as well as sensory information
about what will be seen, heard, smelt, tasted or felt. Less information needs to be
given to preschool children as they have a limited ability to conceive alternate phys-
ical states. In this age group, it is best to concentrate on giving information to pre-
pare their parents. In the future, web-based programs will give information tailored
to each child’s developmental age and personality, and may be more effective.
Note
Both the parent and child need to have their anxieties and concerns managed.
Always remember the parent-parental anxiety increases the child’s anxiety
and worsens their behavior at induction.
When to give information depends on the age of the child. Young children don’t
retain information very long whilst older children may become more distressed if
information is given too close to the time of the procedure. Children older than
6 years benefit from receiving information at least 5 days before the procedure.
Closer to surgery, the information is better kept less specific and intimidating.
Children younger than 6 years can receive information 1 or 2 days beforehand.
Some parents do not tell their child that a procedure is going to happen, believing
this will cause the child less stress. However, these children are nearly always very
distressed at wakeup and afterwards, demonstrating the need to at least mention the
procedure to the child beforehand.
If the anesthetist is not used to talking to children, a pragmatic alternative is to
provide information to the parents, and then rely on them to explain to the child in
an appropriate manner or language. This approach avoids inappropriate words or

concepts, but perhaps risks misinformation.
3.3.2 he Behavior of the Anesthetist at Induction and Its Effect

T
on the Anxiety of the Child
The behavior of an adult affects the behavior of a child. Observational studies of

anesthetic staff and children at the time of induction show the behaviors of anes-
thetic staff can either worsen or reduce a child’s anxiety. Aspects including the
staff’s posture, facial expression and position relative to the child may affect the
child’s anxiety. The anesthetist can make a big difference to the child’s anxiety and
experience of anesthesia by getting the child’s attention and keeping it. This stops
the child from becoming internally focused due to fear, and then becoming inacces-
sible. Distracting the child at induction avoids behaviors that increase anxiety.
Reassurance and empathic statements focus the child on their feelings or distress
and increase anxiety. Distraction steers attention away from the medical procedure
and reduces anxiety (Table 3.3). The words chosen by the anesthetist also affect the
child’s behavior. Framing discomfort using playful imaginative or abstract language
Table 3.3 Reassuring, empathic statements focus the child on their feelings of distress and
increase anxiety
Anesthetist behaviors that increase a
child’s anxiety Anesthetist behaviors that reduce a child’s anxiety
Reassurance, “You’ll be OK” Non-procedural talk Talking about toys,
empathy and “Don’t worry” pets, favorite movies
apologizing “I know it’s hard” Story telling
“I’m sorry”
Excessive technical Too much Humor Jokes
or medical talk information about
procedure or
equipment
Suggesting control “Are you ready to Choices with clear “Walk or ride on
when none exists come to theatre limitations and does not trolley?”; “Strawberry
now?” allow avoidance of or chocolate mask?”
“Can I put the mask procedure “You can breathe on
on now?” the mask or just blow
it away”
Multiple adults Medical play ‘Astronaut space
talking mask’
Allowing child to Firm warm confidence
delay
Poor word choice Needle, sting, hurt Good word choice Metal tube, plastic
Focusing on what straw
child can’t do Focusing on what
child can do
Distraction steers attention away from the induction and reduces anxiety
Based on Martin et al. Anesthesiol 2011;115: 18–27
Table 3.4 No matter the distraction used, there are several characteristics to maximize its effect
Effective distraction
Is interesting and new to the child
Begins with a sense of anticipation to build excitement
Gets child’s attention as soon as entering theatre
Increases as induction approaches and anxiety increases
Is continuous with no pauses or gaps that might lose child’s attention
Has the strongest distraction saved for the time of mask acceptance or IV insertion when
anxiety is maximal
is helpful—‘sparkles’ up the arm rather than ‘this may sting a little’, or ‘a beautiful
perfume’ rather than ‘this gas might smell’.
3.3.2.1 Effective Distraction

Although some children will be relaxed with simple non-procedural talk about
school or toys, other children are more anxious and benefit from stronger distrac-
tion. The choice of a distraction depends on a complex interaction between the
anesthetist’s personality, the child’s age and temperament, equipment available and
the theatre environment. Some anesthetists are great story tellers and are able to
guide the child into an imaginary world; others can use pretty stickers or a toy, tell
jokes, or do a few magic tricks. A popular technique uses video games or movies on
a hand-held device. Effective distraction needs to start early, be continuous and
increase as induction progresses (Table 3.4).
3.3.3 Pharmacological Premedication
Premedication (premed) is the most reliable way to reduce a child’s anxiety and
improve cooperation at induction. It also reduces parental anxiety and improves
parental satisfaction. However, not every child requires a premed, and the skill is in
choosing which child will benefit. A premed may slow wake up, cause dysphoria in
recovery and carries a cost in nursing time. The premed is nearly always given
orally, though this requires some cooperation from the child. The nasal or buccal
route may be an alternative. The advantages and disadvantages of oral premeds are
listed in Table 3.5. There are a few situations in which a premed should be avoided
or used in a reduced dose. These are when a difficult airway is anticipated, there is
severe sleep apnea, an increased risk of apnea, and when there is raised intracranial
pressure.
3.3.3.1 Midazolam
Midazolam is widely used because it reliably provides anxiolysis, has a rapid onset
and short duration. Oral midazolam has a bitter taste. When the IV preparation
(5 mg/mL) is used for oral premedication, its taste is disguised by mixing it with ice
cream topping, undiluted cordial or jam. A commercially-made midazolam is avail-
able for oral use in some countries.
Table 3.5 Comparison of oral premeds and their advantages and disadvantages
Oral premed agent (time to
give before induction) Advantages Disadvantages
Midazolam 0.3–0.5 mg/ Rapid onset Bad taste
kg, max 15 mg (30 min) Short duration Dysphoria
Anxiolytic Amnesia
Doesn’t delay discharge
Clonidine 4 𝛍g/kg No amnesia Slow onset
(60 min) Reduces emergence dysphoria Long duration- may delay
Timing of administration less critical discharge
Tastes better than midazolam Bradycardia
Child easily awakens with
noise or stimulation at
induction
Dexmedetomidine 3 𝛍g/ Well tolerated Intranasal route may be
kg Analgesic, sleep-like sedation better. Use 2 μg/kg
(45 min) Possibly anxiolytic Expensive
Ketamine 2–5 mg/kg A ‘heavy’ premed for autism, PONV
(30 min) developmental delay, uncooperative Dysphoria
older child Potential for airway
obstruction
Not suitable for routine use
Midazolam is the most commonly used agent, though there is also strong support for clonidine
Oral midazolam is mostly an anxiolytic with little sedation, making it relatively

safe in obstructive sleep apnea and other situations where airway patency may be a
concern. The oral dose is 0.3–0.5 mg/kg (max 12–15 mg). The lower dose is usually
effective in all but the most anxious child, and reduces the risk of postop dysphoria
(Fig. 3.5). The dose can be ‘titrated’ against the desired effect, particularly in older
children—some children appear as well-behaved and likely to be easy to distract at
induction, but are scared. A dose towards the lower range might be appropriate. A
younger child might be very fearful and have had difficult past anesthetic experi-
ences, and a maximal dose might be appropriate. Midazolam can be given by the
buccal route by squirting it between the teeth and cheek or lower lip. Either the IV
preparation or midazolam marketed for seizure treatment can be used. The nasal
route is another option in uncooperative children—the dose is lower (0.2 mg/kg)
and the IV preparation is squirted into the nostril with an atomizer device. Intranasal
administration is unpleasant, most children will need to be restrained and it is best
used only in exceptional circumstances.
Onset by either route is 12 min, with peak effect at 20–30 min. If midazolam is
given too early, a proportion of children, particularly preschool-aged will develop a
paradoxical reaction and become dysphoric, uncooperative and hallucinate. This
effect usually occurs after 45–60 min and is the reason why it is important to time
the administration of midazolam carefully. Midazolam reduces anesthetic require-
ments, delays emergence but does not generally delay discharge. It produces antero-
grade and retrograde amnesia, but there are concerns this loss of memory may be a
distressing experience for the child, as it is in adults.
Fig. 3.5 Oral midazolam

0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg are
almost equally effective.
Based on Cote, Anesth
Analg 2002;94: 37–43 95% 98%
% with acceptable effect
0.25 mg/kg 0.5 mg/kg
Dose of midazolam
3.3.3.2 Clonidine
Clonidine is commonly used as a premed at a dose of 3–4 μg/kg, much larger than
the IV dose because bioavailability after oral administration is only 55%. Its onset
is slow with peak effect at 60–90 min. It is mostly a sedative with some anxiolysis.
It reduces anesthetic requirements and emergence dysphoria and improves postop
analgesia. Significant bradycardia is very uncommon. There is no commercially
available clonidine syrup in most countries, so the IV preparation is mixed with
flavoring and given orally. The IV preparation is concentrated and has an unusual
concentration (150 μg/mL) which increases the risk of a dose error. In practice,
children are easily aroused from their sedated state and can become quite alert and
anxious at the time of induction.
3.3.3.3 Dexmedetomidine
Although not licensed for use in children, there are many studies of dexmedetomi-
dine being used as a premed. The IV preparation is used for the oral and intranasal
routes, though this preparation remains expensive. Bioavailability is 65% by the
nasal route and 82% by the buccal route. It is only 16% by the oral route and so
some authors suggest not giving dexmedetomidine as an oral premed. The intrana-
sal dose is 2–3 μg/kg. Its onset is about 25 min, duration 85 min. Some, but not all
studies show superiority over midazolam.
3.3.3.4 Ketamine
Oral ketamine is considered a ‘strong’ premed used either alone or in conjunction
with midazolam. Monitoring, oxygen and the ability to resuscitate need to be
available. It is best reserved for more difficult patients such as autistic children,
older developmentally delayed children or terrified school-aged children who would
not otherwise be cooperative. The dose of oral ketamine is 2–5 mg/kg. Midazolam
0.2–0.5 mg/kg can be mixed with it to increase the effect. The higher dose range of
ketamine with or without midazolam may produce unconsciousness and airway
obstruction. Recovery time is similar to midazolam, however ketamine has a high
incidence of PONV, especially if the dose of concurrent opioids is not reduced.
Excessive oral secretions do not seem to be a problem after oral ketamine.
Intramuscular ketamine is used as a premed or ‘pre-induction’ agent in older
autistic or developmentally delayed children who are combative and refuse oral
premedication. A dose of ketamine 1–2 mg/kg into the deltoid or thigh muscle,
through clothing if need be, stuns the patient and is effective. Higher doses (5–10 mg/
kg) induce anesthesia and result in prolonged recovery and increased
hallucinations.
3.3.4 Parental Presence at Induction
Having one parent present at the induction of anesthesia is routine in most centers.
Parental presence prevents the tears and anxiety that would otherwise result from
separation from the parent, but it does not reduce the anxiety associated with the
induction itself. Premedication reduces anxiety at induction better than parental
presence. Despite this there are several advantages to having the parent present
(Table 3.6). One of the most important is it allows the parent to witness the induc-
tion so that they don’t have to rely on their child’s description afterwards. If the
induction was not the calm and happy one hoped for, the parent can see what hap-
pened and put into perspective their child’s recollection of events. There are how-
ever, concerns about the lack of parental education before participation in the
induction, and that some parents may be passively involved or make negative
remarks rather than be supportive. These can be addressed by explaining the plan
for the induction and how the parent can help, and a warning of how the child may
look during and after the induction. Very occasionally a parent may hesitate to leave
after induction or want to stay during the surgery. Remind them firstly when the
child wakens in recovery the parent will be there and as far as their child is
Table 3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of parental presence at induction

Parental presence at induction
Advantages:
Stops separation anxiety/crying
Allows parent involvement in care of child
Improves parental satisfaction
Raises profile of anesthesia as a specialty
Allows parent to witness care and attention given to their child, even if induction is ‘stormy’
Disadvantages:
Does not reduce anxiety at time of induction
Requires escort for parent from theatre suite
May be stressful for parent
concerned, the parent has never left. Secondly, it is safer for their child if they leave
as soon as their child is asleep so staff will be able to look after the child rather than
the parent. Many parents find it stressful and emotional to be present at the induc-
tion of anesthesia but most will wish to participate in subsequent inductions.
Keypoint
Carefully explain to parents about what to expect at induction, and what is
expected of them. They can then filter this information to their child.
Tip
Stay calm and confident while the parent is present at induction as they will
worry about their child if you look worried.
Warn the parent before and during induction about movement, sounds and
appearance.
Reassure the parent that all is well when you ask them to leave.
3.3.5 Hypnosis
Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which there is a state of inner absorp-

tion. It is based on the principle of dissociation, in which attention is focused and
there is less awareness of the surroundings. Children older than 3 years may be more
susceptible to hypnosis than adults as they are more likely to be absorbed by fantasy
and storytelling. Some elements of hypnosis are used by anesthetists as part of their
induction routine. These elements include guided imagery, storytelling, and speaking
in a slow rhythmic manner with description of familiar sights and sounds. The words
chosen can modify the sensation of pain by direct suggestion and promote relaxation.
Formal hypnosis is used by some anesthetists. It is effective at reducing anxiety in
children at induction, and reducing discomfort associated with procedures. The
‘magic glove’ and switch-wire imagery are two simple techniques.
Keypoint
The behavior of a child regresses during times of stress. A young teenager
may need to be treated more as a child, or a child as a younger child when
under the intense stress of hospitalization and induction of anesthesia.
3.4 Assessment and Management on the Day of Surgery
The behavior of most children at induction will depend on their management, hence
the importance of techniques to reduce anxiety. A small proportion is likely to be
uncooperative despite any technique, and a small proportion will always be coop-
erative despite minimal behavior management (Fig. 3.6). The behavior of most
Fig. 3.6 Anxiety and

behavior of most children
at induction can be
influenced by the
anesthetist’s use of premed Anxious & Anxiety and Calm &
and behavioral uncooperative no behavior could go cooperative
management techniques matter what either way no matter what
Table 3.7 A summary of age, developmental stage and behavior relevant to induction of
anesthesia
Child’s developmental stage
Infant <1 years Often cry with acts of daily living (nappy change, hunger). Unable to
distract
Preschool age High anxiety about separation and unfamiliar surroundings. Able to
1–5 years distract. Unlikely to be cooperative if anxious. Become aware of
surgery and its implications if previous bad experience
School age child Aware of surgery and its implications. May be very anxious. As
5–10 years become older may be able to remain cooperative despite anxiety
Teenager/adolescent Aware of surgery and its implications. May be concerned about
>10 years awareness and death. May be very anxious but will remain
cooperative
could go either way, and this section aims to give practical techniques to reduce
children’s anxiety and maximize cooperation at induction.
3.4.1 Assessing Temperament and Establishing Rapport
It takes skill and ‘art’ to assess and prepare a child in the brief time available in a
busy day-of-admission service. During the preoperative consultation, the anesthetist
has the opportunity to assess the child’s behavior, determine whether a premed is
likely to be required, provide relevant information, and attempt to establish rapport
and trust with the child. The developmental stage of child is a starting point for
assessment (Table 3.7).
Questioning the parent and observing the child gives valuable indicators of the
need for extra care or a premed. Smile and be friendly, introduce yourself to the
parent and child, get down to the child’s eye level. Avoid speaking in a loud or
strong, intimidating voice. Being at an angle rather than face-to-face is less intimi-
dating. It is not obligatory to always talk to very young children, as they will often
be watching and listening anyway. However, child-centered communication
includes talking to the child first and getting their permission to talk to their parent.
In a brief consultation, the parent can usually be relied on to talk to their child after-
wards in an age appropriate manner using (or avoiding) any particular words with
special meaning within that family. With teenagers, more of the conversation should
be directed to the patient.
Before examining a young child, remember that you are invading their personal,
private space. Make sure that a parent is present and the child knows you are a doc-
tor. Proceed cautiously so as not to put them ‘on guard’. Privacy during the exami-
nation should be ensured for school-aged patients, especially girls. Try to move the
child away from the TV or computer game while you are examining or interacting
with them, because the child becomes preoccupied and it is hard to assess their
temperament—they may appear relaxed and happy whilst watching, but are actually
very scared. Toddlers are unlikely to allow a stranger to touch them unless they are
sitting on the mother’s lap. A gradual start to auscultation of the chest is to listen
through the child’s clothes, which gets them used to what is going to happen, and
then light heartedly warning them about the cold stethoscope that’s coming. Sound
effects or using play (listening to their toy) to introduce auscultation may help. The
child’s response to auscultation is a useful sign of their anxiety and behavior. Some
confidently pull up their top for you, others will shy away or even cry—a sign that
a premed is worth considering.
3.4.2 Preoperative Discussion
Discussing a medical procedure in a clinic setting with a child who has a chronic
disease is different to discussing anesthesia with an anxious child shortly before
anesthesia. There is often limited time for the anesthetist to develop rapport or to
talk and listen to the child. In the stressful situation, children are less able to absorb
and process medical information, or to make decisions about themselves. In addi-
tion, detailed medical information close to induction increases the child’s anxiety. A
balance is needed depending on the age and comprehension of the child, between
information for consent versus how much is said in front of the child.
Teenagers and older children should be told about the IV insertion, or the options
for induction. Some anesthetists discuss the IV with younger school aged children.
This may or may not be useful and alternatively the IV can be described with a
euphemism and allows the parent to describe it to the child at their discretion.
Younger children shouldn’t be given choices as they have a limited ability to
conceive alternate physical states. It is often best to decide management in consulta-
tion with the parent and then tell the child. You need to be flexible and open to
changes in strategy according to the child’s response. Some frightened children
however will automatically ask for the opposite of your plan in the hope that they
will be allowed to do nothing and just go home. Teenagers and older children are
often concerned about awareness and not waking up afterwards, and both of these
should be specifically mentioned in the discussion.
It is also worth preparing for the induction by either gently holding the child’s
wrist as if to bring up their veins, or placing a cupped hand on their nose and mouth
as if it were a mask. Once again, sound effects may help to make this invasion of
personal space acceptable, and the child’s response gives another indication of their
temperament. Finally, if a special distraction technique is going to be used at the

time of induction (such as stickers, a toy, video game), it is worth mentioning it to
build-up anticipation of something exciting or interesting for the child to look for-
ward to.
Keypoint
Pharmacological premedication and distraction are the two best techniques to
reduce anxiety and maintain cooperation at induction.
3.4.3 Children Who May Benefit from a Premed
The child’s anxiety level usually increases leading up to induction (Fig. 3.1) and
allowance needs to be made for this at the time of assessment. There are several
signs suggesting a premed may be beneficial (Table 3.8). It would be uncommon for
a premed to be given to children younger than 12 months, but practice varies with
1–2 year old children—they are not usually cooperative at induction, but also may
not like taking a premed that won’t necessarily guarantee cooperation at induction,
and may make the child dysphoric if the procedure is short and the premed still hav-
ing an effect postop.
Young preschool-aged children are the most likely to require a premed. Whether
or not one is used depends on a complex interaction between the child’s tempera-
ment, their anxiety and their coping mechanisms, the procedure, and the anesthe-
tist’s ability to distract and occupy the child at induction.
Some of the most difficult children to detect anxiety in are 8–10 year old girls.
They are mature enough to initially appear confident and control overt signs of anxi-
ety, but then become unable to control their anxiety and become fearful and unco-
operative at induction. They are also an age group in which it is difficult to justify
using restraint. It is therefore important to try and pick which children may benefit
from a premed, or have a low threshold for giving a premed. Unusually boisterous,
school-aged children are another group in whom it may be difficult to detect anxi-
ety. While boisterous behavior reflects the personality of children, in others it is a
sign of anxiety.
Table 3.8 Signs from history and examination that may indicate that a premed is needed
Indicators at time of preoperative visit that premed is likely to be required
Preschool age—5 years and younger
Previous hospitalizations or procedures
Previous difficult or traumatic induction
Boisterous, over-talkative school-aged child
Teary
Quiet, shy, clingy, withdrawn
Child remarks ‘doesn’t like mask or needle’
Poor eye contact
Very anxious parent
Children older than about 10–12 years tend to remain cooperative even if anx-
ious, like adults. They often benefit from a ‘small’ premed (eg midazolam 0.25–
0.3 mg/kg) to reduce anxiety and make their experience more pleasant.
Some children require a ‘stronger’ premed than midazolam or clonidine. These
children include those with autism, previous bad anesthetic or surgical experience,
and older anxious children who are defiant. Premed options include clonidine fol-
lowed later by midazolam, and ketamine with or without midazolam.
Tip
Beware the boisterous school aged boy—their chatty over talkative state may
reflect underlying anxiety.
3.4.4 The Child Who Refuses to Drink the Premed
Sometimes, children won’t even cooperate to take an oral premed. Some may take
the midazolam but then spit it out, though at least some will have been absorbed
across the mucosa in the mouth. If the child refuses to take any premed, the next step
depends on many factors. Options include giving the child more time to settle into
the ward and get used to the surroundings and relax, or to try offering a favorite
drink to encourage the child, or giving the parent time to talk or negotiate with their
child. Nasal or buccal midazolam, or nasal dexmedetomidine don’t require coopera-
tion, though coaxing (“grin and show me your sharp teeth” for buccal midazolam)
or restraint might be needed. One could then argue however maybe this is just trans-
ferring the tears from the induction room to the ward. If the child has good veins, an
IV induction might be most straightforward as it can be performed without the child
cooperating. In an older child, surgery might need to be delayed to try again another
day, though this risks the child learning refusal means avoiding the procedure and
so may try the same strategy next time.
3.5 Practical Management at Induction
The child’s anxiety may be maximal at induction, but there are several simple things
the anesthetist can do to reduce it (Table 3.9). The theater environment is threaten-
ing with bright lights, medical equipment and many people in scrubs. Firstly, opti-
mize the environment to make it less threatening—children’s theatres have posters,
toys to look at and hold, murals and anything else to ‘de-hospitalize’ them. Consider
the lighting level, the number of staff present in the room and the medical equip-
ment in the child’s field of vision. Have everything ready to use with tapes, IV
equipment, drugs and distractions all prepared.
If the child walks into theatre, a warm operating table (using a forced air warmer
under the sheet) is more comfortable and may help. A few stickers on the theatre
Table 3.9 Summary of Techniques to keep child relaxed before induction

techniques leading up to Minimize fasting duration
induction that help anxious De hospitalize surroundings, allow child to wear own
child stay calm clothes if appropriate
Have drugs and equipment ready to minimize pauses;
brief and prepare your team
Warm OR table before child lays down
Consider applying monitoring after induction
Stand at the side facing the child at an angle rather than
at head end of table
One person talking and maintaining eye contact
Induce anxious child in ward bed or on parent’s lap if
very anxious
Maintain rhythm and patter of distraction: start
immediately child enters OR, no pauses
table may keep younger children relaxed about hopping onto the table. Walking an
anxious child into theatre however carries a risk of the child refusing to hop onto the
operating table or trying to leave. Consider taking anxious children into theatre on
a stretcher, as the child is more likely to accept the stretcher in a less threatening
environment away from theatre and then there is more control over the child’s
movements. If the child is settled on the stretcher when entering theatre, the child
could be induced there rather than shifting them and arousing anxiety and reducing
cooperation. An anxious child might sit up on the table but not lay down. It is easier
to control the child during induction if they lie down, but forcing them to lie down
might tip them into becoming uncooperative there and then.
Consider standing beside the bed to face the child at an angle during induction—
the airway is not the main concern at this point in the induction. Standing at the head
end of the bed is a carry-over from adult anesthesia, stops eye contact with the child
and is frightening for the child.
Distraction is the most important technique to reduce anxiety and maintain coop-
eration. The best distraction starts before entering theatre and then grabs their atten-
tion again the moment the child enters the OR. Only one person should be talking
and getting the child’s attention. Keep talking, maintaining the patter and rhythm of
the distraction you use. Many types of distraction are possible (Table 3.10) depend-
ing on a mix of the anesthetist’s personality, the theatre environment and child’s age.
Video clips, and probably virtual or augmented reality in the future, are effective
distraction—passive animated video clips for preschool children and interactive
games for older children. As children are already familiar with video clips, they
need to be unique or special to be a strong distractor at induction when anxiety
peaks. Some suggest they are better for IV induction, while inhalational induction
is better with distraction that includes interaction between the anesthetist and child.
A relaxed anesthetist helps keep the child relaxed and cooperative. Being confi-
dent about airway management helps the anesthetist stay relaxed—another reason
why the airway is such a key part of pediatric anesthesia training. While distracting
Table 3.10 Some distraction strategies for use at induction for children of different ages
Distraction strategies
• Bucket of stickers
Say a sentence or two about what’s on the sticker. Keep asking them to choose between two
stickers; Keep showing new stickers to keep child’s attention. Parents can often help with this
• Magic tricks
Visit a magic store for some easy, close-up magic tricks. A magic coloring book is easy to use
and a great relaxer for child and parent
• Play a video clip or game on a laptop computer or hand-held device
• Blow bubbles
• Pull a small toy out of your pocket
A dolphin, kaleidoscope, picture viewer, farm animal, dinosaur, something that lights up.
Describe the toy to make up a little story
• Tell a story
Some include the smell of the volatile into their story (rocket fuel/dinosaur poo/seaweed/
Mum’s perfume)
• Ask the child count the number of a certain thing on the ceiling in OR (lights, ceiling tiles)
the child, it is also important not to offer too many choices, or choices where the
child has no real choice (“are you ready for mask now?”).
Note
Keep the flow of the induction process and distraction going—gaps or pauses
make it more likely that the child’s anxiety will increase.
3.5.1 Intravenous Induction
IV inductions have become the most common method in many countries. Less
cooperation is required from the child compared to inhalational induction, but the
anesthetist needs to be adept at pain-free IV cannulation. The techniques of IV can-
nulation are described in Chap. 1, Sect. 1.5. Some children will only allow one
attempt, particularly if the needle is felt. Local anesthetic creams are not always
entirely effective and there is often much anticipation and fear in the child’s mind.
If distraction is not kept going through the induction, the child may focus on the
needle, becoming more and more anxious. Sometimes with older children it is
worth placing the facemask on to give oxygen with or without nitrous oxide so that
the child focuses on the feel and smell of the mask rather than the needle.
Most anesthetists hide the child’s hand during the IV insertion. If the child is sit-
ting sideways across the parent’s lap, the child’s arm that is closest to the parent is
brought under the parent’s arm and behind their back (see Fig. 1.2). If the child is
lying flat, the blanket or a child’s toy is used to hide the hand while the IV is inserted.
The assistant holds the child’s forearm and uses their other hand to keep the child’s
elbow straight against the bed so it is at a mechanical disadvantage. The assistant
can also use their body to block the child’s view of the IV catheter. Adolescents
generally remain cooperative with an IV induction but can be extremely nervous,
vasoconstricted and have difficult veins. Consider applying an elastic tourniquet as
early as possible to maximize the time to distend a vein, and using a fine catheter for
induction before inserting and a larger catheter later.
Tip
The facemask can be used to distract adolescents and older children nervous
about needles. Give oxygen with or without nitrous oxide. Note that older
children may become very dysphoric after 45–60 s of nitrous oxide so IV
insertion needs to be prompt if using this technique.
3.5.2 Inhalational Induction
A pleasant inhalational induction requires more behavioral management than an IV

induction because the child’s cooperation needs to be maintained for up to a minute.
A pleasant inhalational induction means the next anesthetist who looks after the
child will be permitted to do an inhalational induction. There are two stages: mask
acceptance and delivery of anesthetic gases.
The face is a very personal area of the body and mask acceptance can be difficult.
(This is why mask acceptance is often used as a measure of cooperation in studies
of the effectiveness of premedication.) Having the child relaxed, trusting and dis-
tracted all help to facilitate mask acceptance. Your best, strongest distraction is
handy to help get the mask on and keep it on—your best sticker, your best joke, the
best toy out of your pocket. Some give the mask to the child in the theatre waiting
area. However, if the child rejects the mask at this stage, it will be difficult to con-
vince the child to accept it later, no matter how much distraction is used. Some put
the mask onto the child’s face without any anesthetic circuit attached. However, the
mask is no less threatening this way and it then has to be accepted by the child a
second time with the circuit attached and gas flowing. It is however helpful to touch
the mask onto the child’s hand or arm, showing them how soft it feels, before put-
ting it on to their face. Scented, clear plastic masks help with acceptance and during
nitrous oxide, but do not hide the smell of sevoflurane.
Tip
Do not underestimate the achievement of getting a facemask onto a young
child without losing their cooperation! Mask acceptance can be tricky, so it is
best to have the mask connected to the circuit and nitrous oxide running. No
point in getting the mask on the face once but without anything connected and
then having to do it again.
Delivery of the anesthetic gases also has two stages. Initially, nitrous oxide
50–66% is given for 20–40 s before sevoflurane is introduced. If nitrous is given too
long, the child may become dysphoric and reject the mask; too short and the sevo-
flurane will be smelt when it is introduced and the mask rejected. Nitrous does not
help if the child is already crying, and some would say there is no need to use it for
children younger than about 2 years. The second gas and concentration effects of
nitrous oxide are clinically weak, and the reason for using nitrous oxide is to reduce
the impact of the smell of sevoflurane. Although it is possible to perform an inhala-
tional induction without nitrous oxide, it can be difficult to maintain mask accep-
tance as sevoflurane begins.
After nitrous oxide has been given, sevoflurane is introduced (if the sevoflurane
is already flowing when the mask is placed, the acceptance rate is low). Sevoflurane
can be started at 8% immediately if the child has had nitrous oxide and a circle cir-
cuit is used. Some incrementally increase the sevoflurane, but this prolongs induc-
tion, increases excitatory phenomena and is probably a leftover practice from
halothane inductions. If a T-piece circuit is used however, it does seem better to use
0.25–0.5% for a few breaths before turning to 8%—perhaps the fresh gas hose
directing vapor straight onto the nose under the T-piece connector is too strong with
8% sevoflurane.
Keypoint
Be flexible in your induction strategy. Have a plan B ready to quickly change
to if your first option looks likely to end in tears.
3.5.3 The Steal Induction
Children who arrive for induction already asleep can be safely anesthetized where
they are—in the mother’s arms, in their ward beds, or even their pram or pushchair.
With nitrous oxide flowing, the mask is placed as close as possible to the face, trying
not to put the cold plastic onto the child’s skin initially in case they wake up. The
aim is to induce anesthesia without the child waking. Success is termed a ‘steal
induction’.
3.5.4 Restraint and Therapeutic Holding
Sometimes the smooth and happy induction we all strive for doesn’t happen. As a
last resort and when other strategies have failed, restraint may be needed to insert an
IV or to keep the mask on the child’s face during induction. Restraint is considered
acceptable in infants, but becomes less acceptable as the child gets older. An induc-
tion requiring restraint is more likely to be associated with behavioral disturbances
afterwards. Restraint of a child older than 8 or 10 years would be exceptional and is
upsetting to the child, parent and staff. It is common at this age to return the child to
the ward for a premed or to reschedule surgery for another time. The older the child,
the more distressing it is for everyone involved. Behavioral management aims to
predict and avoid this scenario as much as possible.
Various reality factors are considered at the time of induction to decide if restraint
is reasonable. The urgency of surgery, parents having taken time off work, the abil-
ity to reschedule the operating list and the loss of time with returning the child to the
ward are all factors to consider. Great care should be taken with the induction if the
child will return to theatre for more surgery—you will succeed in holding the child
down and ‘getting it over and done with’, but the anesthetist for the child next time
will face a very difficult task and the child is likely to develop dysfunctional
behavior.
There is a technique in restraining a young child lying down. The arms and hands
are held to stop them pulling the mask or IV away and the shoulders are held down
to keep them at a mechanical disadvantage and the head still. Constraining the legs
(allowing movement but stopping kicking) is best as completely restraining the legs
gives the child traction to push their pelvis and body up off the bed.
3.6 Refusal to Undergo Anesthesia
The legal and ethical issues involved in consent and informed refusal of treatment
are dealt with in Chap. 1. Children will often refuse anesthesia and surgery because
of fear. Older children may decide rationally that proceeding with surgery might not
be in their best interests, but immediately before surgery it is likely anxiety, fear and
an aim of going home and away from the hospital is driving their decision. They are
therefore not likely to be competent to understand the implications of not having
surgery. The care of a school aged child who is scared and refuses induction can be
a huge challenge. Restraining the child for induction is a last resort, and a combina-
tion of discussion, negotiation, premedication or returning another day are all strate-
gies to have available (Table 3.11).
Table 3.11 A series of strategies to progress through to deal with a school-aged child who refuses
induction or surgery
Strategies for older child who refuses treatment for elective surgery
Discuss, build rapport, identify specific fears
Return to ward, premed with midazolam or use ketamine + midazolam if extreme anxiety and
fear (increased risk of PONV with this combined premed)
If refuse oral premed, allow time for parent and child to come to an agreement
Consider seeking help from a colleague who may interact differently with the child
Discharge and reschedule. Consider counselling if circumstances dictate
3.7 Conclusion
Remember that while this might be a routine day for you, this might be the biggest
day of the child’s and their family’s life. Learn to identify, acknowledge and manage
the parent’s and child’s anxiety and be rewarded by witnessing a grateful family’s
journey through anesthesia and surgery. Bear in mind that at induction, some chil-
dren will always be happy and cooperative but others will be teary and uncoopera-
tive no matter what you do. In between are the majority who could behave either
way according to a variety of factors and things that you do. Use the techniques
described in this chapter to maximize the number of calm and smooth inductions in
your practice.
Review Questions
1. What factors are associated with increased anxiety in children at induction?

2. An 11 year old girl has been brought to the induction room before a hernia repair
under GA. She keeps her arms folded and refuses to put out her hand for an
IV. What will you do?
3. The mother of a 5 year old boy who has had multiple GA’s and appears fright-
ened requests a premed for her son. What premed would you use, and why?
Further Reading
Child Development and Preparation
Adler AC, et al. Preparing your pediatric patients and their families for the operating room: reduc-
ing fear of the unknown. Pediatr Rev. 2018;39:13–25.
Baxter A. Common office procedures and analgesia considerations. Pediatr Clin North Am.
2013;60:1163–83. A very good section about practical distraction and restraint.
Fortier MA, Kain ZN. Treating perioperative anxiety and pain in children: a tailored and innovative
approach. Pediatr Anesth. 2015;25:27–35. A paper from the leading researcher in perioperative
anxiety that includes a broad review of perioperative anxiety and its consequences.
Kain ZN. Anesthesia and surgery in children: reducing pain and fear. Youtube video 2014. https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImSBOecUmRY. Accessed July 2019.
Kain ZN, Strom S. Commentaries on ‘Non-pharmacological interventions for assisting the induc-
tion of anesthesia in children’. Evid Based Child Health. 2011;6:137–40. A short article giving
a concise overview of several behavioral techniques in pediatric anesthesia.
Laing R, Cyna A. Hypnosis and communication in paediatric peri-operative care. In: Riley R, edi-
tor. Australasian anesthesia. Melbourne: Aust NZ College Anesthetists; 2017. p. 273–9.
Duff AJA et al. Management of distressing procedures in children and young people: time to
adhere to the guidelines. Arch Dis Child. 2012;97:1–4.
Royal College of Anaesthetists, UK. Information for children, carers and parents. www.rcoa.ac.uk/
node/429. (Cartoon style story books to download for children to read with their parents).
Premedication and Induction
Banchs RJ, Lerman J. Preoperative anxiety management, emergence delirium and postoperative
behavior. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014;32:1–23.
Hearst D. The runaway child: managing anticipatory fear, resistance and distress in children under-
going surgery. Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:1014–6. A case scenario of a 10y old child, and also a
brief review of behavioral stages during growth.
Lambert P, et al. Clonidine premedication for postoperative analgesia in children. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev. 2014;(1):CD009633. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009633.pub2.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009633.pub2/epdf.
Litman RS. Allaying anxiety in children. Anesthesiology. 2011;115:4–5. Editorial accompanying
paper about health care provider behaviors and their effect on anxiety at induction.
Rosenbaum A, Kain ZN, Larsson P, Lonnqvist P. The place of premedication in pediatric practice.
Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:817–28. A debate that discusses the advantages and disadvantages of
pharmacological premedication, particularly clonidine.
While A. Personal view. Br Med J. 1985;291:343. The APRICOT study of 2017 showed parents
were present only 50% of inductions in Europe. In this old but still relevant letter, an ophthal-
mologist describes what happened and how he felt when his child was taken from him into
theatre for a traumatic gas induction.
Hypnosis
Kuttner L. Pediatric hypnosis: pre-, peri, and post-anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth. 2012;22:573–7. A
review article giving an introduction to hypnosis, including the ‘magic glove’ technique for IV
insertion.
The ‘magic glove technique’ by Leora Kuttner from Vancouver Children’s Hospital: youtube.com/
watch?v=cyApK8Z_SQQ. Accessed July 2019.
Restraint
Homer JR, Bass S. Physically restraining children for induction of anesthesia: survey of consultant
pediatric anesthetists. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:638–46.
Walker H. The child who refuses to undergo anesthesia and surgery—a case based scenario-based
discussion of the ethical and legal issues. Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:1017–21.
Airway Management in Children
4
Britta von Ungern-Sternberg and Craig Sims
The core airway skills for anesthetists caring for children are face mask ventilation,
LMA insertion, laryngoscopy and intubation, and selecting the appropriate sized
ETT. Airway management is such an important part of pediatric anesthesia because
respiratory complications are the commonest cause of morbidity and mortality in
children without cardiac malformations. Respiratory events cause over three quar-
ters of critical incidents and nearly a third of perioperative cardiac arrests. Not sur-
prisingly, airway obstruction leading to hypoxia and bradycardia or asystole is a
huge fear for anesthetists who do not routinely look after children. Airway manage-
ment, especially face mask ventilation, is the most important skill to learn during
pediatric training. It is the technique that will be required when there is airway
obstruction and hypoxia.
Tip
Anesthetized children have airway problems more than cardiovascular prob-
lems. As a trainee, to gain more experience with airway management, avoid
just inserting an LMA early on in the anesthetic then returning the child to
recovery with the LMA in situ as you might with an adult.
B. von Ungern-Sternberg (*)

Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
e-mail: Britta.Regli-VonUngern@health.wa.gov.au
C. Sims
e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_4
78 B. von Ungern-Sternberg and C. Sims
Table 4.1 Anatomical differences in infants and children compared to adults and their conse-
quences for clinical practice
Difference in neonate and infant Consequence
High metabolic rate Desaturate quickly during apnea or airway
obstruction
Large head Use head ring rather than pillow (Fig. 4.3)
No nasal turbinates Less resistance to passage of nasal ETT
Soft, compressible floor of mouth in infants Pressure from anesthetist’s fingers can push
tongue against roof of mouth obstructing the
airway—be careful to place fingers only on
bony structures during airway maneuvers
Obtuse mandibular angle of 140° (adult 120) Tongue closer to roof of mouth and
Large tongue relative to mouth size obstruction more likely. Harder to compress
Higher, slightly anterior larynx (vocal cords tongue with laryngoscope and align visual
opposite C3; adult C5) axes of mouth, pharynx and larynx. Larynx
appears to be more anterior at intubation, and
forward flexion of neck does not improve
laryngeal view
Long, thin U-shaped epiglottis with small Large floppy epiglottis more likely to require
amount of cartilage. Broad and fleshy physical displacement to view glottis (lift
ary-epiglottic folds. Large, mobile arytenoids directly with straight blade). More likely to
Vocal cords angled slightly anterior (adult have ETT catch on glottic opening
perpendicular) Supraglottic structures more likely to feature
in pathology
Cricoid ring is narrowest part of airway until Determines ETT size
puberty (adult: glottic opening)
Trachea soft and compliant Collapse of extrathoracic trachea in upper
airway obstruction
Ribcage soft and compliant Indrawing of chest in upper airway obstruction
4.1 Airway Anatomy
A child’s airway is different to an adult’s airway and is managed with different

techniques and equipment (Table 4.1). The differences are more pronounced in
infants—airway problems are four times more common in infants than in older
children.
4.1.1 Nasal Breathing
Most infants are primarily nasal breathers for the first months of life. Their oral
airway can easily be obstructed by a relatively large tongue and high epiglottis that
may rest against the soft palate, and coordination between the respiratory and pha-
ryngeal muscles is immature. Some neonates and infants can switch to mouth
breathing if their nose is occluded (8% of preterm babies, 40% of term babies).
Infants easily mouth breath after 3–5 months of age. The nose contributes only 25%
of airway resistance in infants, compared to 60% in adults—most of an infant’s
airway resistance is in the distal airways. Nevertheless, a young infant whose nose
4 Airway Management in Children 79
is blocked by secretions or a nasogastric tube may struggle and persist with nasal
breathing rather than mouth breath.
Keypoint
Infants can feed and breathe at the same time. This is possible because the lar-
ynx is high in the neck, bringing the epiglottis and soft palate together. This and
other changes allow milk to enter the esophagus at the same time as air is enter-
ing the trachea. Two of the consequences of this anatomy are that young infants
breath primarily through the nose and they cannot have articulated speech.
4.1.2 The Pharyngeal Airway
Infants have a collapsible pharyngeal airway due to lax tissues and a small muscular
contribution to airway patency. Airway patency improves over the first 8 weeks as
muscle coordination matures. Skeletal growth during the first year increases the size of
the mandible and maxilla relative to the tongue and further improves airway patency.
4.1.3 The Larynx and Cricoid Cartilage
The larynx is higher in the neck to allow breathing during feeding (Fig. 4.1). The
larynx descends during the first 2 years, then remains in the same position until
Neonate Child
Large tongue
relative to oral
cavity
High epiglottis,
almost touching Level Level
soft palate of C3 of C4
(C5 in
adult)
High larynx
Fig. 4.1 Cross section of infant and child airway, showing anatomical changes that cause obligate
nasal breathing (Modified from Isono, Pediatr Anesth 2006;16: 109–22 and Westhorpe, Anaesth
Int Care 1987;15: 384–8)
Fig. 4.2 A small amount 0.5 mm edema

of mucosal edema over the narrows airway,
cricoid cartilage in the Infant increases
infant significantly narrows resistance
the airway diameter and
increases airway
resistance. The same 0.5 mm edema
edema in an adult does not slightly narrows
significantly affect the Adult airway, minimal
airway increase in
resistance
puberty when the thyroid cartilages grow and it descends to the adult position.
Although the infant larynx is slightly more anterior than in the adult, it is its high
position that makes it appear to be anterior at laryngoscopy because alignment of
the visual axes of the mouth and glottis is more difficult.
The infant larynx is said to be funnel-shaped because when the vocal cords are
widely abducted, its inlet tapers from the glottic opening to the smaller and almost
circular cricoid ring. Although recent MRI studies suggest the narrowest part may
be the glottis, this part of the airway is pliable and moves out of the way during
intubation. The cricoid ring is the narrowest part of the airway until puberty and
determines the size of an ETT in children. The cricoid is classically described as
circular like a signet ring (because the posterior part is broader than the thin anterior
part). It is however, slightly elliptical. Nevertheless, its almost circular shape means
that a round ETT can usually make a sufficient seal without a cuff. Mucosal edema
at the level of the cricoid is a concern in infants and young children. In a baby with
a cricoid diameter of only 4 mm, even a small amount of edema over the cricoid
greatly increases airway resistance and may cause post-extubation stridor (Fig. 4.2).
Note
The larynx is higher in the neck of neonates and infants, making it appear
more anterior at laryngoscopy.
Keypoint
Airway trauma from intubation in a young child may cause edema and post
extubation stridor in the short term, and subglottic stenosis in the long term.
4.2 Assessment of the Airway
Older children can be assessed as an adult would be, although the Mallampati score
and thyromental distance tend not to be used because they are not validated in chil-
dren. History is usually non-specific in routine cases, although symptoms of
obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may indicate adenotonsillar hypertrophy and more
difficult mask ventilation. Younger children may not cooperate with a formal exami-
nation. Instead, they are observed for abnormalities of mouth opening and neck
movement. Children differ from adults in that a child who is difficult to intubate will
usually look difficult to intubate, whereas adults who are difficult to intubate may
look normal. However, the unexpected difficult airway does exist and preparations
for it need to be taken for any anesthetic.
The most important observation of the airway in children is the jaw size. A small
jaw (retrognathia or micrognathia) gives less space between the tongue and soft pal-
ate for a clear airway and less space to compress the tongue during laryngoscopy. It
is the reason babies with Robin sequence can be difficult to intubate.
Keypoint
Micrognathia is a common and important indicator of intubation difficulty. It
makes direct laryngoscopy difficult because there is little room for the blade
to compress the tongue and give a direct line-of-sight view of the vocal cords.
4.3 Upper Airway Obstruction
Anatomical differences predispose children to upper airway obstruction, and hypoxia

may develop quickly because they have a high oxygen consumption and smaller
oxygen reserve (lower functional residual capacity (FRC), higher closing volume).
4.3.1 Signs of Upper Airway Obstruction
The symptoms and signs of airway obstruction vary with the level and cause of
obstruction and with the age of the child (Table 4.2). Extrathoracic airway obstruc-
tion worsens during inspiration, and so inspiratory stridor and prolonged inspiration
are the cardinal signs of upper airway obstruction. The pitch of the stridor may give
clues to the location of the obstruction, as does the voice—a muffled voice indicates
a supraglottic obstruction (for example, epiglottitis), whereas a hoarse voice or
aphonia indicates glottic obstruction (eg laryngotracheobronchitis; croup).
Table 4.2 Signs of upper airway obstruction in children

Signs of upper airway obstruction
Inspiratory stridor and prolonged inspiration
Voice changes
Rocking chest and abdomen during breathing
Use of accessory muscles:
– Tracheal tug
– Flaring nostrils
– Intercostal chest retractions
Tachypnea and tachycardia
Anxious and restless initially, lethargic later
Indrawing of the chest wall occurs during obstruction, especially in young chil-
dren who have pliable, cartilaginous rib cages. Obstruction also causes a rocking
paradoxical movement of the chest and abdomen—the abdomen moves outwards
from descent of the diaphragm while the chest collapses inwards from negative
intrapleural pressure. As obstruction worsens, the work of breathing increases and
accessory muscles become active with flaring of the nostrils and tracheal tug.
Initially, an awake child with airway obstruction is tachypneic and tachycardic.
Eventually the child may tire and respiratory effort fades. Infants and neonates rap-
idly fatigue and may develop apneic episodes as a result of airway obstruction.
4.3.2 ite of Upper Airway Obstruction During Anesthesia

S
in Children
In sedated or anesthetized children, loss of muscle tone in the airway reduces

patency and narrows the entire upper airway. Most obstruction, however, is at the
level of the soft palate and the epiglottis. In contrast, upper airway obstruction in
adults occurs at the level of the base of the tongue from loss of tone in the genioglos-
sus muscle. At either age, resistance during inspiration generates a negative airway
pressure and worsens airway collapse.
4.4 The Mask Airway and Mask Ventilation
Many adult techniques are applicable for the management of a child’s airway.
Always actively manage the child’s airway to learn the best way to obtain a clear
airway in that child and to detect airway obstruction within a breath or two. Active
airway management means holding the rebreathing bag and moving your hand gen-
tly with each breath, assisting the breathing and providing continuous positive air-
way pressure (CPAP) if needed.
4.4.1 Face Masks
Children have large cheeks and a relatively small nose bridge, resulting in their face
being in one plane. This allows masks with a soft, flat cuff to form a seal—even a
circular shape such as the Laerdal silicone resuscitation mask can be used. The cuff
should be neither too soft nor too hard—soft enough to conform to facial contours,
but not so soft that forming a seal is difficult and not so hard that the mask does not
conform to the face. Adults have a more prominent nose bridge, and a contoured
mask is needed to form a seal. Teenagers have a prominent nose bridge and may
need an adult mask.
Table 4.3 Summary of main airway Important airway maneuvers to overcome

maneuvers to obtain patent airway in a upper airway obstruction
child Head and neck position
Jaw thrust (not just chin lift)
CPAP
Oral (or nasal) airway
Positioning child on side may help
The size of the facemask should allow the mouth to be slightly open, but not
cover the eyes—sit the top part of the cuff on the bridge of the nose and ensure the
lower part sits in the mental groove on the chin. If the mask comes up onto the eyes
or down onto the chin, it is too big. If an infant is settled with a soother or dummy
in its mouth, sometimes a larger mask can be placed over the top of the soother dur-
ing the early stages of induction, changing to a smaller mask later when the soother
is removed.
4.4.2 Opening the Upper Airway
Table 4.3 outlines the most important maneuvers to open the upper airway. Mask
ventilation during upper airway obstruction inflates the stomach. Gastric insuffla-
tion is common in young children when ventilation has been difficult, when no
pressure relief valve is used on the circuit, or when the operator is not experienced
in mask ventilating children.
Tip
Gastric distension pushes the diaphragm upwards and inhibits ventilation.
Remove the air by inserting a suction catheter through the mouth—suction
may or may not be required.
4.4.2.1 Head Position

Because the larynx is relatively high in a young child’s neck, flexion of the neck
does not improve airway patency or the view at intubation—there aren’t enough
cervical vertebral bodies above the larynx for flexion to have any effect. Children
also have a relatively large head and don’t need a pillow to fill the gap between the
back of the head and the bed. Instead, a head ring is used to stabilize the child’s head
(Fig. 4.3). Babies have an even larger head, and although a head ring alone is usu-
ally fine, occasionally a small roll under the shoulders may stop the neck from flex-
ing. Flexion of the head of a neonate or baby may also cause airway obstruction.
This is why it is often recommended that an infant’s head be in a neutral position.
Adult
Child
Fig. 4.3 Babies and children have a relatively large head, do not have a gap between the back of
the head and their back, and do not need neck flexion for intubation. A head ring stabilizes the head
and provides a suitable head position for intubation. Adults need a pillow to fill the gap and flex the
neck to achieve the ‘sniffing’ position needed for intubation
However, neonates and infants benefit from extension of the atlanto-occipital joint
just as the older child does, provided extreme extension is avoided.
Note
Positioning for direct laryngoscopy is different in adults and children. Adults
are placed in the ‘sniffing’ position (neck flexed, head extended). Children
don’t benefit from neck flexion during intubation because their larynx is rela-
tively high. Only extension of the atlanto-axial joint to tilt the head back is
needed.
4.4.2.2 Hand Position

In preschool children, the nasal passage is often blocked, making ventilation via the
nose difficult. It is therefore important to hold the mouth open during mask ventila-
tion. An oral airway can be used, but appropriate sizing is vital since it can irritate
the airway and lead to respiratory adverse events or block the airway if the wrong
size has been chosen. The most effective maneuvers to get an open airway are
Mask held onto

face with thumb
and index finger
Third and fourth

fingers gently
resting on lower
jaw
Fifth (little) finger pulling

angle of jaw forward
Fig. 4.4 Pulling the jaw forward is more effective than tilting the chin and head backwards. The
fourth (little) finger is behind the angle of the jaw pulling it forwards while the mask is held by the
thumb and index finger
forward jaw thrust and CPAP. Jaw thrust can be achieved with the third or fourth
(little) finger behind the angle of the jaw (Fig. 4.4). Tilting the chin and head back-
wards is not as effective. It is important not to apply pressure to the floor of the
mouth as this may compress the tongue against the palate.
Tip
Try to hold the mask using a technique that incorporates jaw-thrust. This tech-
nique doesn’t force the mouth shut, doesn’t apply pressure to the floor of the
mouth, and keeps one hand free for ventilation or CPAP. It avoids the need for
a two-handed, two-person technique when difficulties arise.
4.4.2.3 Oral and Nasal Airways

Oral airways may be useful, but are not routinely needed in children. The correct
sized airway is chosen by measuring against the side of the face—with the flange at
the level of the incisors, the tip should be adjacent to the angle of the mandible. If
the airway is too small it is ineffective and if too large it may touch or fold down the
epiglottis and cause obstruction or laryngospasm (Fig. 4.5). Insertion of the airway
at an inadequate depth of anesthesia can trigger laryngeal responses.
Nasopharyngeal airways are occasionally used as they are better tolerated in the
conscious patient. Small, soft nasopharyngeal airways are available, but some are too
long if inserted fully with the collar against the nostril. The size of the airway is
selected by matching its length to the distance between the nose and tragus of the ear.
An alternative to a purpose-made made nasopharyngeal airway is a shortened, age-
appropriate ETT taped or pinned in place so that it cannot migrate inwards or out-
wards, and labelled so that it is not mistaken for a tracheal tube. Position the nasal
airway carefully so that it is just below the soft palate, but not touching the epiglottis.
They can sometimes cause trauma and bleeding from the nose or adenoids.
4.4.2.4 CPAP
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) refers to a positive airway pressure
maintained throughout spontaneous breathing. The aim is to keep the airway pressure
positive during inspiration and stop collapse of the extra-thoracic part of the airway
(Fig. 4.6a). CPAP increases functional residual capacity, may reduce the work of
Correct size Too small Too large
Fig. 4.5 Oral airway size selection. Correct size (left) sits over tongue and away from epiglottis.
Too small (middle) is occluded by tongue, and may push the tongue backwards. Too large (right)
may touch epiglottis and fold it down or trigger laryngospasm
a b
Partially closing the
No CPAP CPAP/ BiPAP APL valve is not CPAP
Airway pressure
Airway pressure
5 5
Insp Exp Insp Exp
0 Insp Exp
0
–5 –5
Paw falls during Paw rises during Paw falls during inspiration, and
inspiration; airway inspiration; airway rises during expiration, increasing
collapses splinted open work of breathing and reducing Vt
Fig. 4.6 Airway pressure during spontaneous ventilation. (a) Without CPAP (left curve), airway
pressure becomes negative during inspiration and the extrathoracic airway may collapse and
obstruct. In theater, CPAP is provided by gently squeezing the bag just before and during inspira-
tion so that airway pressure is always above atmospheric pressure (right curve). (b) Some suggest
CPAP by partially closing the adjustable pressure limiting (APL) valve, or partially occluding the
T-Piece. When this is done, note that expiration is now the positive waveform, and airway pressure
still falls during inspiration. Also, resistance to expiratory flow increases the work of breathing
when the APL valve is partly closed. Insp Inspiration, Exp Expiration
breathing and improves oxygenation. It is a very important airway skill to learn, and
is the technique needed during airway obstruction at induction or emergence.
Keypoint
CPAP and jaw thrust are the most important maneuvers to learn to maintain
an open airway in children.
Tip: To Apply CPAP

Ensure you have an effective mask seal (use finesse, not force!) with one-
handed jaw thrust.
Partially close the APL valve and keep the bag tight during the expiratory pause.
Feel the bag & watch the chest for the start of inspiration.
Gently squeeze the bag as soon as inspiration starts.
Squeeze gently, feeling for feedback that air has entered chest. If the bag is
squeezed too hard before confirming this, the stomach might inflate.
Once you have the ‘feel’ for airway patency and respiratory rhythm,
increase the bag squeeze and pressure support, and start to squeeze slightly
before inspiration starts (anticipating when the next breath is about to start).
CPAP requires a circuit that can keep the airway pressure positive during inspira-
tion. Simply closing the APL valve on a circle circuit or kinking the tail of a T-piece
circuit does not produce CPAP (Fig. 4.6b). The simplest method in practice is to
gently squeeze the rebreathing bag at the very start of inspiration, keeping the bag
slightly distended during expiration so that there is minimal lag between the start of
the child’s inspiration and the bag producing a positive pressure. This technique is
called CPAP, but is probably more correctly a manual form of pressure support
ventilation. Some centers use the pressure-support mode of the anesthetic ventilator
during induction.
4.4.2.5 Difficult Facemask Ventilation

Unexpected difficult facemask ventilation is the commonest problem in clinical
practice. Although imperfect technique, inadequate anesthetic depth and large ade-
noids and tonsils are the commonest causes, there are several others to consider
(Table 4.4). Difficult mask ventilation is resolved using the same steps as in adults:
Table 4.4 Common causes Common causes of difficult facemask ventilation

of difficult facemask Technique
ventilation in children Large tonsils and adenoids; obesity
Inadequate depth of anesthesia or paralysis
Laryngospasm
Congenital or pathological conditions
Alveolar collapse and reduced compliance
Air in stomach
Bronchospasm
The first three are the commonest soon after induction
optimize the head position, open the mouth, and consider anesthetic depth, muscle
relaxation and equipment issues. Then insert an oral airway, try an LMA or other
SAD, and finally attempt intubation.
4.5 The LMA and Other Supraglottic Airway Devices
The LMA has become as popular in children as in adults for allowing a hands-free
technique. Avoiding intubation of the easily irritated pediatric tracheobronchial tree
confers additional benefits. There are fewer respiratory events during anesthesia in
infants and children having minor elective surgery when an LMA is used rather than
ETT (Fig. 4.7).
4.5.1 Classic and Classic-Style LMA
The Classic LMA is a scaled-down model of the adult version, and disposable ver-
sions are available in pediatric sizes (Table 4.5). The size 1 LMA tends to give a less
reliable airway than the larger sizes, and the pre-formed second generation LMAs
Fig. 4.7 The LMA is 15

associated with a lower
frequency of serious ETT
airway complications in
LMA
infants older than 3 months
and children. Data from
10
Frequency (%)
Drake-Brockman TFE
et al., Lancet 2017
0
Bronchospasm Laryngospasm
Table 4.5 Child weight and recommended LMA size

LMA
Device size Weight range (kg)
1 2–5
1.5 5–10
2 10–20
2.5 20–30
3 >30
are superior to the classic model. Inflating the cuff to a pressure of 40 cmH2O gives
the best airway seal in children with the least air leak and sore throat. Inflation of the
cuff with a set volume or to a clinical end point causes hyperinflation and increases
air leak and sore throat. If there is a leak around the cuff, deflation of the cuff or
repositioning of the LMA have a higher rate of success than the often-performed
additional inflation (which in turn leads to a stiffer cuff that does not mould to the
pharyngeal shape). Insertion of sizes 2.5 and smaller can be straight-in as recom-
mended by the manufacturer, or with a twisting, upside-down technique with a par-
tially inflated LMA—similar to inserting a guedel airway. This rotational technique
has a high success rate with the advantage of guiding the LMA tip past the tonsils
and down behind the tongue without placing fingers in the patient’s mouth.
A clinically acceptable airway is obtained with the LMA in 92–99% of children
(similar to adults), but the incidence of partial airway obstruction seen on fiberoptic
assessment in children is up to 19% (higher than adults). In infants, the pharyngeal
seal is not as good and there is a lower cuff leak pressure compared with older chil-
dren. Malpositioning is more common with the smaller sizes of LMA, and is usually
due to the epiglottis being caught within the LMA. Bilateral jaw thrust by a second
person during insertion of the LMA improves positioning. The chest and abdomen
sometimes have a rocking movement during spontaneous ventilation due to partial
airway obstruction. Despite all of this, a clear airway is usually obtained with an
LMA, although it is important to check that the tidal volume is adequate and that the
child is not working too hard at breathing. Pressure support ventilation is usual
nowadays with modern anesthesia ventilators.
4.5.2 econd Generation LMAs and Other Supraglottic

S
Airway Devices
The first generation LMA is still commonly used in children because of cost, famil-
iarity and good performance in clinical practice. However, there is good evidence
second generation devices are superior, with the gastric channel being useful to
release trapped air. The pediatric Proseal LMA® (PLMA) does not have the dorsal
cuff of the adult sizes, and is not available in single-use versions. The iGel® is effec-
tive in infants and children, but there may be a large leak until the cuff warms,
softens and conforms to the pharynx. It also has a tendency to migrate outwards,
requiring extra taping or repositioning.
4.5.3 Removal of LMAs
LMAs are commonly removed while the child is still deeply anaesthetized. A deeply
anaesthetized child in the lateral position usually has a clear airway (unlike adults)
and so there is less to gain from leaving the LMA in situ in PACU. Although it is
clear awake removal is better in adults, in children it is not so certain and studies
point either way, partly because of differences in definitions of ‘awake’, or of
complications. There is little difference in the incidence of laryngospasm if the

LMA is removed deep or awake in healthy children. However, in children with
increased bronchial hyper-reactivity or those with risk factors for respiratory adverse
events, deep removal is superior to avoid complications. The experience of PACU
staff must be considered before planning to leave the LMA in for later awake
removal. If removing deep, the child should be in the lateral position. If awake, the
child should be very awake, defined by Archie Brain as being after the onset of
swallowing and when the child is either able to open the mouth to command or
expel the LMA spontaneously.
4.6 Laryngoscopes
There are several blades for direct laryngoscopy available for children. However
only two are needed for routine anesthesia in children—the size 1 Miller blade for
neonates and infants, and the size 3 (adult) Mac blade for children.
4.6.1 The Miller Blade
The Miller blade is a straight blade for neonates and infants up to about 18 months.
It is the classic blade for neonates because of their small mouth, high larynx and
floppy epiglottis. Size 1 is the most commonly used size, and size 0 is best for neo-
nates weighing less than about 1 kg. The technique requires some practice, and is
outlined in Table 4.6. Common mistakes are failing to control the tongue and sweep
it across to the left (same as when using a Mac blade), and failing to get the blade
out of the corner of the mouth, so the ETT has to almost be passed down the bore of
the Miller blade, blocking the view. Although the classic technique with the Miller
blade is to lift the epiglottis directly, it is usually adequate to lift it indirectly, like a
Mac blade, and use laryngeal pressure if needed to improve the view. This technique
was described by Miller himself, and perhaps has the advantage of causing less
stimulation during laryngoscopy.
Note
The infant Miller blade was first described in 1946 by RA Miller (NOT RD
Miller of Miller’s Anesthesia). Free full text of the original description online.
Anesthesiol 1946;7: 205.
Table 4.6 Tips for using the Miller blade in infants and neonates
Technique for using the size 1 Miller blade in neonates
Insert blade in right corner of mouth and sweep tongue swept across to the left
Look in the mouth as you gently advance the blade
Get the blade out of the corner of the mouth and have your assistant retract the right corner of
the mouth
Lift the epiglottis indirectly and use external laryngeal pressure
4.6.2 The MacIntosh Blade
The adult size 3 MacIntosh blade is suitable for children of all ages, including older
infants. In small children, only the thin, distal part of the blade is inserted, leaving
plenty of room in the mouth. Small MacIntosh blades are available but are only
scaled down adult blades without proper adjustment of their proportions. If these
small blades are used for intubation, the thick part of the blade is in the mouth and
takes up more space. They also have a significant curve requiring more mouth open-
ing and force to obtain a direct line of vision. The size 1 MacIntosh and Miller
blades have been shown to give an equivalent view in infants as young as 3 months.
Although the Mac blade is tempting to use because it is familiar, the Miller blade is
needed for neonates, so it is best to gain experience with it on larger infants as well.
Tip
Most children are easy to intubate. If the cords are not clearly seen, resist pull-
ing harder- use external laryngeal pressure (the ‘three-handed’ intubation
technique).
4.6.3 Videolaryngoscopes
The Storz CMAC and McGrath videoscopes are available in pediatric sizes and
have a familiar shape and technique for use. Their role in routine airway manage-
ment is growing, and their role in difficult airway management is discussed later. It
would seem reasonable nowadays to routinely use a videoscope with a Miller or
Mac-shaped blade for intubation of all neonates and infants, to get the best view and
to avoid the occasional awkward intubation using direct laryngoscopy.
4.7 Endotracheal Tubes
Although uncuffed endotracheal tubes (ETT) were traditionally used in pediatric

anesthesia, cuffed ETTs are now routinely used in many centers.
4.7.1 Cuffed Endotracheal Tubes
Cuffed ETTs are now routinely used in pediatric anesthesia because of their advan-
tages over uncuffed ETTs (Table 4.7). The main advantages are the absence of leak
and the benefits for ventilation and its monitoring, and the reduction in tube changes
when the wrong sized uncuffed tube is initially selected. Cuffed tubes were tradi-
tionally avoided because of concerns about trauma and edema of the mucosa of the
cricoid ring, but these concerns have been minimized with modern design and mate-
rials. Despite the advantages of cuffed tubes, there are still situations when uncuffed
tubes are needed (Table 4.8).
Table 4.7 Advantages and disadvantages of cuffed and uncuffed ETTs in children
Type of
ETT Advantages Disadvantages
Cuffed No leak Smaller ID, increased resistance and
– less pollution blockage
– able to monitor tidal volume Need to monitor and adjust cuff pressure
– able to apply PEEP Maximum cuff pressure of 20 cmH2O used
Reduced laryngoscopies for ETT Different cuff type, position and ETT OD
size change between manufacturers
Lower incidence sore throat Slightly more expensive
Uncuffed Long safety record Leak
No problems with cuff position – pollution
between manufacturers – problems applying PEEP
– problems measuring ETC02 and tidal
volume
?Risk of aspiration (at least in ICU)
May require two or more laryngoscopies to
select correct tube size
ID internal diameter, OD outside diameter
Table 4.8 Even though cuffed ETTs are Role of uncuffed tubes in contemporary
routinely used, uncuffed ETTs still have a practice
role in certain clinical situations ‘Sizing’ airway diameter in suspected
subglottic stenosis
Neonates <3 kg
Some difficult airways where larger ID
facilitates use of fiberscope
Children with croup
However, cuffed tubes are not without problems. Firstly, sizing of a cuffed tube
requires thought and careful technique. The internal diameter of a cuffed tube is
smaller than an uncuffed tube to allow for the diameter of the cuff. In general, the
correct sized ETT is calculated with the Motoyama formula:
For children 2 years and older: Internal diameter of cuffed ETT (in
mm) = age/4 + 3.5.
However the formula does not calculate the correct size for every child.
Sometimes the bulky cuff of the ETT will not pass through the cricoid ring. It is
obvious when this is the problem—the tip of the ETT passes through the cords but
then won’t advance. Passing the bulky cuff has the potential to traumatize the
mucosa of the cricoid ring, and it is best to downsize 0.5 mm. There is a formula for
tube size using 3.0 rather than 3.5, but it may result in tubes a little small for some
children.
Secondly, cuffed pediatric tubes from different manufacturers have different
specifications, so the external diameter of tubes with the same ID can be different.
The Microcuff® brand is thin-walled and has a smaller outside diameter than other
brands. For this reason, a Microcuff tube larger than another brand’s tube can some-
times be used (Table 4.9). Also, tubes from different manufacturers have different
Table 4.9 Table showing cuffed ETT sizes for infants and young children
Cuffed ETT ID (mm)
Child’s age ETTs with standard, thick walls Microcuff ETTs (Salgo formula)
<6 months 3 3
6 to <12 months 3 3.5
12 to <18 months 3.5 3.5
18 months to <2 years 3.5 4
2 to <3 years 4 4
3 to <4 years 4 4.5
4 to <5 years 4.5 4.5
The Microcuff® brand of ETT has a thin wall and low-profile cuff with a smaller outside diameter
compared to other tubes, affecting the age range for different sized tubes. (Based on Salgo B. Acta
Anaesthesiol Scand 2006;50: 557–61)
Fig. 4.8 Common design Cuff too long and No anatomical

problems of many diameter too large or basis
commercially available too small for depth marker
cuffed endotracheal tubes
for children
Upper border of cuff Excessively thick

too far from tip of ETT tube wall
-Tip at carina when cuff -Large OD for given ID
below cords & cricoid
cuff positions and markings in different positions along the shaft (Fig. 4.8). The
position of the cuff on the tube is important—the cuff must sit below the cricoid
while the tip of the tube is above the carina.
Finally, the internal diameter of a cuffed tube in any given child is at least is
0.5 mm smaller than the uncuffed equivalent for that child. This is not usually a
problem unless the child is breathing spontaneously through the tube for a pro-
longed duration. However, in neonates the difference between a 3 and 3.5 mmID is
significant in terms of resistance, susceptibility to blockage or kinking, and ease of
suctioning.
4.7.2 Uncuffed Tubes
Uncuffed tubes can be used in children because the narrowest part of the airway is
the almost-circular cricoid ring, where the tube makes a seal. In adults, the narrowest
part of the airway is the glottic opening between the vocal cords, and any tube able
to pass through is too small to make a seal at the cricoid—so a cuff is needed. A small
leak around the ETT in children is used as a surrogate indicator that there is not
excessive pressure on the mucosa overlying the cricoid. However a leak does not
entirely exclude mucosal pressure—the slightly elliptical shape of the cricoid allows
some pressure from the ETT against the lateral walls of the cricoid. Nevertheless,
uncuffed ETTs have a long record of safe and satisfactory use. Aspiration around
them is rare, and there is a very low risk of post extubation edema and stridor.
4.7.2.1 Uncuffed ETT Size

Tube size is based on age, and to a lesser extent, weight. A term baby will need a 3.5
or 3.0 ETT, depending on size (Table 4.10). The size of ETT increases during infancy
until around 2 years, when the modified Cole formula is used for the initial ETT:
For children 2 years and older: Internal diameter of UNcuffed ETT (in
mm) = 4 + age/4.
The calculated size is usually rounded up if the child is large for their age. It is
often worth rounding down if the child has had a recent URTI. Some would use 4.5
rather than 4 in the formula because of the trend towards children being larger for
age in western societies, but this is not common practice. In any event, the formula
calculates only the initial, most likely size, hence the rule is to always have an ETT
one size smaller and larger available. Once a child reaches puberty or around the age
of 10–12 years, uncuffed ETTs are rarely used.
The formula calculates the internal diameter of the ETT. However, the external
diameter forms the seal in the airway. The external diameter for any given internal
diameter varies slightly between manufacturers, between standard ETT and pre-
formed ETT’s, and particularly with armored (reinforced) ETTs which have a sig-
nificantly larger external diameter than a plain ETT.
Table 4.10 Initial ETT size and depth selection

Initial UNCUFFED Initial CUFFED Insertion depth Insertion
Age ETT size (ID, mm) ETT size (ID, mm) Oral (cm) Depth Nasal
Neonate 2.5 – 5–6 6–7.5
<1 kg
Neonate 3 – 7–9 9–11
Term baby 3 – 9 9–11
<3 kg
Term baby 3.5 3 9 11
>3 kg
6 months 4 3.5 10–11 12–14
18 months 4.5 3.5 11–12 14–15
2 years+ Age/4 + 4 Age/4 + 3.5a 12 + Age/2 15 + Age/2
9–11 years 6.5 6b
>10 – 6+
The final ETT size required may be different and the insertion depth should be adjusted to ensure
bilateral air entry
a
Care should be taken to judge whether the cuff is too large to pass through the cricoid ring
b
The cuffed 6.0 ETT has a very bulky cuff that may be held up at the cricoid even though the
formula predicts it is the correct size
Children who are very small for age (eg cerebral palsy or other chronic illness)
often still have a larynx that is a normal size for their age—although the child may
look small, they often require the same sized ETT based on their age. However, the
depth of insertion is likely to be less than usual in these children.
The size of the ETT is assessed during insertion. It is gently passed through the
vocal cords, feeling for resistance at the subglottic, or cricoid, level. If gentle pres-
sure does not allow the tube to pass, a smaller tube should be selected.
Note
ETTs that are one size smaller and larger than the initial size should always be
available. It is important the ETT should be the correct size—one allowing
effective ventilation, use of PEEP and correct depth of insertion.
4.7.2.2 Depth of Insertion of the ETT

At intubation, the depth of the tube is adjusted so it will neither fall out nor enter the
right main bronchus. Intubation marks on the tube vary widely between different
manufacturers and are often unsuitable. Microcuff tubes are more anatomical and
have accurate markings. When cuffed tubes are used, the cuff needs to be below the
cricoid cartilage. There are many formulae for insertion depth. A formula for cuffed
tubes is:
Position at lips ( cm ) = cuffed tube ID ( mm ) ´ 3.
A formula for cuffed or uncuffed oral tubes is:
Position at lips ( cm ) = age / 2 + 12.
On a supine CXR the tip should be more than 1 cm above the carina (0.5 cm in
infants) and more than 1 cm below the cricoid (0.5 cm in infants). A simple way to
position the depth is to watch the cuff pass just beyond the cords and note the mea-
surement at the lips. Tables of suitable lengths are also available.
4.7.2.3 No Leak Around the ETT

After intubation, ventilation is performed while listening for a leak around the
uncuffed ETT (classically at a pressure of 20 cmH2O). If there is no leak, the tube
would usually be changed for one that is 0.5 mm smaller.
4.7.2.4 Excessive Leak Around the ETT

Another common problem is an excessive leak around the ETT, typically at pres-
sures less than 15 cmH2O. A large leak can be heard or felt and the rebreathing bag
may not fill adequately between positive pressure breaths after intubation. The leak
is too large if a sustained pressure cannot be held without the rebreathing bag col-
lapsing while being squeezed. Changing to a larger ETT would then be appropriate,
as an excessive leak causes problems with ventilation, interpretation of the capno-

gram, application of PEEP and theater pollution.
Note
The same sized ETT is used for both oral and nasal intubation in children—
the narrowest part of pediatric airway is the cricoid cartilage. Adults have
large turbinates and need a smaller nasal ETT.
4.7.3 Oral and Nasal Preformed Tubes
Preformed, curved tubes such as the RAE (Ring, Adair, Elwyn) tube are often used
in children for head and neck procedures. They are available in oral and nasal
(north-facing) types. Although the preformed shape reduces kinking, their length in
the trachea is determined by the position of the curve at the lips or nose, rather than
by positioning under direct vision. Furthermore, various brands of tubes differ in
length which does not increase proportionally with size. All of these factors increase
the incidence of endobronchial intubation. Oral (south-facing) RAE tubes can be
more difficult to pass through the vocal cords—tips to help are in Fig. 4.9. Nasal
RAE tubes are discussed in more detail in Chap. 18, Sect. 18.1.
Note
Preformed ETTs are more likely to cause endobronchial intubation, espe-
cially if a larger size than usual for age has been used to prevent an excess
leak, or if the neck has been flexed.
A gauze pad can be placed between the chin and ETT to pull the RAE tube
outwards slightly if it is endobronchial.
Fig. 4.9 Often, the distal

part of the RAE tube ‘out
of the packet’ has lost the
curve which allows easy
alignment with the
laryngeal opening,
resulting in the tip getting
stuck on the posterior
commissure. Re-establish
the curve by bending the
tip against a flat surface
and quickly intubate before Oral (south-facing) Bend distal section of
the tube straightens RAE tube tube against surface,
quickly intubate before
tube straightens
4.7.4 Suction Catheters for the ETT
The correct size catheter is needed when suctioning pediatric ETTs. During suction-
ing, room air is entrained through the open end of the ETT and around the suction
catheter. If the catheter is too large there is not enough space around it for air to pass
and the tracheobronchial tree and lungs are exposed to negative pressure, possibly
collapsing them. The correct size of the catheter (in French gauge) is twice the inter-
nal diameter of the ETT (eg 4.0 ETT, 8F catheter).
4.8 Intubation
Intubation in children is usually straightforward. The best view at laryngoscopy is

achieved by extending the atlanto-occipital joint while keeping the head on a flat
surface, stabilized by a head ring. With the high laryngeal position in children up to
4 years, there is no cervical spine above the larynx to flex and flexing the neck for-
wards like in adult intubation does not help.
4.8.1 What to Do When the Tube Won’t Pass
Occasionally, the vocal cords can be seen but the ETT won’t pass beyond them. The
tube is usually being held up at the cricoid ring because the ETT is too large. Do not
force the tube—the cricoid will be traumatized and become edematous, causing
stridor post op. The first step is to try a smaller ETT which is sometimes needed and
does not indicate pathology. Rarely, even a much smaller ETT won’t pass beyond
the cords, and this may suggest subglottic stenosis—narrowing of the trachea just
below the vocal cords, most commonly caused by intubation in the neonatal period.
Options are gentle intubation with a smaller ETT, using an LMA or postponing
surgery. The concern is that repeated attempts at intubation will cause subglottic
edema and airway obstruction, especially in infants and young children. It would be
prudent to give dexamethasone 0.5–0.6 mg/kg IV if there is concern about airway
edema from intubation attempts, and arrange referral to an ENT surgeon for diag-
nostic bronchoscopy.
4.8.2 Intubation vs LMA in Neonates and Small Infants
There are advantages and disadvantages in managing a baby’s airway with an LMA
during anesthesia. The LMA avoids problems related to intubation, but there are
several concerns about a small baby breathing spontaneously through an
LMA. Firstly, the size 1 LMA does not always give a reliable airway in neonates.
Furthermore, the distance between the child’s airway and operative site is short, and
it can be difficult to manipulate the airway during the case if any problems arise.
Thirdly, there may be a leak around the LMA that prevents maneuvers to maintain
end expiratory lung volume, or causes gastric inflation. Finally, spontaneous venti-
lation means that the deadspace, resistance and work of breathing from the circuit
must be considered. Using pressure support ventilation or manually assisting the
baby’s respirations can overcome most of these problems.
For these reasons, endotracheal intubation is commonly used for anesthesia in
neonates and small infants. An LMA may be selected if the case is brief (less than
60 min), there are no other factors compromising respiration, and the anesthetist is
able to adeptly and swiftly manipulate the airway if any problems occur. Generally
in infants and young children, there are fewer respiratory events during in the peri-
operative period in those having an LMA rather than an ETT (Fig. 4.7).
4.8.3 Intubation Without Muscle Relaxants
Acceptable intubating conditions in children are more frequently achieved when a

muscle relaxant is used. However, muscle relaxants are not always needed and
have their own side effects and problems. In young children, intubation without
relaxants is easily achievable—their tissues are more elastic, volatile agents pro-
vide adequate muscle relaxation and quickly reach high concentrations, and larger
doses of volatile agents can be used with less concern about cardiovascular depres-
sion. About half of pediatric anesthetists intubate without relaxants, so the advan-
tages and disadvantages of the technique are debated (Table 4.11). Even if relaxants
are used, their action is potentiated by volatile agents in children so doses equiva-
lent to the ED95 dose are sufficient (eg 0.3 mg/kg rocuronium, 0.25 mg/kg
atracurium).
4.8.3.1 Deep Sevoflurane

An end tidal concentration of sevoflurane of 4–4.5% is required for successful intu-
bation. Nitrous oxide and fentanyl reduce the concentration required. The technique
is improved by giving propofol 3 mg/kg after induction. A milliliter or two of lido-
caine syringed distal to the tongue base followed by brief face mask ventilation
reliably results in local anesthetic coating the larynx, further improving intubating
conditions. Non-relaxant techniques using deep anesthesia will decrease blood
pressure and are not suitable for children at risk from hypotension.
Table 4.11 Advantages and disadvantages of intubating without muscle relaxants in children
Advantages Disadvantages
Gives good intubating conditions in most Not ideal conditions
children
Muscle relaxation not needed for most Reduces blood pressure
surgery
Avoids relaxant and reversal agent side Increased hoarseness and vocal damage in adults
effects (unknown in children)
Useful for brief cases requiring intubation
4.8.3.2 IV Agents

Propofol 3–4 mg/kg with alfentanil 10–15 μg/kg (or remifentanil 2–3 μg/kg,
although bradycardia is a concern) give satisfactory intubating conditions in most
children. Higher doses of remifentanil increase the success rate but also increase the
incidence of bradycardia and hypotension. Propofol alone is not usually adequate.
4.9 Extubation
Extubation awake or under deep anesthesia has the same advantages and disadvan-
tages in children as in adults. However, many PACU staff are less familiar dealing
with children and this should be considered if leaving an unconscious child in
recovery. If deep extubation is performed in a young child, it is best for the anesthe-
tist to personally monitor the child until awake (remembering that the anesthetist is
ultimately responsible for the patient’s airway in PACU).
Neonates and infants are usually extubated wide awake to avoid laryngospasm,
which quickly causes hypoxia and bradycardia in small babies. An infant is ready to
be extubated when it is breathing regularly, neither breath-holding nor having
apneas, and is moving the limbs semi-purposefully. While in well children there is
no difference between deep and awake extubation, deep extubation is beneficial in
children with risk factors for respiratory adverse events, particularly those with an
upper respiratory tract infection or asthma.
Tip
When anesthesia is lightened for extubation, young children may suddenly
cough, strain, develop chest wall rigidity and either not breathe effectively or
become hard to ventilate with high airway pressures. Cyanosis may develop.
Infants and young children are especially prone because of their hyperactive
airway reflexes. It can be frightening having a small, blue infant that you can-
not ventilate through the ETT.
The solution is to hand ventilate with 100% oxygen while eliminating
other causes (Table 4.12). Keeping the rebreathing bag small helps to judge
compliance and effectiveness of positive pressure breathing. Watch the chest
closely for expansion, looking for pauses between coughs or strains when
ventilation can be achieved. It is useful to keep the bag tightly distended and
ready to squeeze so that there is minimal lag in achieving a positive pressure
and any short gaps between coughs are not missed. If needed, deepen anesthe-
sia with propofol 1–3 mg/kg or volatile agent, or paralyze.
It is best to predict and watch for this ventilation problem in small children.
Consider gently hand ventilating towards the end of the case to get the feel for
the child’s compliance and instantly recognize a cough or change in
respiration.
Table 4.12 Differential Causes of difficulty ventilating via ETT

diagnosis of causes of Emergence
difficulty ventilating through Biting ETT
ETT Obstructed ETT (secretions, blood, kinking)
Bronchospasm
Endobronchial intubation
Pneumothorax
Fig. 4.10 Scissor action

using forefinger and thumb
to prevent the child biting
the pharyngeal sucker and
damaging teeth
Thumb on child’s
lower incisors
Tip of anaesthetist’s
forefinger on child’s
upper molars
Child’s mouth
held open by
scissor action
4.9.1 Biting on the ETT
Children have strong bite reflexes and are prone to bite the ETT before extuba-
tion. Some anesthetists will insert a guedel airway or gauze roll alongside the
ETT to avoid this, but dental trauma is a concern. Usually there are gaps in the
teeth preventing total occlusion of the ETT. If biting does obstruct the ETT, the
jaws can be separated slightly using the thumb and first or second finger in a
scissor action on the upper molars and lower incisors (Fig. 4.10). This scissor
action is also useful to prevent biting during pharyngeal suction before extuba-
tion. Rarely, biting may totally occlude the ETT, and hypoxia develops. A small
dose of propofol or even suxamethonium can be used to relax the jaw if an
emergency. Children often pass through this ‘biting stage’ during emergence
and then enter a ‘mouth-opening’ phase, which usually signals a safe time for
extubation.
Tip
If the child is biting the ETT they are not ready for extubation. When suffi-
ciently awake, the child will enter a ‘mouth opening’ phase, when it is safe to
extubate.
4.9.2 Post Extubation Stridor
A croupy cough or inspiratory stridor is uncommon after anesthesia with modern

endotracheal tubes. Post extubation stridor still occasionally occurs in small chil-
dren. Contributing factors include intubation that is traumatic or with an ETT that is
too large, movement of the ETT within the trachea during the procedure, and edema
of at the level of the cricoid cartilage from surgery or pre-existing conditions such
as an URTI. Management is detailed in the Chap. 1 Sect. 1.9.2.
4.10 Tracheostomy Tubes
Unlike adults, most tracheostomies in children are long-term and are performed to
bypass upper airway obstruction. The tracheostomy tube size is chosen according to
the internal diameter using the same formula as for an ETT, although a smaller size
may be used to facilitate speech. Different lengths are available so that endobron-
chial intubation does not occur. They are often uncuffed, and the leak around them
may be too large to allow IPPV during anesthesia. For surgery, pediatric tracheos-
tomy tubes are often replaced with a cuffed (usually reinforced) ETT after
induction.
4.11 Laryngospasm
Laryngospasm occurs more frequently in children than in adults because of the

child’s sensitive and reactive airway. It is usually easy to recognize and treat, but has
the potential to cause morbidity and mortality if managed poorly. It is not a serious
problem when managed early and quickly, and should not be feared. However, if
poorly managed laryngospasm can bring the child to a bradycardic hypoxic arrest,
may cause negative pressure pulmonary edema and will instill anxiety in parents
about their child’s next anesthetic.
4.11.1 Definition
Laryngospasm is due to closure of the vocal cords. Supraglottic tissues may also
contribute—there may be tilting of the arytenoids and epiglottis inward toward the
glottis and closure of the false cords. Some argue that laryngospasm is an all or
nothing phenomena and that there is no ‘partial’ laryngospasm. However, in prac-
tice there are varying degrees of severity and completeness that have implications
for management.
4.11.2 Risk Factors
Some procedures and pre-existing conditions increase the risk of laryngospasm

(Table 4.13)—current or recent URTI is a major risk factor. There is also no doubt
Table 4.13 Factors affecting incidence of laryngospasm in children

Risk factors for laryngospasm
Patient
Current or recent URTI within last 2 weeks
Young age
Passive smoking
Asthma
Nocturnal dry cough
Wheezing during exercise
History of hay fever or eczema
Family history of asthma, eczema or hay fever
Procedure
Blood or secretions in upper airway
Shared airway
Sudden surgical stimulation
Emergence (compared to induction)
Technique
Inhalational rather than IV induction
Thiopentone rather than propofol as induction agent
Desflurane as maintenance agent (lowest risk with propofol maintenance)
‘Light’ anesthesia, particularly during instrumentation of airway
Invasive airway management (lowest risk with facemask and laryngeal mask airway)
Probably no difference between ‘deep’ or ‘awake’ extubation
Table 4.14 Techniques suggested to prevent laryngospasm

Preventative method Comments
‘Deep’ or ‘awake’ insertion and removal of Biting, coughing indicating anesthesia depth
device neither ‘deep’ nor ‘light’ enough
Pharyngeal suctioning then ‘pseudocough’ as Recommended
ETT removed
IV lidocaine Effective for short time; exposure to potential
toxicity
Propofol 0.5–1 mg/kg before removal of Only if planning ‘deep’ removal. Effective,
device. Perhaps more if anesthesia already also reduces emergence agitation.
‘light’ Recommended
that the risk of laryngospasm can be reduced by experience and attentiveness to the
airway. Some preventative techniques have been suggested, but only propofol is
useful in clinical practice (Table 4.14).
4.11.3 Mechanism
Laryngospasm is triggered by secretions or airway instrumentation stimulating the

glottic and supraglottic mucosa. The resulting glottic closure continues after removal
of the stimulation. This reflex closure can also be triggered by intense surgical stim-
ulation in distant viscera. Propofol, and to a lesser extent sevoflurane, suppress
laryngeal reflexes, contributing to their popularity in pediatric anesthesia. Although
secretions on the vocal cords are thought to be a common cause, laryngospasm can
also be caused by sudden surgical stimulation in the presence of inadequate anes-
thetic depth and analgesia (circumcision and anal dilatation are classic causes).
Deep anesthesia reduces the likelihood of laryngospasm.
4.11.4 Clinical Presentation
The warning signs of impending laryngospasm are cough, breath holding and strain-
ing in inspiration and expiration. Signs of upper airway obstruction and inspiratory
stridor may occur although total closure of the vocal cords is silent. Laryngospasm
can develop over a period of time, but more often occurs instantly.
Tip
A cough under anesthesia with a face mask or LMA is a warning sign of
laryngospasm. Immediately deepening anesthesia with a bolus of propofol is
worthwhile.
4.11.5 Management
Management depends on the severity of the obstruction and whether hypoxia is

present. The first aim is to recognize and begin treatment before hypoxia develops
so that there is more time to try basic maneuvers and assess options. The second aim
is to resolve the laryngospasm reasonably quickly to avoid respiratory sequelae.
Early treatment, using suxamethonium if appropriate, keeps the hypoxic period
short (Fig. 4.11).
4.11.5.1 Jaw Thrust and CPAP with Oxygen

Initial therapy is jaw thrust and CPAP with 100% oxygen via a facemask—aim to
assist any inspiratory effort by keeping the rebreathing bag tightly distended and
ready to squeeze at, or even just before, inspiration. When there are minimal or
irregular respiratory efforts, it may be worth keeping the bag distended and gently
squeezing it at a rapid rate so that some oxygen will enter the lungs if the vocal
cords partially relax and separate. Assisting inspiration in this way is often adequate
therapy for partial laryngospasm. The stomach may distend with gas if vocal cord
closure is complete and high pressure CPAP is used. If this happens, the stomach is
aspirated when the laryngospasm has resolved.
4.11.5.2 Propofol
Anesthesia can be quickly deepened with propofol. A bolus dose of 2–4 mg/kg can
be given, depending on the severity of the upper airway obstruction and how lightly
anesthetized the child is thought to be. This is reasonably successful and usually
as s
r u m gin x,
fo ni be yn V
l us ck es ho t
r
a P
o e
h s et esa ph P
lb , c cau m d n eI
fo P xa as i o u
o
PA e
r
Su on ct tin
op C oth Su con
Pr so
96%
SaO2
Cough
etc
<60 seconds
Time
Fig. 4.11 A timeline of oxygen saturation during laryngospasm. A cough or signs of airway
obstruction has been detected early, before desaturation. A bolus of propofol is given, then CPAP
begun while also considering other causes of airway obstruction. If no breath has occurred, suxa-
methonium is given early, as soon as saturations begin to fall. Prolonged, severe hypoxia and bra-
dycardia are avoided
worth trying if hypoxia has not developed. However, it is not always successful and
suxamethonium should always be at hand.
4.11.5.3 Suxamethonium
Suxamethonium is always effective, and should be given if laryngospasm is causing
complete airway obstruction and hypoxia. It should be given after airway maneu-
vers with or without propofol have been tried and when the oxygen saturation begins
to fall. Even if IV suxamethonium is given when the saturation just starts to fall
below 90%, the saturation will be very low by the time it has worked and mask
ventilation is possible.
Note
If the child is hypoxic from laryngospasm, it is too late to try a bolus of
propofol.
The dose of suxamethonium to treat laryngospasm is 0.5–2 mg/kg IV. A small

dose such as 0.1 mg/kg is able to relax the vocal cords. However, if only a small
dose has been given there may then be doubt about whether enough has been given
if the saturations are still not rising. By giving a larger dose of suxamethonium, this
doubt is removed and the duration of paralysis is still only a few minutes. If laryn-
gospasm occurs during a gas induction and there is no IV, IM suxamethonium is
given once simple airway maneuvers have been tried. The dose is 4 mg/kg into the
deltoid muscle. Although the peak effect by the IM route is 3 or 4 min, the vocal
cords relax much sooner.
Tip
Anesthetists become stressed about laryngospasm because they fear the con-
sequences of hypoxia. Bail out early! The risk from suxamethonium is much
lower than that of prolonged, severe hypoxia. Consider suxamethonium treat-
ment early and when the oxygen saturation is in the low 90s and falling.
After giving suxamethonium, concentrate on watching the chest for expansion.

Make sure that the chest is rising and falling and that the tidal volume is adequate.
The saturation may stay low for a short while and cause some concern. However, the
displayed reading is averaged over the last 12–15 s and is old data. It is best to watch
the chest and concentrate on ventilation, being confident that if 100% oxygen is
being given and ventilation is adequate, the saturation will improve.
After the saturations have improved and while the suxamethonium is still working,
the pharynx is suctioned to remove any secretions that might irritate the larynx. If the
stomach has been distended with gas, an orogastric catheter is inserted and the stom-
ach aspirated. The aim is to do both of these things while the suxamethonium is work-
ing so that laryngospasm is not triggered again. Intubation is not routinely required in
the treatment of laryngospasm, and it is reasonable to continue gentle mask ventila-
tion until spontaneous respiration resumes. Intubation would be performed usually
only if surgery has yet to be performed or if laryngospasm occurs a second time.
Note
The aim during laryngospasm is to achieve mask ventilation with oxygen.
Intubation is not mandatory.
Some anesthetists are reluctant to use suxamethonium to treat laryngospasm, or

even pride themselves in not having to use it. The consequence of this approach is
to bring some children close to cardiac arrest, creating stress for all concerned.
Indeed, laryngospasm is the main respiratory cause of cardiac arrest in children.
Although it has its side effects, suxamethonium is a safe drug. It has caused deaths
from rhabdomyolysis in children with unrecognized myopathies, resulting in a
‘black-box’ warning in the US. This was at a time however, when suxamethonium
was used almost routinely to intubate children. Infrequent use in situations such as
laryngospasm has a low risk, and the risk of cardiac arrest or death from inade-
quately treated hypoxia is far greater than the risk from suxamethonium.
4.11.5.4 reatment of Laryngospasm When Suxamethonium Is

T
Contraindicated
If suxamethonium is contraindicated, atracurium or rocuronium are alternatives.
The laryngeal muscles are more sensitive than the diaphragm to neuromuscular
blockade, so less than the intubating dose is effective and keeps the duration of
blockade reasonably short. However the smallest effective dose has not been studied
and is not known. The availability of sugammadex may make rocuronium more
attractive in this situation, but the safety and effectiveness of this technique have not
been studied.
4.11.6 Sequelae
Most children have no sequelae. The parents should be given a brief description of
the problem and reassured that their child is usually not likely to have a problem
with future anesthetics. Some children will be oxygen dependent for a few hours
after they wake up, particularly if they have an underlying URTI. This is possibly
due to loss of FRC and retention of secretions during the laryngospasm causing V/Q
mismatch that resolves when the child wakes up, coughs and re-expands atelectatic
segments. An alternative to bear in mind is the possibility of pulmonary aspiration
of gastric contents or negative pressure pulmonary edema, though these are
uncommon.
4.11.6.1 Negative Pressure Pulmonary Edema

This is an uncommon problem usually due to prolonged upper airway obstruction
from laryngospasm that has not been quickly resolved. The signs and symptoms are
the same as for pulmonary edema in adults. Treatment is observation, IV frusemide
and CPAP.
4.12 The Child with a Difficult Airway
Management of children’s airways is often mildly difficult, or ‘awkward’ as a result

of imperfect technique or inadequate anesthesia, or anatomical changes associated
with young age (Fig. 4.12). Difficult airways due to pathology or syndromes are
rare, and a child with a difficult airway usually looks difficult. Unless they are in a
rare group with an isolated glottic or subglottic lesion, children with a difficult air-
way usually have syndromal or abnormal facies that alert the anesthetist (Table 4.15).
There are many different anesthetic approaches and equipment choices for these
children. Usually, younger children will not tolerate awake techniques and so intu-
bation is performed under general anesthesia.
Children with a difficult airway who are younger than 1 year or smaller than
10 kg have more complications than older children. Most children with a difficult
airway, and certainly young children with a difficult airway, need to be managed in
a specialist center. Management of unexpected difficult mask ventilation and
Fig. 4.12 Functional

causes of difficult mask Syndromes
ventilation include “light”
anesthesia, excitation
during sevoflurane
induction, poor head
position or technique, and Pathology
laryngospasm. Anatomical
causes include obesity,
tonsillar hypertrophy and
the neonatal airway.
Causes due to pathology Anatomical
and syndromes are less
common
Functional
Table 4.15 Facial syndromes associated with a difficult airway

Airway change with
Condition Main cause of difficulty growth
Robin Sequence Micrognathia Improves
Goldenhar (hemifacial Asymmetrical micrognathia Worsens
microsomia) Vertebral abnormalities may limit neck
movement
Treacher Collins Micrognathia, small mouth, funnel-shaped Worsens
larynx
Apert syndrome Micrognathia, mid face anomalies Worsens
Hunter and Hurler Deposition of mucopolysaccharides in Worsens
syndromes tongue and larynx
unexpected difficult intubation follow guidelines from professional organizations

(Tables 4.16 and 4.17). There is some evidence supporting making only three
attempts at laryngoscopy rather than the currently suggested four.
Keypoint
Consider management in specialized centers for children, especially young
children, with difficult airways.
4.12.1 Induction of the Child with a Known Difficult Airway
Inhalational induction with an IV in situ is the commonest technique for this group of
patients. This gives a gradual induction during which the airway can be assessed—the
facemask seal and ability to generate pressure within the breathing circuit can be
checked; the ‘feel’ of the child’s jaw and effects of head position can also be assessed,
and gentle CPAP tried. Strategies to assist achieving a patent airway after
Table 4.16 Management of unexpected difficult intubation in children

Management of unexpected difficult intubation
1 Four or less attempts at laryngoscopy
– optimize position and technique
– consider videolaryngoscope
2 LMA or other SAD
3 Face mask ventilation, reverse paralysis, wake patient
4 CICO pathway
Based on DAS/APA guidelines 2015
consciousness is lost include CPAP, placing the child in the lateral position and inser-
tion of an oral or nasal airway. Applying CPAP and gently assisting ventilation is useful
at this stage. Although traditional teaching is not to assist ventilation in this manner, it
deepens anesthesia more quickly and takes the child through the lightly anesthetized,
partially obstructed stage all children pass through. It also allows the anesthetist to
assess the airway patency, the effectiveness of gentle ventilation, and positions or strat-
egies that improve or worsen airway patency. Finally, it provides information to help
the anesthetist to decide if paralysis can be used for intubation. Classically, only simple
chin lift and jaw thrust are used during induction of a child with a difficult airway, but
these provide little information to the anesthetist about the child’s airway.
Tip
Gentle CPAP and inspiratory support during inhalational induction is a useful
strategy to assess and improve the difficult airway.
4.12.2 The LMA
The LMA has a central role in the management of the child with a difficult airway.
It gives a good or adequate airway in a large proportion of children with syndromes
and other abnormalities, and is a common way of facilitating fiberoptic intubation.
The LMA bypasses the problem such as jaw and tongue in Robin sequence, and
often gives an adequate seal in the laryngopharynx of children with other conditions
causing a difficult airway. Using an LMA for anesthesia in children with a known
difficult airway has been shown to be a safe and useful strategy to avoid intubation
for many procedures. However such a technique does require an assessment of the
adequacy and security of the airway, the likely risk of airway obstruction during the
procedure and how this would be managed.
4.12.3 Intubation
There are many different laryngoscopes available for endotracheal intubation. As in

adults, multiple attempts at intubation increase complications in children. Direct
laryngoscopy must be abandoned after no more than four attempts. If the child has
a known or suspected difficult airway, direct laryngoscopy is a poor first choice for
intubation and has a low success rate. A videolaryngoscope or fiberoptic technique
should be used for the first attempt at intubation.
Note
Direct laryngoscopy should not be used as the first technique when a child is
suspected or known to have a difficult airway—the first-attempt success rate
is less than 5%.
4.12.3.1 Videolaryngoscopes
Although standard-shaped blades are adequate for normal or ‘awkward’ intuba-
tions, hyperangulated blades are needed for difficult intubations. Videoscopes with
a pediatric, hyperangulated blade (CMAC D Blade Ped, Glidescope, McGrath
X-blade and AirTraq) require a technique that must be practised. An introducer is
used to shape the ETT before insertion, as the manufacturer’s stylets are too large
for children. The recommended blade size of the Glidescope for different weights is
shown in Table 4.17. The position of the camera on the blade relative to the larynx
is important, with some work suggesting a Glidescope blade one size smaller than
the size based on weight can be used to improve the view of the larynx. Some chil-
dren with a difficult airway will still require a fiberoptic scope as a first technique
(Fig. 4.13).
4.12.4 Fiberoptic Intubation
Fiberoptic scopes are available in a range of pediatric sizes, including those small
enough for neonates. They are passed either through a second generation LMA (via
a Bodai swivel connector so that anesthetic gases can continue to be given) or
through a special bronchoscopy facemask with a port for the scope to pass through.
When a small diameter scope is available, an ETT (without its connector) can be
rail-roaded over the scope into the trachea. If only a large scope is available, an
Table 4.17 Glidescope Weight Glidescope blade size

blade size for children is <1.5 kg 0
based on weight 1.5–3.6 1
1.8–10 2
10–28 2.5
>10 kga 3
The camera position with the size 3 blade may be too proxi-
a
mal in some children at the lower end of the weight range

Expect Expect normal

Expect difficult
normal or ‘awkward’
Fig. 4.13 A normal-shaped videolaryngoscope blade is satisfactory for routine or mildly difficult
(‘awkward’) intubations, but difficult intubations need a hyperangulated blade or fiberoptic
technique
indirect technique can be used by passing a guidewire through the suction channel
into the trachea. The ETT is then passed over an airway exchange catheter. The
indirect technique is difficult and has many potential problems.
The commonest technique for fiberoptic intubation in young children is general
anesthesia and topicalization of the airway, followed by insertion of an LMA or
other supraglottic airway device (SAD), then intubation through the LMA. A SAD
without glottic bars is preferred, as the intubating LMA is not available in pediatric
sizes. After intubation, the LMA is usually removed. The ETT needs to be held in
place while the LMA is removed, but the ETT may not be long enough to safely do
this. This problem is solved by either shortening the LMA shaft or lengthening the
ETT by joining another ETT to it, or using a purpose-made pusher to hold the tube
in place. A cuffed ETT is commonly used to avoid unnecessary changes of tube
size. The smaller internal diameter of the cuffed tube may require a smaller diame-
ter fiberscope compared with an uncuffed tube. The cuff of the tube also has a pilot
balloon that makes it more difficult to remove the LMA over it.
Tip
During fiberoptic intubation, the scope must be small enough to pass through
the ETT, and the ETT must be small enough to pass through the LMA.
4.12.5 Can’t Intubate, Can’t Oxygenate (CICO)
CICO in children follows the same path as in adults—optimize mask ventilation

attempts, try an LMA, paralyze, then proceed to front of neck access (Table 4.18).
Fortunately, this situation is rare, because front of neck access is more difficult in
children than adults. In children, needle access tends to be the first step in manage-
ment guidelines. This is because scalpel or surgical access in a child is more diffi-
cult and best done by an ENT surgeon. However, several factors also make needle
Table 4.18 Steps to follow in CICO scenario in children

Steps to follow in CICO
1 Optimize mask ventilation
Oral airway
Two-person technique
2 Attempt ventilation via LMA
3 Paralyze
4 If ENT available: tracheostomy or rigid bronchoscopy
If ENT not available:
Needle cricothyroidotomy
5 Scalpel cricothyroidotomy or other surgical airway
Based on APA/DAS guidelines 2015
Table 4.19 Reasons front of neck access in CICO in children is more difficult and more danger-
ous than in adults
Factors making front of neck access more difficult in children
High larynx—needle insertion at steep angle
Soft, compressible trachea—may perforate anterior and posterior walls together
Small diameter trachea—perforation of posterior wall likely
Small cricothyroid membrane—risk of laryngeal damage, stenosis and vocal changes
Commercially available kits for emergency access not suitable for children and have a low
success rate in vitro
Cricothyroid membrane difficult to identify in neonates and infants
Uncertain cannula size—small reduces posterior wall perforation but increases resistant to flow
access more difficult and more dangerous (Table 4.19) and some suggest it should
only be used in children older than 8 years. This is because the larynx is high in the
neck, and there is little room between the chin and cricothyroid membrane to angle
the needle, forcing a steep insertion angle. This in turn increases the risk of perforat-
ing the posterior wall of the soft and compliant trachea. A smaller needle reduces
the risk of perforation, but increases resistance to gas flow. A needle size of 18G
(neonates and infants) or 14G (children) is suggested.
Note
Saturations <80% are considered critical and warrant urgent management
using a failed intubation or CICO guidelines. (<50% if cyanotic congenital
heart disease).
An oxygen source is then connected to the needle and the chest observed.
Purpose-made devices have a luer lock fitting. A T-piece or anesthetic circuit can be
connected using the connector from a 3.5 mmETT, as this matches a luer fitting.
High pressures are needed to generate enough flow. Commercially available jet ven-
tilators such as the Manujet (VBM Medical) control both flow rate and pressure but
do not allow expiration, so breath stacking and pneumothorax are a risk. Also, they
do not allow detection of a kinked catheter. The expiratory profile of devices such as
the Enk Flow Modulator and T-piece devices is better, and these are now
recommended.
4.13 High Flow Nasal Oxygen (THRIVE)
High flow humidified air and oxygen given via nasal cannulae during spontaneous
ventilation (Nasal CPAP) has been used for many years as part of neonatal intensive
care, and has reduced the number of infants requiring intubation and positive pres-
sure ventilation. High flow oxygen given via nasal cannulae to anesthetized, apneic
children (THRIVE) delays the onset of desaturation as it does in adults. This tech-
nique may have benefit in difficult, prolonged intubation in children.
High flow oxygen given via nasal cannulae to anesthetized, spontaneously
breathing children (HFNO) may have a role in airway procedures such as laryngo-
tracheobronchoscopy or supraglottoplasty. Barotrauma is a significant risk of either
high flow technique in small children. If a facemask is applied over the nasal can-
nulae during high flow oxygen for even a second or two, the delivered tidal volume
is enormous.
Review Questions
1. You are to anesthetize a term baby weighing 3.5 kg. Why is a straight bladed
laryngoscope usually used for intubation of babies? What sized cuffed and
uncuffed tube would be appropriate for this baby?
2. During intubation of a 3 year old, you are unable to pass an age-appropriate sized
ETT. You try again with the next smaller sized ETT, but still can’t pass it beyond
the cords. What might be the cause and what problems could occur after the child
is awake?
3. At the end of anesthesia but before extubation of 3 year old, you are having dif-
ficulty ventilating and the saturations are falling. You notice the child is biting
the ETT. What will you do?
4. Describe a technique for fiberoptic intubation in children.
5. Regurgitation during LMA anesthesia. Describe your course of action. What
might happen if regurgitated fluid enters the breathing circuit filter?
6. You are going to anesthetize an 8 month old for orchidopexy. Discuss how you
will manage this infant’s airway during anesthesia. Include discussion of the
equipment you would have ready in case your initial airway plan was
unsuccessful.
Further Rewading
Anatomy and General Management
Holzki J, et al. The anatomy of the pediatric airway: has our knowledge changed in 120 years?
A review of historic and recent investigations of the anatomy of the pediatric larynx. Pediatr
Anesth. 2018;28:13–22. An advanced description discussing recent debate about the shape of
the cricoid cartilage and narrowest point of a child’s airway.
Karsli C. Managing the challenging pediatric airway. Can J Anesth. 2015;62:1000–16.
Schmidt AR, Weiss M, Engelhardt T. The paediatric airway: basic principles and current develop-
ment. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2014;31:293–9.
Sims C, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. The normal and challenging pediatric airway. Pediatr Anesth.
2012;22:521–6.
Airway Obstruction
Pfleger A, Eber E. Management of acute severe upper airway obstruction in children. Paediatr
Respir Rev. 2013;14:70–7.
Airway Equipment
Bailey CR. Time to stop using uncuffed tracheal tubes in children? Anaesthesia. 2018;73:147–50.
Drake-Brockman TFE, et al. The effect of endotracheal tubes versus laryngeal mask airways
on perioperative respiratory adverse events in infants: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet.
2017;389(10070):701–8.
Jagannathan N, et al. An update on newer pediatric supraglottic airways with recommendations for
clinical use. Pediatr Anesth. 2015;25:334–45.
Kemper M, et al. Tracheal tube tip and cuff position using different strategies for placement of
currently available tubes. Br J Anaesth. 2018;121:490–5.
Mihara T, et al. A network meta-analysis of the clinical properties of various types of supraglottic
airway device in children. Anaesthesia. 2017;72:1251–62.
Norskov AK, et al. Closing in on the best supraglottic airway for paediatric anaesthesia?
Anaesthesia. 2017;72:1167–84.
Shmidt AR, Weiss M, Engelhardt T. The paediatric airway. Basic principles and current develop-
ments. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2014;31:293–9.
Thomas-Kattappurathu G, et al. Best position and depth of anaesthesia for LMA removal in chil-
dren. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32:624–30. An RCT that gives a good way in to the literature
about removal of LMAs.
Xue F, et al. Paediatric video laryngoscopy and airway management: what’s the clinical evidence?
Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2018;37:459–66.
Intubation Without Relaxants
Julien-Marsollier F, et al. Muscle relaxation for tracheal intubation during paediatric intubation: a
meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2017;34:550–61.
Morton NS. Tracheal intubation without neuromuscular blocking drugs in children. Pediatr
Anesth. 2009;19:199–201. Editorial for: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-
9592.2008.02878.x/full; and against: http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/content/104/5/535.full.
Laryngospasm
Orliaguet GA, et al. Case scenario: perianesthetic management of laryngospasm in children.

Anesth Analg. 2012;116:458–71. A well written description of management options of laryn-
gospasm in a 10 month old.
Difficult Airway
Aziz M. Big data, small airways, big problems. Br J Anaesth. 2017;119:864–6. Editorial nicely
summarising information in article from PediRegistry of difficult airways.
Black AE, et al. Development of a guideline for the management of the unanticipated difficult
airway in pediatric practice. Pediatr Anesth. 2015;25:346–62.
Doherty C, et al. Multidisciplinary guidelines for the management of paediatric tracheostomy
emergencies. Anaesthesia. 2018;73:1400–17.
Jagannathan N, Sohn L, Fiadjoe JE. Paediatric difficult airway management: what every anaesthe-
tist should know! Br J Anaesth. 2016;117(S1):i3–5.
Long E, et al. Implementation of the NAP4 emergency airway management recommendations in a
quaternary-level pediatric hospital. Pediatr Anesth. 2017;27:451–60. Describes the Melbourne
Children’s difficult airway algorithm, including their Plan ABCD approach to CICO.
Park R, et al. The efficacy of GlideScope videolaryngoscopy compared with direct laryngoscopy
in children who are difficult to intubate: an analysis from the paediatric difficult intubation reg-
istry. Br J Anaesth. 2017;119:984–93. An important, multicenter data registry showing direct
laryngoscopy is a poor choice for children with known difficult airways.
CICO
APAGBI Paediatric Airway Guidelines. https://das.uk.com/guidelines/paediatric-difficult-airway-

guidelines. Accessed July 2019.
Sabato SC, Long E. An institutional approach to the management of the ‘can’t intubate, can’t
oxygenate’ emergency in children. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:784–96. A well written, compre-
hensive review of techniques with recommendations for children.
High Flow Nasal Oxygen
Humphreys S, et al. Transnasal humidified rapid-insufflation ventilator exchange (THRIVE) in

children: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Anaesth. 2017;118:232–8.
Riva T, et al. Transnasal humidified rapid insufflation ventilatory exchange for oxygenation of chil-
dren during apnoea: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120:592–9.
Fluid Management in Children
Undergoing Surgery and Anesthesia 5
Ric Bergesio and Marlene Johnson
As with drug treatment, fluid treatment in children demands more precision than in
adults. This chapter explains the management of fluids in infants and children in the
peri-operative period. Topics include fluid resuscitation, maintenance fluids and the
replacement of ongoing losses. Fasting guidelines and the management of electro-
lyte disturbances are also included.
5.1 Body Fluid Composition
Babies are ‘wet’ at birth—total body water (TBW) is about 70–75% of body weight
in neonates, higher in preterm neonates. It falls by 5% in the first week, accounting
for the weight drop of newborn babies, and falls to the adult level of about 60% by
1 year of age. The extracellular fluid volume is greater than the intracellular fluid
volume (the opposite of adults), until 1 month of age when they become equal. ICF
then becomes larger than ECF through to adulthood (Fig. 5.1). Adult values are
achieved by 1 year of age. Blood volume is higher in neonates and falls with growth
(Table 5.1).
5.1.1 Hemoglobin
The hemoglobin concentration is high at birth because of the hypoxic environ-

ment in-utero. At birth, the hemoglobin level can be 160–200 g/L, depending on
when the cord was clamped relative to uterine contraction. Most of the
R. Bergesio (*) · M. Johnson

e-mail: Riccardo.Bergesio@health.wa.gov.au; Marlene.Johnson@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_5
116 R. Bergesio and M. Johnson
Fig. 5.1 Changes in body

water composition with
age. Modified from Jain, 2
/5
Pediatrics Rev 2015 ICF
ICF 2
/3
3
/5
1
ECF /3 ECF
Neonate Child
TBW 70% of body weight TBW 60% of body weight
Blood volume 80-85 ml/kg Blood volume 70 ml/kg
Table 5.1 Blood volume at Age Estimated blood volume (mL/kg)

different ages Preterm 100
Term neonate 90
Infants and children 70–80
Adult 70
hemoglobin at birth is fetal hemoglobin (HbF). Although red blood cells contain-
ing adult hemoglobin (HbA) are produced from birth, production is low in
response to the increased availability of oxygen and downregulation of erythro-
poietin. Eventually oxygen delivery is inadequate relative to metabolism, and
erythropoietin production is stimulated again. These factors result in a falling
hemoglobin, reaching a low point of 90–110 g/L at 2–3 months (called the ‘physi-
ological anemia’, Fig. 5.2). The hemoglobin level in very preterm infants can
decline even lower (80 g/L) due in part to repeated phlebotomy, and the effects of
transfusions on endogenous erythropoiesis. Nearly all of the hemoglobin at the
time of physiological anemia is HbA, so tissue oxygen delivery is actually
improved due to the lower oxygen affinity of HbA compared to HbF. Platelet
numbers are at adult levels from birth.
5.1.2 Coagulation Changes
Coagulation factors are produced by the fetus and have low levels at birth, but this
is balanced by lower levels of inhibitors than in adults, a stronger binding fibrinogen
molecule and lower activity of the fibrinolytic system. Clotting tests can therefore
be prolonged despite no bleeding tendency. The rotational thromboelastogram
(ROTEM) of a neonate has clinically minor differences until about 4 months of age,
when it becomes the same as that of an adult.
5 Fluid Management in Children Undergoing Surgery and Anesthesia 117
Fig. 5.2 The hemoglobin

level dips in early infancy Hb approx
Hb approx 120-140 g/l
(‘physiological anemia of 160 g/l at birth
in later childhood
infancy’) as HbF
production ceases and is
replaced by HbA
Hb
Hb 90-110 g/l
in 2-3 months
Age
5.2 Preoperative Fasting
Minimizing fasting in children reduces anxiety and irritability as well as physio-

logic and metabolic derangements. Neonates in particular, have low glucose stores
and are at risk of hypoglycemia—a 10% glucose in 0.22% saline infusion is started
if the fasting time is longer than the usual time between the baby’s feeds.
The duration of fasting of children before anesthesia has traditionally followed
the 6-4-2 rule: 6 h for light food and milk, 4 h for breast and formula milk, and 2 h
for clear fluids. Recently, this has changed to the 6-4-1 rule in many countries and
is discussed below.
5.2.1 Clear Fluids
Clear fluids include drinks that contain no fats or solids, such as clear apple juice,
cordial, lemonade and pulp-free orange juice.
Many centers are moving away from a 2 h clear fluid fasting time, instead encour-
aging children to consume clear fluids (up to 3 mL/kg) until 1 h before elective or
minor emergency surgery (the 6-4-1 rule). This is safe and does not increase the
incidence of aspiration. Some centers accept even shorter fasting times (using a
6-4-0 rule).
5.2.2 Milk
Milk is cleared from the stomach in a biphasic pattern—an initial phase of rapid
clearance of liquid followed by a slower phase of clearance of solids.
Gastric emptying times vary between milk products and depend on protein (whey
and casein) and fat content. Breast milk has a higher whey-to-casein ratio than other
milks and empties faster from the stomach. Because of this, many centers accept
shorter fasting intervals for breast milk than other types of milk. Cow’s milk is rich
Table 5.2 Fasting times for Substance Fasting period

children Clear fluids 1h
Breast milka 3 h if <12 months age
Formula milka 4 h if <12 months age
Solids, cow’s milk 6h
Note the different fasting periods in infants for different milks
that have different amounts of fat and protein
a
There is variation in fasting duration and age limits for milk—
see text
in casein and fat, and empties slowly. Formula milk is intermediate in composition
and emptying time.
While there is consensus about fasting periods with clear fluids, this is not the
case with milk, and there is variation across different regions. A fasting duration of
3 h for breast milk and 4 h for formula is commonly used for infants, with fasting
increased to 6 h for all types of milk in children 1 year and older.
The Australian College currently suggests these shorter durations for breast and
formula milk only until 6 months of age, rather than 12 months. In infants older than
6 months, it suggests 6 h fasting for both breast and formula. Some centers include
cow’s milk with formula, and some in Europe allow cow’s milk and products such
as yoghurt in all ages up until 4 h before anesthesia. An example of a commonly
used set of fasting times is listed in Table 5.2.
Note
Different types of milk have different fat and protein contents, and the fasting
duration after ingestion of each type is different.
5.2.3 Solids
Solids tend to have variable gastric clearance times. Emptying may be prolonged
with increasing fat and calorie content and the size of the meal, and the 6 h duration
generally applies only to a ‘light’ meal.
In children with traumatic injuries, the time to complete gastric emptying is
unknown. However, not all of these children need to be treated as if they have a full
stomach. Factors that affect gastric emptying include the severity of trauma, pain,
anxiety, administration of opioids and the time interval between trauma occurring
and last meal.
5.2.4 Unusual Foods
Food that becomes liquid in the stomach (jelly, icy poles, and lollipops) can be con-
sidered the same as liquids. Chewing bubble gum is also considered a clear liquid
for fasting, but if it is swallowed, it is treated as a solid. Fluid thickeners do not alter
gastric emptying and fasting times should be determined by the type of fluid they
are used to thicken.
Note
Rare conditions affected by fasting:
Glycogen storage diseases, Fatty acid oxidation disorders, Urea cycle
defects, Organic acidurias (including MMA), Homocystinuria.
5.3 Intravenous Fluid Requirements
There are three components to fluid management in children: replacement of exist-

ing deficits, maintenance requirements, and replacement of ongoing losses.
5.3.1 Replacement of Existing Deficits
Fluid deficit can cause dehydration or shock, and may be due to hemorrhage, gas-
trointestinal losses, insensible losses or sequestration from the intravascular space
into tissues. These deficits can be estimated from weight loss, clinical signs and
laboratory investigations.
Dehydration is difficult to assess, and individual clinical findings by themselves
are unreliable. Symptoms and signs are more numerous and more severe with wors-
ening dehydration (Table 5.3). The best measure of fluid loss is serial weight mea-
surements, but this is often unavailable.
Table 5.3 Signs and symptoms of dehydration and shock in children

Signs and symptoms
Dehydration Shock
Looks unwell or deterioratinga
Altered consciousness: lethargy, restlessa Reduced consciousness
Decreased skin turgora
Sunken eyesa
Tachycardiaa Tachycardia, then bradycardia
Increased respiratory ratea Increased or decreased respiratory rate
Normal skin color Mottled skin, pale
Warm extremities Cold extremities
Dry mucous membranes
Normal blood pressure Hypotensive
Capillary refill <2 s Capillary refill >3 s
Normal peripheral pulses Reduced peripheral pulses
Reduced urine output
a
These signs of dehydration, if present, are suggested as ‘red flags’ warning of progression to
shock or collapse. (Based on National Institute Clinical Excellence guideline CG84)
Dehydration may be detectable when a child is 2.5–5% dehydrated. Severe dehy-

dration causes circulatory shock, and the child may become acidotic and hypoten-
sive. Hypotension is a late, premorbid sign because young children are able to
mount a strong sympathetic response and maintain blood pressure until severe
hypovolemia develops. Clinical signs, serum electrolytes and glucose can guide
replacement.
Keypoint
If a child is 5% dehydrated, this means they have lost 5 mL per 100 g of body
weight, or 50 mL/kg.
Clinical dehydration is detectable when a child is 2.5–5% dehydrated.
If a child presents with symptoms and signs of dehydration in the absence
of shock, they are approximately 5% dehydrated.
If shock is present, there is at least 10% dehydration.
Practice Point
The capillary refill time—Pressure on the skin for 5 s then observe the time
for blanching to disappear. Normal refill time is 2 s or less. 2–3 s is borderline
abnormal. The finger is the best site, the sternum is an alternative. Refill times
are longer in the foot. Refill time doesn’t correlate with blood pressure,
reflecting the child’s ability to maintain BP until late.
Skin turgor—Gently pinch a fold of skin for a few seconds and let go.
Normally, the skin will recoil to its original position instantly. A delay in
return to normal suggests dehydration. In a child, the best place to test skin
turgor is on the abdomen.
Keypoints
Shock
If the child has signs of shock or is at increased risk of developing shock
(presence of red flags), 10–20 mL/kg of an isotonic crystalloid solution should
be given immediately. A further 10–20 mL/kg bolus may be given if signs of
shock persist. Judicious fluid boluses of 5–10 mL/kg should be used in car-
diac disease and severe trauma.
After resolution of signs of shock, rehydration should occur with an iso-
tonic crystalloid +/− glucose. 100 mL/kg (ie. 10% dehydration) should be
given over 24–48 h in addition to maintenance fluid requirements.
Dehydration
For children presenting with dehydration in the absence of shock, 50 mL/
kg (ie. 5% dehydration) of an isotonic crystalloid +/− glucose should be given
over 24–48 h in addition to maintenance fluids.
Table 5.4 The 4-2-1 Weight Fluid rate (mL/kg/h)

formula for calculating First 10 kg 4
hourly maintenance fluid Next 10–20 kg 2
requirements of children Part of weight over 20 kg 1
For example, a 24 kg child would need 40 mL/h for the first 10 kg,
20 mL/h for the next 10 kg, and 4 mL/h for the rest of the weight,
giving an hourly maintenance rate of 64 mL/h
5.3.2 Maintenance Fluids
Maintenance fluids replace fluid and solute losses from the kidney, gut, respiratory
tract and skin. Approximately 50% of the losses are from the renal system and 50%
from the lungs and skin. Maintenance fluid requirements are a function of metabolic
rate and caloric requirements, and so are higher in neonates than in children and
adults. They are also higher in the presence of fever, burns, or sepsis.
In the 1950s, Holliday and Segar linked water requirements and caloric expendi-
ture to body weight, and then linked electrolyte requirements to the composition of
milk. Their work resulted in the formula for maintenance fluid requirements. This
formula calculates a full day’s fluid requirements: 100 mL/kg per day for the first
10 kg of body weight, then 50 mL/kg per day for the next 10 kg of body weight, and
20 mL/kg per day for the rest of the weight. The formula has been adapted to give a
more practical, hourly calculation- the ‘4-2-1 rule’ (Table 5.4). This formula is
widely used, but there are concerns it overestimates the fluid requirements in the
postoperative period or in sick, hospitalized children.
Isotonic crystalloid fluids should be used for maintenance fluids. The choice of
fluid varies between regions, but includes 0.9% saline, Ringer’s lactate (Hartmann’s
solution), Plasmalyte or other balanced electrolyte solutions. A glucose-containing
fluid (typically 2.5 or 5% glucose in saline) should also be considered if the child is
fasting. However glucose-containing hypotonic fluids may cause hyponatremia.
There have been numerous cases of hyponatremia in hospitalized children receiving
hypotonic fluids such as 4% glucose with 0.18% saline and 0.25% glucose with
0.45% saline, and these fluids should not be kept in the wards or theatre.
5.3.3 Ongoing Losses
Ongoing losses are replaced with fluids that are similar to the fluid being lost from
the body. Most losses are salt-rich and are replaced with an isotonic fluid such as
0.9% saline or Ringer’s lactate.
5.4 Fluid Management During Anesthesia
The main purpose of perioperative intravenous fluid is to restore or maintain homeo-

stasis—blood volume, pH and electrolytes, tissue perfusion and metabolic function.
Although a single fluid that is suitable for use during and after surgery in children
would be simple, this is not possible and the anesthetist must think about each
child’s requirements— which fluid and how much?
5.4.1 Which Fluid?
Isotonic fluids are recommended for maintenance and replacement of losses during
anesthesia and surgery. There are several types of fluids available (Table 5.5).
Although some of these fluids contain glucose, most children do not need glucose
during surgery.
5.4.1.1 Glucose-Containing Fluids

Like adults, most children mount a hyperglycemic response to surgery. Exceptions
are listed in Table 5.6. It may be difficult to identify all children at risk of hypogly-
cemia and a high index of suspicion should be maintained. Nevertheless, most chil-
dren undergoing short surgical procedures do not require intraoperative fluids
containing glucose. If the child is unable to drink and eat post-operatively, mainte-
nance fluids containing glucose can be commenced after surgery.
Table 5.5 Some IV fluids commonly used in the perioperative period and their potential
problems
Fluid Uses Concerns
0.9% sodium chloride Resuscitation boluses Hypoglycemia
Replacement of deficit/losses Hyperchloremic metabolic
Intraoperative boluses and acidosis if given in large
maintenance volumes
Ringer’s lactate, Replacement of deficit/losses Hypoglycemia
Plasmalyte Intraoperative boluses and
maintenance
0.9% sodium chloride Post-operative maintenance Hyperglycemia if given as bolus
+5% glucose
Ringer’s lactate/ Post-operative maintenance Hyperglycemia if given as bolus
Plasmalyte +5% glucose
Balanced electrolyte Replacement of deficit/losses Not commercially available in
solution +1% glucose Intraoperative maintenance most countries
Post-operative maintenance
Table 5.6 Risk factors in children for hypoglycemia during IV fluid therapy
Groups of children at risk for hypoglycemia
Neonates
Infants undergoing major or prolonged surgery
Children younger than 2–3 years who are malnourished, have failure-to-thrive (<3rd centile
body weight), or have had a prolonged fast
Children with extensive regional blockade that may stop the hyperglycemic response during
surgery
Children receiving TPN
Children with metabolic syndromes
Neonates and young infants are at risk of hypoglycemia because they have reduced
gluconeogenesis and low glycogen stores in the liver. These and other children who
are at risk of hypoglycemia need glucose containing perioperative fluids and blood
glucose monitoring. In these children, an intravenous fluid containing 1–2.5% glucose
is appropriate, but is only available in some countries. Neonates have higher glucose
requirements and their fluid management is described below (see Sect. 5.6).
Practice Point
Hypoglycemia in neonates is usually considered to be <2.6 mmol/L. In dia-
betic children, it’s 4.0 mmol/L.
5.4.2 How Much?
The volume of fluid given during surgery takes into account the pre-operative deficit
(fasting and pre-operative losses such as bleeding or vomiting), maintenance
requirements as well as ongoing intraoperative losses.
In longer surgeries, the volume should be adjusted to clinical parameters such as
standard and invasive monitoring, serial blood gas measurements and surgical
events such as bleeding. Urine output may decrease due to raised ADH, and can be
an unreliable sign of volume status.
5.4.3 Summary of Practical Fluid Management

A
During Anesthesia
The volume, sodium and glucose requirements of the child are considered. For
healthy children who are undergoing minor procedures and will resume oral intake
soon after surgery, 10–20 mL/kg of IV fluid during the procedure is acceptable. The
infusion can be ceased at the end of the operation or run at maintenance rate until
drinking. Suitable fluids include Ringer’s lactate or 0.9% saline. This may also
reduce the incidence of post-operative nausea and vomiting. Although there is usu-
ally no need to specifically replace the fasting deficit now short fasting times are
used in children, many would still give 10–20 mL/kg of fluid in case of nausea or
vomiting that might stop the child from drinking postoperatively.
For children undergoing major surgery associated with fluid and blood losses,
Ringer’s lactate, Plasmalyte or other balanced salt solutions are appropriate. Large
volumes of 0.9% saline may lead to hyperchloremia and subsequent metabolic aci-
dosis, and should be used cautiously.
If the child is at risk of hypoglycemia (Table 5.6) and is not a neonate, an isotonic
crystalloid with 1–2.5% glucose can be used. In many centers, such a solution is not
available and 0.9% saline with 5% glucose is used instead. This can be given as a bolus
of 5 mL/kg during the procedure, or as an infusion at 0.5–1 times the maintenance rate.
It is important to monitor blood glucose levels regularly when administering glucose.
a b
From IV fluid
bag/ burette From IV fluid
bag/ burette
10 ml syringe
10 ml syringe
3-way tap with all
ports ‘on’
3-way tap IV cannula One-way,

anti-reflux IV cannula
valves
Fig. 5.3 (a) A three-way tap and extension is used to rapidly syringe in fluid boluses to small
children. This arrangement allows a large volume of fluid (5 or 10 mL/kg or more) to be given
surprisingly quickly. The three-way tap is turned to fill the syringe from the fluid bag, then turned
to inject. A 10 mL syringe is the most efficient syringe size to use. (b) Alternatively, one-way anti-
reflux valves either side of the three-way tap allow the syringe to function as a ‘piston pump’
without turning the tap (O’Callaghan, Singh. Anaesthesia 2009)
Neonates who are not yet fasting between feeds should have 10% glucose with
0.22% saline continued at maintenance rate. Isotonic IV fluids are used in addition
to this to replace salt-rich losses during surgery.
5.4.4 ow to Give a Rapid Fluid Bolus to Small

H
Children During Surgery
IV pump sets are not used in small children. Their priming volume is large and there
is a large volume within the giving set between the fluid bag and patient. Instead, a
three-way tap and short extension is placed between the fluid bag (which usually
includes a burette) and the child (Fig. 5.3).
Practice Point
Children with short fasting durations presenting for minor surgery have a
minor fluid deficit that does not need specific correction. However, a bolus of
10–20 mL/kg of Ringer’s lactate seems sensible to replace any deficits and
reduce the impact of any delay in resumption of oral intake from nausea and
vomiting.
Infants younger than 3–6 months presenting for minor surgery need some
glucose-containing fluid. A 5–10 mL/kg bolus or infusion of saline or other
isotonic fluid with 2.5–5% glucose is reasonable.
Neonates require special consideration (see below). If the neonate is
receiving IV 10% glucose with 0.22% saline, it is continued at maintenance
rate and losses replaced with isotonic IV fluid.
5.5 Postoperative Fluids
After minor surgery, oral fluids are quickly resumed and no postoperative IV ther-
apy is needed. For major surgery, the postoperative fluid requirements depend on
the expected postoperative fluid loss and the weight of the child.
Major surgery is associated with increased ADH secretion and fluid retention.
Although the 4-2-1 formula for calculating maintenance requirements is widely
used, there is concern the volumes calculated are too large and may contribute to
hyponatremia. Many would reduce the maintenance rate of fluid in the postopera-
tive period to two thirds or 80% of that calculated by the formula.
Keypoint
In post-operative or unwell children, the calculated rate for maintenance flu-
ids is reduced to two thirds or 80%. This is due to increased secretion of ADH.
Isotonic fluids are recommended for post-operative maintenance infusions in

infants older than 3 months and all children. Although hypernatremia might be pos-
sible with isotonic fluids, the real and previously common risk of hyponatremia is
avoided. If full maintenance fluids are continued post-operatively, serum electro-
lytes should be monitored at least daily. Children at risk of hypoglycemia or those
not able to resume oral fluids after surgery will require the addition of glucose to
their maintenance fluids (eg 5% glucose in 0.9% saline) and blood glucose monitor-
ing. Neonatal fluid requirements are discussed in the next section.
Keypoint
A child receiving full IV maintenance fluids needs daily electrolyte
measurements.
5.6 Fluid Management in Neonates
Neonates have high fluid and caloric requirements but have a reduced renal capacity
to excrete excess sodium and water. They are at risk of hypoglycemia because of
low glycogen stores and reduced gluconeogenesis in the liver. After birth, pressure
changes in the heart cause increased atrial natriuretic peptide levels. This stimulates
a postnatal diuresis of sodium and water. This normally occurs 24–48 h after birth,
but may be longer in the preterm neonate. It is common practice to withhold IV
fluids containing sodium until this has occurred as the neonatal kidney has limited
capacity to excrete excess sodium.
When fasting, neonates require a glucose infusion of 4–8 mg/kg/min (2.4–
4.8 mL/kg/h of 10% glucose) to prevent hypoglycemia (Table 5.7). Preterm neo-
nates may require a higher rate. Ten percent glucose solution is commonly used in
Table 5.7 Maintenance fluid Age of neonate Total fluid required mL/kg/day
rates in neonates, commonly Day 1 60
given as 10% glucose with Day 2 80–90
0.22% saline Day 3 100–120
Day 4 120–150
neonates in whom the postnatal diuresis has not yet occurred. After approximately
48 h of age, 10% glucose in 0.22% saline is the preferred solution.
Older neonates who are able to fast between feeds are also able to fast before
surgery without receiving IV glucose pre-operatively. However they should be
given glucose during anesthesia.
An infusion pump should be used in all neonates to control the low maintenance
fluid rate and prevent inadvertent boluses of glucose. Blood glucose should be mon-
itored intraoperatively. Hypoglycemia is defined as a blood glucose level
<2.6 mmol/L in a neonate.
Isotonic crystalloid solutions are required to replace intraoperative fluid losses.
These can be administered via a separate lumen on the IV line or through a second
cannula.
The volume of replacement fluid depends on the surgical condition. Herniotomy
for example, is associated with minimal fluid shift and only maintenance fluid is
required. Major surgery, such as laparotomy, is associated with fluid shifts that need
to be corrected with an isotonic IV fluid such as 0.9% saline, Ringer’s lactate or 4%
albumin. The volumes of these fluids are small because of the small size of the baby
and they are often given as boluses from a syringe.
Fluid boluses are often given during neonatal anesthesia to counteract hypoten-
sion associated with anesthesia. Large volumes of fluid however may cause fluid
retention and generalized edema in the neonate after surgery. There is growing
belief that intraoperative fluids should be mildly restricted and greater reliance
placed on inotropic support in neonates undergoing major surgery.
Practice Fluid Calculations

Q. A 10 kg child undergoing laparotomy for intussusception. They are
given 30 mL/kg 4% albumin preoperatively to correct deficit. There is
minimal blood loss. What are their intraoperative fluid requirements?
A. Maintenance with isotonic crystalloid solution. 40 mL/h + ongoing
5–10 mL/kg/h = 90–140 mL/h. Any blood loss can be replaced with the same
solution until the transfusion target is reached.
Q. A 3 kg neonate, 24 h old, undergoing laparotomy for duodenal atre-
sia. What are their preoperative and intraoperative fluid requirements?
A. Preoperative: Maintenance of 10% glucose 10.8 mL/h (glucose = 6 mg/
kg/h = 3.6 mL/kg/h). Intraoperative: continue maintenance fluids + ongoing
15–30 mL/h of isotonic crystalloid solution. Any blood loss or pre-op deficit
is replaced with isotonic crystalloid or 4% albumin, until the transfusion

threshold is reached.
Q. A 5 kg 3 month old infant undergoing herniotomy. There is minimal
blood loss. What are their perioperative fluid requirements?
A. Pre-operative: IV fluids are not required if the fasting time is minimal.
Intraoperative: maintenance of 20 mL/h (ie 4 mL/kg/h) of 0.9% saline with
5% glucose. A 10–20 mL/kg bolus of isotonic crystalloid solution (NOT this
glucose containing solution) could be given in addition, to replace the fasting
deficit. Postoperative: the baby will be able to feed immediately after surgery
and fluids can be discontinued.
Q. A 7 kg infant with a small bowel obstruction has signs of dehydra-
tion and shock. The estimated percentage dehydration is at least 10%.
What are the pre-operative fluid requirements?
A. 20 mL/kg rapid bolus (140 mL) of Hartmann’s solution or saline is
given as initial therapy of shock. This is repeated if there are ongoing signs
and symptoms of shock. 100 mL/kg to replace deficits is given over next 24 h
in addition to normal maintenance requirements (100 mL/kg for the first
10 kg body weight). Total isotonic crystalloid fluid requirements: 700 mL
(replacement) + 700 mL (maintenance) = 1400 mL. Infusion rate of
1400/24 = 58 mL/h.
5.7 Electrolyte Problems
5.7.1 Hyponatremia (Serum Na+ < 135 mmol/L)
Hyponatremia occurs when sodium losses are more than fluid losses, or there is
water retention without simultaneous sodium retention, or if fluid losses are replaced
with a fluid low in sodium. It can present with mild symptoms of irritability and
confusion, or severe symptoms of unconsciousness and seizures associated with
cerebral edema.
Management of hyponatremia depends on the sodium concentration and the
severity of the symptoms. A sodium concentration greater than 125 mmol/L can be
replaced slowly over 24 h with an isotonic solution, whilst a very low sodium (less
than 120 mmol/L) or the presence of seizures require rapid correction to approxi-
mately 125 mmol/L with 3% saline then slow infusion with normal saline 0.9% as
described below. The maintenance requirement for sodium is approximately
2 mmol/kg/day. Deficits can be estimated from the following calculation:
mmol of Na + required = (130 - current serum Na + ) ´ 0.6 ´ Weight ( kg )
One mL/kg of 3% sodium chloride will normally raise the serum sodium by
1 mmol/L.
5.7.2 Hypokalemia
Maintenance potassium requirements are approximately 2–4 mmol/kg/day, but

potassium is not usually required on the first postoperative day. The rate of intrave-
nous replacement should not exceed 0.2–0.4 mmol/kg/h to avoid arrhythmias. In
PICU potassium can be given by infusion via syringe driver and ECG monitoring.
On general wards potassium can be added to the maintenance fluid with the dose
added depending on the plasma potassium level.
5.7.3 Hyperkalemia
In infants and children, rapid transfusion of blood via a central catheter has been
reported to result in hyperkalemia and cardiac arrest. Management of life threaten-
ing hyperkalemia follows the same principles as in adults. It includes hyperventila-
tion to raise the pH and shift potassium into cells, and IV glucose (2 mL/kg of 50%)
and insulin (0.1 units/kg). Calcium gluconate 10% (0.5 mL/kg) and sodium bicar-
bonate (1 mL/kg) can be given to stabilize the myocardium. Resonium (1 g/kg) may
be given rectally or orally to reduce potassium absorption. Dialysis may be required
in patients with severe hyperkalemia complicating acute renal failure.
5.8 Blood Transfusion
As in adults, fluid corrects hypovolemia, and blood corrects anemia. During surgical
blood loss, normovolemia is maintained with asanguineous fluids and the hemoglo-
bin falls in an exponential manner (Fig. 5.4). The allowable blood loss for any child
can then be calculated (Fig. 5.5). This formula does not apply for a child who loses
blood without simultaneous fluid replacement. Hemoglobin is still measured at
regular intervals to monitor the child and determine when blood needs to be given.
Fig. 5.4 Hemoglobin falls

exponentially during blood
loss if normovolemia is
maintained with
asanguineous fluid.
Accepting a lower
transfusion trigger (B
Hb
Transfusion trigger A
instead of A) permits much
greater blood loss before Transfusion trigger B
transfusion is necessary
Larger allowable blood loss

when lower transfusion
trigger accepted
Surgical blood loss
initial Hb — final Hb
Allowable blood loss = x blood volume
initial Hb
Fig. 5.5 A simplified formula to calculate allowable blood loss (ABL) in children and adults.
‘Initial Hb’ is the hemoglobin before blood loss and ‘final Hb’ is the lowest acceptable or ‘transfu-
sion trigger’ Hb
There are no strictly agreed hemoglobin levels that trigger a transfusion in chil-
dren, and the need for transfusion is based on an assessment of the clinical situation,
the child’s age and their underlying condition. In general however, children usually
tolerate acute anemia better than adults because they have normal cardio-respiratory
systems that can compensate for anemia. In hemodynamically stable patients, trans-
fusion is likely needed if the Hb is lower than 70 g/L, and unlikely to be needed if
higher than 90 g/L. Hemoglobin concentrations of 100–120 g/L are commonly used
in neonates or children with cyanotic heart disease. In certain situations, hemoglo-
bin levels of 50–70 g/L are accepted in children. Previously well children given
supplemental oral iron can increase their postoperative hemoglobin by about 10 g/L
each week.
Example
To calculate allowable blood loss (ABL) for a 10 kg child with initial Hb of
120 g/L who will tolerate a Hb of 80 g/L: estimated blood volume is 800 mL,
therefore ABL = 800 × (12 − 8)/12 = 270 mL.
5.8.1 Amount of Blood to Give
Children are transfused using the same size bags of packed cells for adults. These
bags contain approximately 250 mL of blood with a hematocrit of about 0.6–0.7. A
burette is used as part of the IV giving set to measure the volume. In children who
are not actively bleeding but are anemic, the volume of packed cells is calculated:
10mL / kg of packed cells increases the Hb by 20 g / L
or : Volume of packed cells to give = weight ´ ( desired Hb - initial Hb ) ´ 0.5
If there is ongoing bleeding, formulae such as above can only give a guide to
volume needed before more blood loss has occurred. Packed cells may be mixed
with albumin in the burette and given at a rate to correct hypovolemia. Mixing
packed cells with albumin facilitates rapid administration through a fine-bore cath-
eter. Blood should be warmed and given through appropriate filters. Caution should
be taken whenever transfusing blood rapidly, especially via a central venous cathe-
ter as cardiac arrest can occur due to sudden hyperkalemia. The doses of other blood
products are listed in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8 Doses of blood Product Dose

products and tranexamic acid FFP 10 mL/kg
in children Cryoprecipitate 5–10 mL/kg
Platelets 5–10 mL/kg
Fibrinogen concentrate 70 mg/kg
Factor VII 90 μg/kg
Tranexamic acid 15 mg/kga
a
Usually followed by maintenance infusion 2 mg/kg/hr for 8 h
(or bleeding cessation)
Some institutions irradiate blood before transfusion to prevent graft-versus-host

disease in certain groups of children. Guidelines vary, but the groups can include
neonates and infants less than 4 months age, cardiac surgery patients, ECMO or
LVAD patients, directed donations from relatives, immuno-compromised patients
and after intrauterine transfusion. Irradiation increases leakage of potassium from
the red cells into the transfused plasma and shortens storage time.
5.8.2 Critical Bleeding and Massive Blood Transfusion
Massive transfusion in children is defined as red cell transfusion of 50% of the total
blood volume (TBV) in 3 h, or of 100% TBV in 24 h, or >10% TBV per minute.
Current critical bleeding protocols, based on traumatic blood loss in adults, favor
early, concurrent use of platelets and coagulation factors. They lead to earlier
administration of blood and blood products but are yet to be shown to reduce mor-
bidity or mortality. The ideal dose and ratio of products to administer is unclear but
can be guided by formal coagulation profile and point-of-care testing. Critical
bleeding may be useful for situations such as trauma or unexpected massive surgical
bleeding from a torn major vessel.
Massive blood loss can be expected to occur during some types of pediatric sur-
gery. These surgeries include craniofacial reconstruction, neurosurgery, and surgery
for tumor resection or scoliosis. Blood loss during surgery differs from that in
trauma because normovolemia is maintained but hemoglobin concentration falls
exponentially until the transfusion trigger is reached and red cells begun (Fig. 5.6).
The concentration of coagulation factors also falls, but there is some reserve in the
concentrations needed for coagulation, and factors are required later than red cells
if coagulation was initially normal. There is also some reserve in the number of
platelets needed for clotting, as well as release from the spleen so thrombocytopenia
is usually the last to develop during blood loss. Massive transfusion is especially
challenging in small children and infants. The hematologic and metabolic changes
in children during massive transfusion follow the volume of loss and replacement,
and are summarized in Table 5.9.
Differences between children and adults make practical management of critical
bleeding more difficult. A unit of red cells may represent a large proportion of the
child’s blood volume and it may need to be given in doses of less than one unit. It
Fig. 5.6 Hemoglobin Replacement of blood loss

concentration during with asanguinous fluid
surgical bleeding loss
when lost blood is initially
replaced with crystalloid or Replacement of blood loss with
other asanguinous fluid, packed red cells mixed with
albumin initially, later FFP
Hb
then red cells once the
transfusion trigger has
been reached
Transfusion
trigger Hb
Surgical blood loss
Table 5.9 Metabolic and Number of blood volumes Developing change

hematologic changes follow a <0.4 Dilutional anemia
pattern in line with the degree 0.4–1 Dilutional coagulopathy
of blood loss Possible hyperkalemia
1+ Ionic hypocalcemia
Ionic hypomagnesemia
2+ Thrombocytopenia
>2 Hypernatremia
may also be difficult to perform calculations of volumes during rapid blood loss.
The rapidity of blood loss and its replacement relative to the child’s blood volume
may exceed that of adults, but IV access may be through small catheter. Finally, the
priming volume of the IV fluid set and blood warmer may be large relative to the
child’s body size.
A practical approach to managing massive blood loss in surgery is shown in Fig. 5.7.
Initial blood loss is replaced with crystalloid. When red cell therapy is required, packed
red bloods cells are mixed with iso-oncotic albumin and infused to replace ongoing
losses. Adjusting the amount of albumin controls the hematocrit of the infused blood,
and therefore the Hb level of the child. A proportion of 50–60% albumin to 40–50%
packed cells usually maintains the Hb at 80–90 g/L. Diluting red cells facilitates admin-
istration through small diameter IV catheters and allows fast administration to maintain
normovolemia. As blood loss continues, coagulation is monitored with point of care
devices such as ROTEM. If coagulopathy develops, fresh frozen plasma (FFP) mixed
with packed cells is infused, with this mixture continued until blood loss ends. Other
factors and platelets are given as bolus doses if required.
This approach separates the decision of what fluid to give from its speed of
administration—the predetermined mixture is given rapidly when blood loss is
rapid, and slowly when blood loss is slow. The infusion of blood also becomes like
the infusion of a drug and maintains the hemoglobin at a constant level. Maintaining
the hemoglobin concentration near the transfusion trigger minimizes the number of
red cells lost into the wound, and once surgical loss has finished, the hemoglobin
concentration is raised to the desired level for the postop period.
Fig. 5.7 Suggested

practical set-up for FFP or albumin
administering large Packed FFP±
depending on
volumes of blood and cells Albumin
coagulation
blood products to small
children during surgery
with massive blood loss Control
(Acknowledgment: Brian valves
McIntyre, Hospital for
Sick Children, Toronto)
‘Y’ giving
set Add Cryoprecipitate
if fibrinogen <1-
1.5 g/l
Blood &
FFP mixed
in burette
10 ml
syringe
Fluid
warmer
3-way tap IV Cannula
Table 5.10 Dose of calcium to be given slowly IV to correct hypocalcemia during massive
transfusion
Patient ionized calcium
(mmol/L) Dose of Ca Chloride (mg/kg) Dose of Ca Gluconate (mg/kg)
0.9–1.0 10 30
0.8–0.9 20 60
<0.8 30 90
As in adults, maintaining normothermia, normal calcium and avoiding hyperka-

lemia are vital. Children are particularly at risk from hyperkalemia caused by rapid
infusion of older, stored blood given via a central vein. The severity of hypocalce-
mia can be reduced with frequent small doses of calcium based on the measured
calcium level (Table 5.10). The calcium level is frequently measured to avoid
marked and potentially lethal hypercalcemia.
5.8.3 Neonatal Blood Transfusion
Cross match of blood for neonates is not straightforward. Neonates have ABO anti-
gens on the red cell surface, but no circulating ABO antibodies of their own for the
first 4 months. Also, maternal ABO antibodies may be in the neonate’s blood.
Because of this, a sample is needed from the neonate for the ABO group and direct
antiglobulin test (DAT), and also blood from the mother to test for antibodies. The
neonate may also have ABO hemolysins from the mother that would hemolyze
ABO-compatible blood given to the neonate. For these reasons, some centers use
type O blood for all neonates. Blood is irradiated in some centers to prevent graft vs
host disease in neonates (who are unable to suppress infused lymphocytes). All
blood is leuco-depleted and CMV safe.
‘Mini-packs’ of packed cells are sometimes available for neonatal blood trans-
fusion. These are several (usually 4) small packs that all come from the same
donor, and permit transfusions over a period of time without exposing the neonate
to multiple blood donors. Blood for neonates needs to pass through a macrofilter
(170 μM) before administration. A technique for intraoperative transfusion of neo-
nates is to hang the packed cells via a filtered giving set, draw up the blood through
the giving set into a syringe, then warm the blood in the syringe before
administration.
5.9 Colloids
Albumin is the most commonly used colloid in children. Other colloids cause more
allergic reactions and only have limited reported experience in children. There are
not strong guidelines for the use of albumin— it may have a role in neonates and
cardiac patients, but there is no evidence for its use in children with brain injury,
burns or post-surgery. Crystalloids are an alternative for volume replacement or
resuscitation in neonates and children, but edema in the postoperative period is a
concern. A combination of albumin and crystalloid may be the best option.
Gelatins are associated with high incidence of allergic reactions and limited effi-
cacy. When compared to albumin in neonates they have an increased risk of necro-
tizing enterocolitis. The third-generation tetra-starches have an improved side effect
profile compared with previous generations of starches. They have a low molecular
weight and accumulate less in the reticuloendothelial system, but still have an effect
on the renal system. It is unlikely they offer any advantage over albumin, and they
may increase bleeding.
Review Question
1. An 8 month old baby is diagnosed with intussusception and scheduled for lapa-
rotomy. The heart rate is 160 bpm and blood pressure is 75/45 mmHg. His serum
electrolytes are:
Na+ 132 mmol/L (normal 135–145)
K+ 3.0 mmol/L (normal 3.5–5.5)
Cl− 102 mmol/L (normal 95–110)
Creatinine 90 μmol/L (normal 60–110)
Lactate 3 mmol/L (normal 1–1.8)
(a) How severely dehydrated is this baby?
(b) Describe your fluid management before and after surgery
Further Reading
Fasting
Andersson H, Schmitz A, Frykholm P. Preoperative fasting guidelines in pediatric anesthesia: are

we ready for a change? Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:342–8.
Association of Paediatric Anaesthesia. APA Consensus Statement on updated fluid fasting guide-
lines for children prior to elective general anaesthesia 2018. www.apagbi.org.uk.
Frykholm P, et al. Preoperative fasting in children: review of existing guidelines and recent devel-
opments. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120:469–74.
Thomas M, et al. Consensus statement on clear fluids fasting for elective pediatric general anesthe-
sia. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:411–4.
IV Fluids
Arumainathan R, Stendall C, Visram A. Management of fluids in neonatal surgery. BJA Educ.

2018;18:199–203.
Association of Paediatric Anaesthesia. APA consensus guideline on perioperative fluid manage-
ment in children 2007. www.apagbi.org.uk.
Bailey AG, McNaull PP, Jooste E, Tuchman JB. Perioperative crystalloid and colloid fluid manage-
ment in children: where are we and how did we get here? Anesth Analg. 2010;110(2):375–90.
Feld LG, et al. Clinical practice guideline: maintenance intravenous fluids in children. Pediatrics.
2018;142:e20183083.
McNab S, et al. Isotonic versus hypotonic solutions for maintenance intravenous fluid administra-
tion in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(12):CD009457.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Intravenous fluid therapy in children and young
people in hospital: NICE guideline 2015. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng29. Accessed July
2019.
Saudan S. Is the use of colloids for fluid replacement harmless in children? Curr Opin Anesthesiol.
2010;23:363–7.
Sumpelmann R, et al. Perioperative intravenous fluid therapy in children: guidelines from the
Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany. Pediatr Anesth. 2017;27:10–8.
Blood Transfusion
Blain S, Paterson N. Paediatric massive transfusion. BJA Educ. 2016;16:269–75.

Clebone A. Pediatric trauma transfusion and cognitive aids. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:201–
6. Reviews damage control resuscitation in children and how outcomes differ from adults, as
wells as studies of antifibrinolytics and new factor therapies in children.
Patient Blood Management Guidelines Module 6 Neonatal and Pediatrics: National Blood
Authority 2016. https://www.blood.gov.au/pbm-module-6. Accessed July 2019.
Equipment and Monitoring for Pediatric
Anesthesia 6
Craig Sims and Tom Flett
Children can be as small as several hundred grams or as large as adults, and so a

range of equipment sizes and types is required. This chapter focuses on aspects of
equipment and monitoring specifically for children, and factors to consider when
using adult equipment for children. Equipment for the airway is discussed in
Chap. 4, Sects. 4.5–4.7.
6.1 Breathing Circuits
Although the T-piece is the classic circuit for children, many circuits can be used
safely for pediatric anesthesia. For a circuit to be suitable for children it must have
low deadspace and low resistance. Preferably, the circuit should have a small com-
pressible volume, be lightweight, compact, efficient and easy to use.
6.1.1 Deadspace
The deadspace of a circuit is the portion of the circuit between the patient and the
point that fresh gas enters. For a circle this is at the Y-piece where inspiratory and
expiratory limbs meet. For a T-piece this is at the side arm of the ‘T’ where the fresh
gas enters. For a Bain circuit it is at the end of the circuit where the inner fresh gas
line joins the expiratory limb. Deadspace is increased by angle connectors, filters,
C. Sims (*) ∙ T. Flett

e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au; Thomas.Flett@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_6
136 C. Sims and T. Flett
Cobbs connectors, respiratory monitors and facemasks. It causes rebreathing and

requires the patient to increase minute ventilation to maintain normocarbia. Children
have small tidal volumes and increased deadspace may form a significant propor-
tion of tidal volume. For this reason, deadspace can be a problem particularly in
small children who are breathing spontaneously, and is one of the reasons why
neonates and infants tend to be ventilated during anesthesia.
Note
An infant breathing spontaneously is most prone to the problem of deadspace
as the tidal volume may be close to the equipment deadspace volume.
6.1.2 Resistance
Resistance of breathing circuits adds to the work of breathing. Neonates and infants
have difficulty increasing their respiratory effort for more than a short period of time
and are particularly at risk of problems from circuit resistance. Resistance in a cir-
cuit arises from the hoses, valves and attached filters. In practice however, the great-
est source of resistance in anesthesia is the shaft of the ETT or LMA.
6.1.3 The T-Piece Circuit
The original T-piece was a simple metal ‘T’ designed by Dr. Phillip Ayre to use in
babies undergoing cleft palate repair (Fig. 6.1). This simple device offers no resis-
tance and minimal deadspace, but there is entrainment of room air and dilution of
the anesthetic gases. Dr. Jackson Rees from the Liverpool Children’s Hospital added
an open-tailed bag. The bag allows breathing to be monitored or assisted. This is the
circuit now referred to as the ‘T-piece circuit’.
Fig. 6.1 Evolution of the

original T-piece to become
the T-piece circuit in
contemporary practice
Ayres T-piece, 1937
Jackson Rees modification of the Ayres T-piece, 1950

(‘Mapleson F’, or the ‘T-piece’ circuit
6 Equipment and Monitoring for Pediatric Anesthesia 137
The total volume of the expiratory limb and bag of the T-piece must be greater
than the tidal volume. It does not matter if the expiratory limb is very long or short.
Long expiratory limbs can be used when the patient is remote from the anesthetist,
such as in MRI. Different sized bags can be used on the expiratory limb—com-
monly a 500 mL bag for neonates and infants, and a 1 L bag for children. Two liter
bags are also available but difficult to hold and use properly. During mechanical
ventilation, the bag is replaced by a hose between the expiratory limb and the
ventilator.
6.1.3.1 Rebreathing and Fresh Gas Flow

During expiration, exhaled gas mixes with fresh gas flow in the expiratory limb.
During the expiratory pause (the time between end expiration and beginning of
inspiration), more fresh gas accumulates in the expiratory limb, pushing exhaled gas
further down the limb and away from the patient. During inspiration, fresh gas
enters the patient along with fresh and exhaled gas from the expiratory limb
(Fig. 6.2). The proportions of fresh gas and exhaled gas breathed by the patient
depend on several factors. These are the minute volume, including the rate and
respiratory pattern, the CO2 production, and the fresh gas flow.
The fresh gas flow needs to be greater than the peak inspiratory flow rate, or five
times the minute ventilation, to eliminate all rebreathing. However, a small amount
of rebreathing is acceptable and provides humidification and reduced volatile agent
use. Various formulae for the acceptable fresh gas flow have been suggested, but
2.5–3 times the minute ventilation is commonly used (although rates as low as 1.5
times minute ventilation are possible in adults with their slower respiratory pat-
terns). These formulae pre-date ETCO2 monitoring and nowadays fresh gas flow
Fig. 6.2 The respiratory

cycle and gas within the INSPIRATION
T-piece circuit Fresh gas enters the
patient along with
fresh and exhaled gas
from the expiratory
limb
EXPIRATORY PAUSE
Fresh gas
accumulates in the EXPIRATION
expiratory limb, Exhaled gas mixes
pushing exhaled gas with fresh gas in the
further down the limb expiratory limb
and away from the
patient
Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the T-piece circuit

Advantages of T-piece circuit Disadvantages of T-piece circuit
Light weight Complex to assemble if not familiar
Low resistance, no valves Variable rebreathing
Low deadspace Inefficient, with high FGF required for large
child, particularly during spontaneous
ventilation
Fast wash in Low humidity
Requires learnt technique to hold rebreathing
bag correctly
Low compliance (1 mL/cmH2O) and ability to Can be difficult to scavenge, and the bag may
‘feel’ compliance of chest or detect leak in twist and obstruct expiration and the outflow of
system gas
Portable for recovery or outside anesthetic Not able to mechanically ventilate with modern
locations anesthetic workstations
Compact with whole circuit in field of view
Whole circuit can be sterilized and no filter
required
Table 6.2 Suggested initial Patient size Initial fresh gas rate (L/min)
fresh gas rates for T-piece Neonate and infant 3
circuit in different age groups Child 6
Adolescent 9
Fresh gas rates can be adjusted after monitoring ETCO2
and rebreathing (FiCO2) during use
can set to an initial level (Table 6.1) and then adjusted individually according to an
acceptable FiCO2.
The respiratory pattern also affects the circuit’s efficiency. During spontaneous
ventilation, there is only a short pause between the end of expiration and the begin-
ning of inspiration, so relatively high fresh gas flow is required. During IPPV, the
expiratory pause is longer and a lower fresh gas flow is possible.
6.1.3.2 Advantages
There are several advantages of the T-piece, as outlined in Table 6.2. The compact
nature of the T-piece allows the whole circuit to be in the field of view with no need
to reach out to adjust spill valves. The other major advantage is the small compres-
sion volume which allows lung compliance to be assessed, and easier manual ven-
tilation of poorly compliant lungs.
The feedback, or feel of the lung compliance with the circuit has led to the term
‘educated hand’ for ventilation with the T-piece. There has been criticism that the
educated hand does not exist and the anesthetist cannot feel or assess the child’s
compliance any better than with mechanical ventilation. However, there are two
points of detail to ensure that the hand is ‘educated’. The first is to keep the volume
of the bag small. A suitable size bag is selected for the patient size and it is kept only
partly filled. A large bag bulges out around the hand and increases compression
Second hand controls open

tail end of bag
Bag kept small and

encircled by one hand that
squeezes bag during
inspiration
To patient
Fig. 6.3 Two-handed technique to ventilate small child with poorly compliant lungs. Keeping the
T-piece bag small and avoiding an excessively high fresh gas flow rate allows the assessment of
compliance and more effective ventilation
volume. Small infants benefit from a two-handed bag squeeze technique, where one
hand encircles a partly inflated bag and the second hand controls the occlusion of
the tail (Fig. 6.3). The second is to keep the fresh gas flow rate as low as possible
while allowing for the size of the patient. A high fresh gas flow rate makes the bag
feel tight and it becomes harder to assess compliance.
6.1.3.3 Disadvantages
Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of the T-piece is the time it takes to become
skilled in its use. It is held differently to all other circuits and skill is required to
occlude the tail correctly to deliver continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and
ventilation. The skill to perform this takes time to learn and discourages many from
the circuit and its advantages.
Although it looks simple, the T-piece is complex in form and function. It is made
up of several components that can be incorrectly assembled. Its function is complex
because of the interaction between the factors that affect rebreathing and thus
ETCO2. Squeezing the bag faster doesn’t necessarily reduce the ETCO2 as it would
with a circle system (Fig. 6.4). Faster respiratory rates shorten the expiratory pause,
which then shortens the time for fresh gas to accumulate in the expiratory limb. The
shorter expiratory pause increases rebreathing unless the fresh gas rate is also
increased or is already high relative to the minute ventilation.
Another disadvantage is that the T-piece cannot be attached to modern ventila-
tors that are integrated within the anesthetic machine and cannot be separated from
the circle, thus preventing mechanical ventilation.
Finally, the circuit can be difficult to scavenge, and is used in some countries
without scavenging. Scavengers may be difficult to attach and remove from the tail
of the bag, and may kink the tail and obstruct outflow from the circuit and expose
the child to barotrauma. Some variants of the T-piece include a valve with a
Fig. 6.4 Squeezing the 30 mmHg

bag faster on a T-piece 4 kPa
circuit does not necessarily
ETCO2
reduce the ETCO2.
Increasing the respiratory
rate and increase minute
ventilation, but it also 0
shortens the expiratory RR = 12
time and there is more
rebreathing unless the fresh
gas flow rate is increased
30 mmHg
4 kPa
ETCO2
0
RR = 24
scavenging port between the expiratory limb and bag, but this makes the circuit
more cumbersome and introduces the risk of barotrauma if the valve is left closed.
A convenient and safe scavenging system described by Keneally and Overton is
used in many Australian and New Zealand centers.
6.1.4 The Circle Circuit
In the past, it was thought that the circle could only be used for larger children
because of the resistance from the inspiratory and expiratory valves. This is now
known to be incorrect, and the circle circuit is the commonest circuit in pediatric
anesthesia.
Children of any age can be managed using an adult circle circuit provided venti-
lation is controlled or assisted in neonates and infants. When using a circle system,
the standard 22 mm diameter hoses are usually replaced with 15 mm diameter
hoses, and the 2 L bag replaced with a 500 or 1000 mL bag. These changes are not
essential but reduce the bulk and weight of the circuit, reduce circuit volume and
compression volume, and reduce wash-in time. The volume of the soda lime
absorber also affects compression volume.
6.1.4.1 Advantages
The advantages of the circle for pediatric anesthesia are familiarity, economy and
efficiency, built-in scavenging, airway humidification and the ability to mechani-
cally ventilate.
6.1.4.2 Disadvantages
The circle circuit has a larger compression volume than the T-piece. As the rebreath-
ing bag is squeezed, part of the volume enters the patient but a proportion goes into
compressing the gas within the hoses and absorber. The compression volume can
make it more difficult to assess lung compliance in neonates, and is one of the rea-
sons why the T-piece remains popular in this patient group. Other minor disadvan-
tages are the circle system’s bulk and weight, slower washin and washout rates, and
need to use a filter to protect the absorber and hoses from contamination.
Keypoint
The circle circuit is being used more commonly for small infants and chil-
dren. The biggest advantage of the T-piece is its low compression volume,
which allows successful manual ventilation of the smallest patient and in the
most difficult-to-ventilate situations— the circle circuit is fine when ventila-
tion is going well, but its large compression volume makes assessment of
ventilation difficult when things aren’t going well.
6.2 Breathing Filters
As in adults, filters provide humidification and prevent microbial contamination of

the anesthetic circuit. Although the same general considerations apply in children
and adults, three areas are of importance when using filters for pediatric
anesthesia.
6.2.1 Filter Deadspace and Resistance
Filters are usually placed between the patient and the T-piece or the Y-piece of the
circle and add to the deadspace of the breathing system. During spontaneous breath-
ing, the tidal volume may be only a few mL/kg and deadspace needs to be mini-
mized to stop rebreathing. The deadspace of filters for infants and babies is usually
8–10 mL, and 20–25 mL for larger children.
Resistance from the filter increases work of breathing. It becomes important when
a very small baby is breathing spontaneously through a filter, or when a filter that is
too small is being used for a larger child. The resistance of the filter may reduce the
amount of gas leaving the circuit during inhalational induction when there is no mask
seal and there is neither a negative inspiratory pressure from the child nor a positive
pressure on the rebreathing bag forcing gas out through the filter.
6.2.2 Anti-microbial Efficiency
Pleated, hydrophobic membrane filters are considered best for pediatric use, but
there is wide variation in the performance of filters from different manufacturers.
Their smaller size makes them inefficient and ineffective when tested under
adult-sized conditions. However, when tested at conditions closer to the inspiratory

flow rates that a small child would generate, the filters perform almost as well as
adult sizes. However, some professional societies have guidelines that recommend
a new sterile circuit be considered for each case.
Note
Small filters are not suitable for large patients—the filter does not block
pathogens and its resistance is too high.
6.3 Ventilators
Ventilators in modern anesthetic machines are usually suitable for neonates, chil-
dren and adults. Features needed to permit ventilation of neonates during anesthesia
are listed in Table 6.3. The most important is the ability to deliver a small tidal vol-
ume at a fast rate. To do this, the ventilator must be capable of delivering low inspi-
ratory flow rates. For example, to deliver a 600 mL tidal volume to an adult patient
over 2 s, the ventilator generates an inspiratory flow of 18 L/min (in other words,
gas leaves the bellows at a rate of 18 L/min). But to deliver a 20 mL tidal volume to
a neonate over half a second, the ventilator must generate a flow of only 2.4 L/min.
Mechanical ventilators in adults are usually set to volume-controlled mode—the
desired tidal volume is set on the ventilator. Ventilators in children are usually set to
pressure-controlled mode—the desired inspiratory pressure is set (Fig. 6.5). This is
because pressure mode in children has some advantages over volume ventilation,
although less so nowadays with modern ventilators.
6.3.1 Pressure-Controlled Ventilation
This is the commonest mode of ventilation in pediatric anesthesia. The delivered

tidal volume is not affected by a small leak around the ETT, or by a change of fresh
Table 6.3 Features of a ventilator suitable for neonates, infants and small children
Features of a neonatal ventilator
Essential:
Able to deliver small tidal volumes
– Low inspiratory flow rate
– Short inspiratory time
Fast respiratory rates (up to 60 breath/min for neonates)
Small compression volume
Able to control FiO2
Desirable:
Able to deliver PEEP and CPAP
Able to measure small expired tidal volumes
Fig. 6.5 Proximal airway a b

pressure and flows in
pressure-controlled and
Pressure
Pressure
volume-controlled modes.
(a) During pressure Insp Exp Insp Exp
controlled ventilation, a
constant pressure is held
during inspiration but flow
declines exponentially. (b) Time Time
During volume controlled
ventilation, pressure
gradually builds during
inspiration
Flow
Flow
gas flow or change of circuit compliance. Similar inspiratory pressures are needed
for adolescents and babies, reducing the risk of accidental barotrauma. Typical ini-
tial settings for a normal child are inspiratory pressure 15–20 cmH2O, I:E ratio 1:2,
and rate 16 breaths/min for preschool ages, 18 breaths/min for infants, and >20
breaths/min for neonates. The ventilator delivers the set pressure for the set inspira-
tory time and inspiratory flow decreases during inspiration as alveolar pressure
reaches proximal airway pressure (decelerating flow pattern).
Three factors affect the delivered tidal volume in pressure-controlled ventilation:
1. Compliance of lung and chest wall, either from internal lung pathology, pneumo-
peritoneum or from external pressure on the chest or abdomen from the surgical
team or drapes.
2. Inspiratory pressure.
3. Inspiratory time.
As inspiratory time lengthens, the inspiratory pressure is applied for longer and the
delivered tidal volume increases. The I:E ratio affects inspiratory time and therefore
affects the tidal volume. However, as inspiratory time lengthens the alveolar pressure
eventually plateaus and equals the ventilator pressure, so no flow occurs and any fur-
ther lengthening of the inspiratory time does not increase tidal volume (Fig. 6.6). (In
general, longer inspiratory times improve oxygenation by increasing the mean airway
pressure and redistributing gas to less compliant alveoli, while allowing a lower peak
pressure for the same volume. Longer inspiratory times however increase the risk of
gas trapping, intrinsic peep and barotrauma by reducing expiratory time, and are not
tolerated by the patient so well, necessitating a deeper level of anesthesia).
A significant disadvantage of pressure-controlled ventilation is the ventilator
pressure alarm will not detect an obstruction or kinking of the ETT. If the ETT
Fig. 6.6 The effect of a b

inspiratory time during
pressure-controlled
Pressure
Pressure
pressure ventilation. (a)
Inspiratory flow is still Insp Exp Insp Exp
occurring at the end of
inspiration. Lengthening
inspiration will increase
Time Time
tidal volume. (b)
Inspiratory flow has ended
before inspiration has
finished because alveolar
pressure has reached
airway pressure.
Flow
Flow
Lengthening inspiration
will have no effect on tidal
volume
kinks, the ventilator will continue to cycle to the preset pressure with some move-
ment of the bellows due to compression of circuit volume, even though no volume
is delivered to the patient. If the obstruction is partial, there will be no pressure
alarm, delivered volume will fall and the capnogram may show either hyper- or
hypocarbia.
6.3.2 Volume-Controlled Ventilation
In this mode, the tidal volume is selected and the airway pressure varies with lung
compliance. There are several traditional reasons why this mode is less commonly
used in pediatric anesthesia.
1. A variable leak around an uncuffed ETT affects the tidal volume.

2. Changing the fresh gas flow may alter the delivered tidal volume:
Inspired tidal volume is made up from two components—the volume from
descent of the bellows plus the volume of fresh gas entering the circuit dur-
ing inspiration. For example, if the fresh gas flow is 6 L/min, 100 mL of gas
enters during a 1 s inspiration and is added to the volume coming out of the
bellows. A small child may therefore have significant changes in their tidal
volume as fresh gas flow is altered. The fresh gas flow affecting tidal volume
is a problem of older anesthetic machines with stand-alone ventilators that
are not integrated into the anesthetic machine. However, modern machines
with built-in ventilators have ‘fresh gas compensation’ so changes in fresh
gas flow do not affect the delivered tidal volume. Instead, the descent and
volume of gas leaving the bellows varies as the fresh gas flow is altered.
Drager machines do this by diverting fresh gas flow into the rebreathing bag
during inspiration, and most other brands electronically measure the fresh
gas flow and adjust the volume delivered from the ventilator.
3. Circuit compliance affects the delivered tidal volume:
The adult circle circuit has a compliance of 7 mL/cmH2O. With an inspiratory
pressure of 20 cmH2O, 140 mL of the ventilator output is lost expanding the
hoses and compressing the gas within. If a baby is being ventilated with a tidal
volume of 60 mL, this circuit loss is significant and means that a stand-alone
anesthetic ventilator would need to be set to 200 mL. However, modern anes-
thetic machines compensate for circuit compliance. On these machines, a setting
of 60 mL will mean 60 mL is delivered to the patient.
4. Concerns about barotrauma:
If the ventilator has been used for an adolescent with a tidal volume of 600 mL
and is then connected to an infant, the ventilator may cause barotrauma. However,
modern ventilators include a pressure release function, usually at 40 cmH2O so
that inspiration immediately stops when this pressure is reached and expiration
begins. This safety feature provides some protection from accidentally large tidal
volumes.
5. Inability of older ventilators to deliver small tidal volumes:
Modern ventilators however can deliver tidal volumes as low as 30–50 mL.
In summary, volume-controlled ventilation is less common in children because
of several problems, though these have been mostly overcome with modern technol-
ogy. Although there are some theoretical advantages with the decelerating flow pat-
tern of pressure ventilation, either mode can safely be used provided chest expansion
and patient variables are monitored and ventilation adjusted appropriately.
Keypoint
Pressure-controlled ventilation is most commonly used in pediatrics because
the delivered volume is not affected by circuit compliance, small leaks around
an uncuffed ETT or changes in fresh gas flow. However, delivered volume is
affected by changes in lung compliance and kinking or obstruction of the
ETT.
6.3.3 Pressure Support Ventilation
Pressure support is a patient triggered, flow cycled mode that is attractive for pedi-
atric ventilation as it splints open the upper airway by providing a positive airway
pressure during inspiration. It overcomes minor upper airway obstruction during
LMA use, reduces work of breathing caused by resistance in the breathing system
and helps maintain end expiratory lung volume. However, some ventilators are not
able to trigger and synchronize with the rapid small breaths of children. Ventilators
that trigger inspiration using flow rather than airway pressure tend to synchronize
better. Younger and smaller children usually need higher levels of pressure support
than older, larger children. The time required for the ventilator to reach the set
pressure from the start of inspiration is the rise time (or slope). Work from neonatal
ICU shows neonates synchronize best with a 0 rise time. Clinically, children appear
to do well with a rise time of 0.2–0.3 s.
Tip
With modern ventilators offering pressure support ventilation, no patient
should breath unassisted against the resistance of anesthetic equipment—even
as little as a few cm H2O of assistance reduces work of breathing and should
always be used.
6.4 Warming Devices
Children, especially infants, are prone to hypothermia. Children have a large surface
area relative to basal metabolic rate (BMR). An adult has a BMR equivalent to a
100 W light bulb, but a neonate only has the equivalent of only a 2 W torch bulb.
The main route of heat loss is cutaneous, mostly by radiation and convection as in
adults but also by evaporation in preterm infants who have thin, porous skin. It is
logical to stop heat loss through the skin and transfer heat back through it to prevent
and treat hypothermia.
6.4.1 Forced Air Warmer
Forced air warmers transfer so much heat they compensate for any losses by other
routes. They also allow the creation of a microclimate around neonates and infants
so that heating the entire OR to uncomfortable temperatures has become unneces-
sary. Forced air warmers are more effective in children than adults because such a
large proportion of the surface area of children can be covered in warm air. Pediatric
sized blankets can be placed over the child, or small children can be placed on top
of a purpose made blanket blowing warm air up and around the child while allowing
unrestricted access. Care must be taken when using these blankets to ensure that the
air channels are not compressed by the child’s limbs or equipment. Prewarming
children with a forced air warmer prevents redistribution hypothermia after induc-
tion but is often not practical as not all children will tolerate the blanket while
awake.
Burns readily occur if the warmer is used without a manufacturer’s blanket to
disperse the hot air flow. Burns are also a risk even if the blanket is used correctly.
The temperature at the insertion point of the hose into the blanket is high and a small
child’s foot or hand up against the blanket at this point is exposed to air hotter than
body temperature.
6.4.2 Overhead Radiant Heater
Overhead radiant heaters are infrequently used in OR but are still common in
NICU. They are ineffective because only a small surface area is heated, and most
infrared radiation produced strikes the skin at an angle and is reflected rather than
absorbed. The heat is also uncomfortable on the top of the surgeon’s heads.
6.4.3 Warming Mattress
These are electric warming pads placed underneath the child. Their effectiveness is
limited because not much heat is lost through the back, there is only a small surface
area available for heat transfer, and compression of skin vessels in the back reduces
heat transfer. Nevertheless, the electric mattress maintains normothermia and can be
used in conjunction with a forced air warmer. The NICE guidelines from the UK
suggest a heating mattress if a forced-air warming device is cannot be used.
6.4.4 Active Humidifier
Airway heating and humidification was common in the past. However, only about
10% of heat is lost through the airway and a proportion of this can be prevented with
passive humidifier filters. Electrically powered active humidifiers introduce the
risks of disconnections, leaks and burns, and are not usually used in the OR
(Table 6.4).
6.4.5 Fluid Warmers
Fluid warmers are often used for children. They help to prevent hypothermia, but do
not transfer enough heat to re-warm a patient. Because of the slow infusion rates
used in children, fluid is exposed to room temperatures as it travels along tubing
between the warmer and the child. Therefore, fluid must be warmed as close as pos-
sible to the child’s IV catheter. This is done by positioning the warmer close to the
Table 6.4 Routine methods Warming methods routinely used in children

of reducing heat loss and Forced air warmer
actively warming children in Warm OR (if can’t create warm microenvironment)
OR Warm IV fluids
Passive humidifier (Heat and moisture exchange filter)
Blanket or plastic covering over child
Electric heater mattress (Inditherm®)
child and minimizing the time fluid is exposed to room temperature. The Hotline®
fluid warmer uses a heated water jacket that encloses and encircles the IV fluid tub-
ing right up to the patient connection. It is very effective and useful in pediatric
practice, but is not effective at very high flow rates.
Keypoint
Children are at greater risk of hypothermia compared with adults because of
reduced heat production relative to surface area. Forced air warmers are the
most efficient method to maintain normothermia and treat hypothermia.
Increasing ambient temperature and warming IV fluids are the two other com-
monly used methods in OR to prevent hypothermia.
6.5 Monitoring
Monitoring standards are the same in children and adults, and are set out in profes-
sional college and association documents or guidelines. Minimal monitoring tends
to be applied before induction of children, at least in the wary child, so that they
remain calm, relaxed and more likely to cooperate at the time of induction. The
oximeter and other monitors are then applied at induction. This section focuses on
the aspects of monitoring that are different in children.
6.5.1 Pulse Oximetry
The pulse oximeter is a vital and useful monitor for children during and after anes-
thesia and sedation. Oximeters average the signal over 10–12 s to reduce motion
artefact, but in children the saturation can change very quickly and it is common to
see a color change in the lips before the oximeter detects a change. Oximeters are
accurate in neonates because fetal and adult hemoglobin have the same absorption
spectrum. Small, wrap-around probes are commonly used. The right hand in neo-
nates measures preductal saturation—it measures saturation of the blood flowing to
the brain. The ductus arteriosus linking the pulmonary artery and aorta is normally
closed, but in some children it is patent with left-to-right shunting of blood. If the
neonate reverts to fetal circulation, there is right-to-left shunting of deoxygenated
blood through the ductus to the aorta, causing lower saturations in the left arm and
legs. In practice the left arm and legs are frequently used for measurements—it can
be difficult to find a probe location on the neonate that works, and reversion to fetal
circulation is rare.
There is a range of probes available to suit children. If a probe that is too large is
used, such as an adult probe on the finger or toe of an infant, a proportion of the
oximeter light bypasses the tissue and is directly detected. This penumbra effect
may give a saturation reading in the 80s. Some spring clip probes compress a small
child’s digit too much, affecting the reading or causing pressure marks. A final issue
to bear in mind is that because children generally have healthy lungs, it is possible
to have excellent saturations on oxygen despite severe hypoventilation.
Tip
If a child is hypoxic and you are trying to improve oxygen saturation, watch
the chest, not the oximeter. The chest MUST be going up and down if you
are to succeed. The oximeter is giving you an averaged reading that is 10 or
12 s old.
6.5.2 Capnography
The rapid respiratory rates and small expired tidal volumes of children affect the
accuracy of capnometers. Although main-stream analyzers are more accurate, the
weight and bulk of the sensor have made side-stream analyzers more popular.
Keypoint
While this section mostly deals with technical issues that cause underestima-
tion of PaCO2, an important cause of false low ETCO2 is gross under ventila-
tion. This is why it is important to always observe chest expansion and assess
compliance with manual ventilation.
6.5.2.1 Problems with Small, Rapid Tidal Volumes

With side-stream analyzers, the small volume of expired gas mixes with inspired
gas along the length of the sample line, distorting the capnogram. Distortion may
obliterate the plateau of the capnogram, and at respiratory rates faster than about 40
breaths per minute the inspired carbon dioxide appears elevated. Distal sampling
(sampling closer to the alveoli) may be used in neonates and infants to increase the
amount of expired gas and decrease the amount of contaminating fresh gas that is
sampled (Fig. 6.7). This can be done using a special 15 mm ETT connector, or plac-
ing a small diameter IV cannula down into the lumen of the ETT. The cannula is
usually passed through the sampling port on the angle connector, narrowing the
lumen of the ETT and increasing resistance. Another approach to improve the accu-
racy of capnography in children uses Microstream technology. These monitors use
small diameter tubing and a lower sample rate than usual to reduce mixing within
the sample line. Gas analysis is done using a narrow bandwidth of infrared radiation
in a much smaller analyzer chamber.
6.5.2.2 Leak Around the ETT

A leak around the ETT allows part of the exhaled gas to escape around the
ETT. The error this causes is worsened by any pressure in the circuit, either during
IPPV or PEEP. Any positive airway pressure during the expiratory pause forces
Fig. 6.7 The accuracy of a To capnometer

capnography in neonates
and small children is
improved by distal
sampling to contamination
of the expired gas sample
with fresh gas. (a) A fine
sampling catheter (such as
an IV cannula) is inserted
into the lumen of the ETT.
(b) A purpose-made ETT
connector with an in-built b To capnometer
sample port replaces the
usual ETT connector
ETT connector with Sample catheter in

built-in sample port lumen of ETT
first exhaled gas and then fresh gas back down the ETT and out around the leak,
diluting the gas sample for capnography. The larger the leak around the ETT, the
greater the error (Fig. 6.8). Even if PEEP is not used, the ventilator causes a small
amount of back pressure as the bellows fills and its spill valve opens, affecting the
capnogram.
Tip
Be careful when the capnogram is peaked and does not plateau. Consider
sampling more distally or reducing the size of the leak with either a larger
ETT or a cuffed ETT, or even a throat pack. Consider manual ventilation to
check that the ETCO2 is not low because of gross under ventilation.
Minimal Large Large leak

leak leak with PEEP
30 mmHg
4 kPa
ETCO2
Fig. 6.8 The effect on the capnogram of a leak around the ETT. A large leak allows fresh gas to
flow back down the ETT during the expiratory pause, diluting expired gas. Adding PEEP increases
the back flow of fresh gas and worsens dilution and accuracy
Fig. 6.9 (a) Fresh gas in a To

the anesthetic circuit capnometer
dilutes expired gas, distorts Fresh gas in
the capnogram and reduces
the ETCO2 value. (b)
Placing a filter between the
ETCO2
fresh gas inlet and the
sample site reduces
dilution of the expired gas
Mask/ETT
b Filter
Fresh To
gas in capnometer
ETCO2
Mask/ETT
6.5.2.3 Fresh Gas Entrainment and the T-Piece

The CO2 sample port is located close to the fresh gas inlet on the T-piece circuit and
fresh gas mixes with exhaled gas. Distal sampling helps to minimize this effect.
Alternatively, placing a filter between the fresh gas and sample port separates fresh
and exhaled gases, improving ETCO2 sampling and providing humidification
(Fig. 6.9).
6.5.2.4 Cyanotic Heart Disease

Children with congenital heart disease who are cyanosed have a right-to-left shunt
of blood through the heart. As part of the cardiac output does not pass through the
lungs, the ETCO2 underestimates the PaCO2.
6.5.3 Transcutaneous CO2 Monitoring
Transcutaneous CO2 monitoring (TcCO2) measures the PaCO2 with a sensor on the
skin that is heated to arterialize the blood. It is mostly used in neonatal intensive
care where the sensor is applied to the skin of the chest or abdomen. Several aspects
of the technique limit its routine use in theatre. It requires calibration before use,
may cause local skin problems, is affected by tissue edema or hypoperfusion and the
response time is too slow for it to replace ETCO2. However, when properly set up,
it measures PaCO2 more accurately than ETCO2, and has a role in theatre during
high frequency ventilation when capnography cannot work.
6.5.4 Temperature
The esophagus, nasopharynx, rectum and axilla are all clinically useful sites for
monitoring temperature in children. Core temperature is best measured in the distal
third of the esophagus, where the probe is adjacent to the heart and great vessels,
and least affected by respiratory gases. A nasopharyngeal probe is commonly used
and is sufficiently accurate unless there is a large leak around the ETT that exposes
the probe to inspiratory gas. The axillary site allows probes to be cleaned and reused,
but the probe must be positioned high in the axilla adjacent to the axillary artery, and
protected from ambient temperature by keeping the arm adducted.
6.5.5 Depth of Anesthesia Monitors
The EEG in young children is different from adults. The background frequency
decreases from 10 Hz in adults to 7–8 Hz in 2 years olds and 5 Hz at 6 months of
age. Children less than 5 years also have short bursts of EEG activity while awake,
and have specific EEG patterns associated with transition in and out of drowsiness
and sleep. Monitors based on the processed EEG including BIS, Entropy and
Narcotrend using pediatric electrode systems have reasonable correlations with
doses of volatile or intravenous anesthesia in older children. High concentrations of
sevoflurane paradoxically increase the BIS, possibly by altering the raw EEG. These
monitors cannot be used in children aged less than 1 year because of the EEG dif-
ferences in infants compared to children. Furthermore, while there is some evidence
in adults that anesthesia depth monitors improve outcomes, this has not been stud-
ied or proven in children. Nevertheless, for children aged 1–13 years, if BIS is
maintained below 50 then wakefulness is unlikely, and BIS guidance of manual
propofol infusions reduces the likelihood of over- or under-dosing.
6.5.6 Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) measures regional tissue oxygenation by mea-

suring non-pulsatile oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin saturation. Cerebral
oxygen saturation (cSO2) assesses the brain venous compartment, and is correlated
with jugular venous saturation. A sensor emitting light in the near infrared spec-
trum is applied to the forehead. Light takes a banana-shaped path through a tissue
volume of about 10 mL to sensors 3–5 cm away, giving a composite measure of
arterial and venous blood. The light follows two paths—superficial through the
bone and cartilage of the skull, and deeper through the cerebral parenchyma. The
absorption from the two paths is subtracted to estimate cortical oxygenation. The
probes are age-specific and assume the cortex is at a certain depth below the probe.
The lower weight limit for neonatal probes is 2.5 kg, and if the probe is used on
smaller babies, it will measure oxygenation of deeper brain rather than cortex.
Proprietary algorithms are used to calculate regional tissue oxygenation. Some
monitors display oxy-hemoglobin as an absolute value, and others as a proportion
of total hemoglobin or ‘index’. The value measured in the frontal cortex under-
neath the probe is assumed to reflect the cortex elsewhere. Normal cerebral satura-
tion is 70%. cSO2 must be interpreted as a measure of balance between transport
and consumption of oxygen in the brain. It rises in well perfused, inactive cerebral
tissue (as during cooling or irreversibly damaged cerebral tissue), and falls in well
perfused excessively active tissue (as during status epilepticus). NIRS is used dur-
ing cardiac anesthesia and is being investigated as a measure of cerebral perfusion
during anesthesia and surgery in sick neonates with poor cardiovascular status,
aiming to achieve a satisfactory neurological outcome. In children, cerebral desat-
urations during congenital heart surgery are associated with increased neurological
morbidity. Cerebral oximetry could be a useful monitoring technique during anes-
thesia in preterm neonates, due to the risk of impaired cerebral blood flow auto-
regulation in these patients.
Review Questions
1. What factors affect the FiCO2 with the T-piece circuit?

2. What characteristics make a ventilator suitable for infants?
3. What factors affect the delivered tidal volume during pressure-controlled
ventilation?
4. During pressure-controlled ventilation, why does changing the fresh gas flow
rate affect how far the ventilator bellows moves? What happens if volume-
controlled ventilation is used instead, and does it matter if the ventilator is inte-
grated into the anesthesia machine or free-standing?
5. What factors affect the accuracy of ETCO2 measurement in children?
6. Does an adult oximeter give accurate readings on a neonate?
7. Below what age is BIS not useable?
Further Reading
Breathing Systems
Keneally JP, Overton JH. A scavenging device for the T-piece. Anaesth Intensive Care.
1977;5:267–8.
Oswald L, et al. The Ayre’s T-piece turns 80: a 21st century review. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28(8):694–6.
Pearsall MF, Feldman JM. When does apparatus dead space matter for the pediatric patient?
Anesth Analg. 2014;118:776–80.
Stayer S, Olutoye O. Anesthesia ventilators: better options for children. Anesthesiol Clin North
Am. 2005;23:677–91.
Whitelock DE, deBeer DAH. The use of filters with small infants. Respir Care Clin N Am.
2006;12:307–20.
Warming Equipment
John M, Ford J, Harper M. Perioperative warming devices: performance and clinical application.
Anesthesia. 2014;69:623–38.
National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Hypothermia: prevention and management in adults
having surgery (NICE guideline 65). 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/Cg65. Accessed
July 2019.
Sessler DI. Forced-air warming in infants and children. Pediatr Anesth. 2013;23:467–8.
Monitoring
Louvet N, et al. Bispectral index under propofol anesthesia in children: a comparative randomized
study between TIVA and TCI. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:899–908.
Sury M. Brain monitoring in children. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014;32:115–32.
Tobias TD. Transcutaneous carbon dioxide monitoring in infants and children. Pediatr Anesth.
2009;19:434–44.
Wallin M, Lonnqvist PA. A healthy measure of monitoring fundamentals. Pediatr Anesth.
2018;28:580–7. An interesting dissertation pointing out limitations of some monitors, includ-
ing BIS and NIRS.
Resuscitation and Emergency Drugs
7
Philip Russell
Any resuscitation is stressful for the staff involved, but even more so if the patient is
a child. There are many differences when a child is involved— the causes of arrest
may be different, staff are usually less familiar with CPR in children than in adults,
doses of drugs need to be calculated, and parents are often present at the
resuscitation.
7.1 Cardiac Arrest in Children
The causes of cardiorespiratory arrest in children are different from those in adults
because most pediatric arrests are secondary to decompensated respiratory or circula-
tory failure. Causes of respiratory failure include birth asphyxia, bronchiolitis, asthma
and airway obstruction either from inhalation of a foreign body or other causes.
Respiratory arrest may also occur secondary to neurological dysfunction caused by
events such as convulsion or poisoning. A smaller proportion of cardiac arrests in
children are the end result of circulatory failure, either due to fluid or blood loss, or
maldistribution of fluid within the circulatory system. Fluid loss may be due to gastro-
enteritis, burns or trauma. Fluid maldistribution may be due to sepsis or anaphylaxis.
Although most arrests in children are asystolic arrests secondary to underlying
cardiorespiratory failure, 5–15% of cardiac arrests in children are due to a primary
cardiac event. Ventricular fibrillation (VF) or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT)
may be the primary event in a significant number of arrests on wards in hospitals
with a cardiology or cardiac surgery unit. VF in children may also be caused by
electrolyte disturbances, drug toxicity and hypothermia.
Whatever the cause, by the time of cardiac arrest there will usually be significant
hypoxia and acidosis leading to cell damage and death. The initial cardiac rhythm is
P. Russell (*)
Western Anaesthesiology, Subiaco, WA, Australia
e-mail: philrussell@me.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_7
156 P. Russell
often severe bradycardia or asystole. Management of a child needing resuscitation

follows guidelines published by the relevant resuscitation council, including those
from Australia, New Zealand, Europe and the UK, and the American Heart
Association.
The outcome for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is better in children than in adults.
The outcome in infants however, is worse than adults because of the poor outcome
from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Children also have a better outcome for
in-hospital arrest, reflecting the underlying causes of arrest.
Keypoint
Most cardiac arrests in children are the end result of decompensated respira-
tory or circulatory failure. Children with cardiac disease may also arrest from
these causes, but are also more likely to have a primary cardiac arrest in VF or
pulseless VT.
7.1.1 Perioperative Cardiac Arrest in Children
‘Wake Up Safe’ is the largest study of perioperative cardiac arrest in children and
included over one million anesthetics. It found perioperative cardiac arrest occurs in
5.3 per 10,000 anesthetics, and arrest directly related to anesthesia occurs in 3.3 per
10,000 (Table 7.1). The mortality rate for anesthetic related cardiac arrest was
10.9%, which was lower than arrests not related to anesthesia. Although this large
study collected data from many institutions, it included data from very unwell chil-
dren—half of the children who had a cardiac arrest had congenital heart disease,
and 40% were receiving some form of physiologic support including oxygen, ino-
tropes or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. A lower incidence of arrest would
be expected in healthier children not requiring tertiary pediatric hospital care. Other
risk factors applicable to all children having anesthesia included age less than
6 months, ASA status 3–5, emergency surgery and after-hours surgery. The inci-
dence of death related to anesthesia was 0.36 per 10,000 anesthetics.
Table 7.1 Etiology of pediatric cardiac arrest during anesthesia and surgery
Etiology of anesthesia-
related arrest Details
Cardiovascular (49%) Arrhythmia (16%), hemorrhage (9%), primary cardiac failure
(9%), pulmonary hypertension (6%)
Respiratory (35%) Airway obstruction (15%) including laryngospasm, Inability to
intubate or ventilate, premature extubation
Medication related (7%) Opioid, inhaled anesthetic, muscle relaxant
Central line related (3%) Arrhythmia, cardiac tamponade
Blood products (1%)
Could not be determined
(14%)
Data from ‘Wake Up Safe’ study, Anesth Analg 2018;127: 472–7
7 Resuscitation and Emergency Drugs 157
7.1.2 Basic Life Support
Basic Life Support (BLS) algorithms for children have a greater emphasis on early
management of airway and breathing. The critical first step is oxygen delivery rather
than chest compressions and defibrillation (A-B-C in children, rather than C-A-B for
adults). After opening the airway, if the patient is not breathing (or only gasping), two
rescue breaths are given (Fig. 7.1). In adults, chest compressions are started before
ventilation, and an automated external defibrillator (AED) is applied as soon as avail-
able, reflecting the greater incidence of a primary cardiac cause of arrest.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be started when cardiac arrest is sus-
pected on the basis of lack of signs of circulation, which include lack of responsiveness
(unconsciousness), lack of breathing, lack of movement, pallor or cyanosis. It is not
necessary to attempt to feel a pulse before starting CPR as pulse detection by palpation
is unreliable in children, even when performed by healthcare personnel. If an attempt
is made to palpate a pulse, CPR should be started if a pulse has not been felt within 10 s
or if there is uncertainty about its presence. Chest compressions should be commenced
if the pulse is less than 60 per minute in an infant or less than 40 per minute in a child.
Fig. 7.1 Pediatric BLS for health care providers

Unresponsive child?
Shout for help

Open airway
Not breathing normally?
Give 2 breaths
(UK guideline—up to 5 breaths)
No signs of circulation?
Start CPR
15 compressions: 2 breaths
Attach defibrillator/monitor
Check help is coming
158 P. Russell
Note
Palpating for a pulse is unreliable in children, even when performed by health-
care personnel. However, the most accurate sites for palpation in a child are
the brachial and femoral arteries.
High quality CPR includes minimal interruption to chest compressions and ven-
tilation. The compression rate during CPR for all ages is between 100 and 120 per
minute. The ratio of compressions to ventilations is 15:2 for health-care rescuers.
Chest compressions should compress the lower half of the sternum by approxi-
mately one-third the depth of the anterior-posterior diameter of the chest (5 cm in
children, 4 cm in infants). For infants (a child less than 1 year of age) a two-finger
technique or two-thumb (hand-encircling) technique should be used (Fig. 7.2). For
children greater than 1 year of age, compress the lower half of the sternum with the
heel of one hand (Fig. 7.3). For larger children, a two-handed technique can be used.
Children have a much more compliant chest wall compared with adults, therefore
less force is required for chest compression.
Fig. 7.2 (a) Infant chest

compression using a
encircling technique. (b)
Infant chest compression
using two-finger technique
b
Fig. 7.3 Child chest

compression using
one-hand technique
Compression-only CPR from bystanders produces no survival benefit in out of

hospital cardiac arrest in children, whereas standard ventilation-compression CPR
does result in a survival benefit. Compression rates of less than 100 per minute or
greater than 140 per minute, and inadequate compression depth are associated with
lower rates of survival. Apart from an interruption to summon help, BLS must not
be interrupted unless the child moves or takes a breath.
7.1.3 Advanced Life Support
Advanced life support is the management of an arrested or peri-arrest patient by a

team of health care providers. It builds on BLS by adding monitoring of cardiac
rhythm and treatment with defibrillation or drugs, and the use of an advanced air-
way such as the LMA or tracheal tube for ventilation.
As in adults, the management of cardiac arrest is divided into shockable and non-
shockable rhythms (Fig. 7.4), and defibrillator and monitor should be attached as
soon as possible to assess rhythm.
An advanced airway (LMA or ETT) improves ventilation compared with mask
ventilation, and reduces interruptions to chest compressions, which in turn improves
cardiac output. Endotracheal intubation provides better protection of the airway and
control of ventilation, however insertion of an LMA is quicker and may be per-
formed by those with less experience in airway management.
During CPR with an advanced airway in place, chest compressions should be con-
tinuous at a rate of 100–120 per minute, and ventilation at a rate of 10–12 per minute.
If spontaneous cardiac output returns, a ventilation rate of 12–20 per minute is used.
Capnography can be used to confirm ventilation and optimize the quality of CPR. If
exhaled CO2 (ETCO2) is not detected, the position of the ETT should be checked by
direct laryngoscopy. Although the absence of CO2 may reflect tube misplacement, it
may also be caused by very low pulmonary blood flow (such as immediately following
adrenaline administration). If the ETCO2 is consistently less than 10–15 mmHg
(2 kPA), efforts should be made to improve chest compressions. Hyperventilation
should be avoided due to the risk of reducing cerebral blood flow. An abrupt, sustained
increase in ETCO2 may occur just before the return of spontaneous circulation.
160 P. Russell
Note
A capnogram and detectable ETCO2 are present during effective CPR in car-
diac arrest in children. Absence of ETCO2 usually suggests the ETT is not in
the trachea. Avoid hyperventilation and optimize the quality of chest com-
pressions, aiming to keep ETCO2 above 15 mmHg (2 kPA).
Unresponsive child with no

signs of circulation?
Call resuscitation team

Start BLS
Assess rhythm
Shockable Non-shockable
(VF / pulseless VT) (PEA / asystole)
1 shock 4 J/kg Epinephrine 10 microg/kg
CPR for 2 min CPR for 2 min
ADRENALINE 10 microg/kg ADRENALINE 10 microg/kg

after 2nd shock & then every 2nd loop
every 2nd loop
AMIODARONE 5 mg/kg
after 3rd shock
During CPR:
Ensure high-quality CPR; minimize interruptions
Correct reversible causes (4H’s and 4T’s- see below)
IV / IO access
Give oxygen
Give adrenaline (epinephrine) every 4 minutes 10 microgram/kg
(every 2nd cycle)
Consider advanced airway and capnography
Fig. 7.4 Pediatric advanced life support algorithm

Hundred percent oxygen is still recommended for the arrested patient. There is
no evidence to support the use of lower oxygen concentrations during resuscitation,
but the inspired oxygen concentration is titrated to limit hyperoxia once spontane-
ous circulation has returned.
For both shockable and non-shockable rhythms, chest compressions are briefly
paused to assess the cardiac rhythm at intervals of 2 min. If there is an organized
rhythm, a pulse or signs of circulation are checked for at the end of that 2 min
cycle. If there is a return of spontaneous circulation, post resuscitation care is
continued.
7.1.3.1 Non-shockable Rhythms

These are severe bradycardia, asystole, and pulseless electrical activity (PEA).
Effective basic life support and treatment of the underlying cause of the arrest affect
the outcome of the arrest. Drug treatment includes adrenaline (epinephrine) 10 μg/
kg (0.1 mL/kg of 1:10,000 solution) via intravenous or intra-osseous route every
4 min (every second cycle) until the return of spontaneous circulation. Higher doses
of intravascular adrenaline in children may worsen outcome. Adrenaline (epineph-
rine) may be given through a peripheral line in the emergency situation, followed by
a normal saline flush. If the child has no existing IV access, the intraosseous route
is recommended as it is rapid and effective (see below). A central venous catheter is
recommended if the child has ongoing inotrope requirements. Drug delivery via a
tracheal tube is no longer recommended.
Adequate ventilation and chest compression are the best way to reverse acidosis
during arrest. Alkalizing agents are not used routinely in resuscitation care. However,
in prolonged arrest, severe metabolic acidosis may be treated with sodium bicarbon-
ate 1 mmol/kg. Sodium bicarbonate inactivates adrenaline, therefore the line must
be flushed with saline if adrenaline is going to be given. Atropine has no role in the
routine management of cardiac arrest.
7.1.3.2 Shockable Rhythms

These include VF and pulseless VT. They are treated with a single asynchronous
DC shock of 4 J/kg (either monophasic or biphasic). External chest compression is
then immediately restarted and continued for 2 min before re-analyzing the cardiac
rhythm. All subsequent shocks should be 4 J/kg and interruptions to chest compres-
sion minimized. Chest compression is only paused to check the child’s pulse if there
has been a change in cardiac rhythm, or if the child shows signs of life such as
spontaneous movement or resumption of normal breathing. The risk of harm from
unnecessary chest compressions is minimal, whereas interruption of chest compres-
sions reduces the chance of a successful outcome.
Three ‘stacked’ shocks of 4 J/kg may be used in special circumstances such as
witnessed arrests in the cardiac catheter lab, and ICU or theatre after cardiac sur-
gery. Synchronized shocks of 0.5–2 J/kg are used for VT when there is hypotension
but a pulse is present.
Paddles and defibrillation pads are equally effective. There are two sizes of defi-
brillation pad or paddle:
162 P. Russell
Adult-size (8–12 cm diameter) for adults and children >10 kg (approximately

1 year); and infant-size (4.5 cm diameter) for infants less <10 kg. Their placement
should follow their manufacturer’s recommendations—usually antero-apical with
one electrode placed below the clavicle just to the right of the sternum, and the other
over the apex in the mid-axillary line. In infants, anterior-posterior placement should
be used if the pads cannot be adequately separated in the standard position. If infant
pads are not available then standard adult pads can be used in the anterior-posterior
position. Defibrillator pads must not touch, and a gap of least 3 cm between elec-
trodes is preferable.
7.1.3.3 Automated External Defibrillators (AEDs)

Manual defibrillators are preferred in children, however if they are not available a
standard AED can be used in children over 8 years (Table 7.2). AEDs in institutions
caring for children at risk for arrhythmias and cardiac arrest (eg, hospitals,
Emergency Departments) must be capable of recognizing pediatric cardiac rhythms.
Many manufacturers supply pediatric pads or programs, which typically attenuate
the output to 50–75 J. These devices are recommended for use in children between
1 and 8 years. If a manual defibrillator or pediatric attenuation system is not avail-
able, then a standard AED can be used.
Shockable rhythms are unusual in infants (particularly in out-of-hospital arrest),
and the focus of resuscitation is on high quality CPR. However, there are rare case
reports of successful use of AEDs in this age group. If an infant is arrested and in a
shockable rhythm, current recommendations are to use an AED (preferably attenu-
ated) if a manual defibrillator is not available.
Keypoint
Defibrillation of infants:
Manual defibrillator preferable, 4 J/kg
Infant pads, anterior-apical or antero-posterior—left side of lower sternum
and below left scapula
Defibrillation of children 1–8 years:
Manual defibrillator, 4 J/kg
Adult pads, apical (mid axillary line) and to right of sternum below
clavicle
Gap of more than 3 cm between edge of the two pads
Table 7.2 Recommendations for the use of automated external defibrillators (AEDs) in children
Child’s age Advice
8 years and older Use unmodified adult AED
Younger than AED can be used, preferably with energy attenuation (if not available use
8 years standard AED)
Table 7.3 Formulae for weight of children based on age

Age APLS formula Best Guess formula UK Resuscitation Council
<1 year æ months ö æ months ö
ç ÷+4 ç ÷ + 4.5
è 2 ø è 2 ø
1–5 years (2 × age) + 8 (2 × age) + 10 2 × (age + 4)
5–10 years (3 × age) + 7 4 × age 2 × (age + 4)
>10 years Age × 3.3
Children older than 10 years have a large variation in body habitus and weight, and formulae are
less accurate
7.1.3.4 Anti-arrhythmic Drugs

Defibrillation is the definitive treatment of VF and pulseless VT. Anti-arrhythmic drugs
are given to stabilize the converted rhythm. Amiodarone 5 mg/kg IV/IO bolus, is the
first-line agent and is given once, only after the third shock. Lidocaine 1 mg/kg may be
used if amiodarone is not available. Magnesium (0.1–0.2 mmol/kg) is indicated in arrest
due to polymorphic VT (torsades de pointes), or in the presence of hypomagnesaemia.
7.1.4 Estimation of Children’s Weight
In emergencies, it may not be practical to weigh children before starting treatment.

Several methods have been devised to estimate children’s weight.
Formulae based on age include the APLS and “Best Guess” methods (Table 7.3).
Age-based formulae have a poor predictive accuracy, particularly in older children,
and may require complex calculations in a stressful environment. However, they
require no equipment and are taught in pediatric advanced life support courses.
Digital methods such as the Helix Weight Estimation Tool improve accuracy
over other age-based estimates, as they allow calculations based on age in months,
incorporate gender and body habitus, and reduce the risk of calculation errors. With
these tools, the child’s data is entered and a page of values printed and included with
the hospital notes. The page of values can be referred to in an emergency, and
includes information about drug doses, ETT size, DC shock energy and fluid vol-
umes. These are useful for children being cared for in non-pediatric hospitals if
prepared at admission, before any emergency situation has begun.
Length- based methods such as the Broselow tape, are more accurate in estima-
tion of weight and do not require the child’s age to be known. The tape is laid along-
side the child and the length is used to estimate weight. Appropriate drug doses,
ETT size and energy for DC shock are also indicated.
7.2 Reversible Causes of Cardiac Arrest in Children
During resuscitation, consider and correct precipitating causes that are reversible.
These causes may be remembered as the 4H’s and 4T’s, as for adults:
164 P. Russell
Hypoxia is a prime cause of cardiac arrest in children and reversing it is essential

to achieve a successful resuscitation.
Hypovolemia may be significant in trauma (due to hemorrhage), gastroenteritis,
burns or surgical conditions such as intussusception and volvulus. Distributive
shock may occur with septicemia or anaphylaxis. Initial resuscitation is with crys-
talloid 20 mL/kg boluses as required, followed by colloid or blood products as indi-
cated. Most children are able to compensate very well for hypovolemia. Hypotension
is usually a late and pre-terminal sign. By contrast, infants have a relatively fixed
stroke volume and are less able to compensate for hypovolemia.
Hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypocalcemia and other metabolic abnormalities
may be suggested by the child’s underlying condition, such as renal failure, or by
ECG and blood tests taken during the arrest.
Hypothermia may be associated with drowning or environmental exposure. A
low reading thermometer must be used to detect it, and active rewarming begun. VF
may be resistant to defibrillation until the core temperature is increased to above
32 °C.
Tension pneumothorax and cardiac tamponade causing pulseless electrical
activity may occur after trauma or surgery.
Toxic substances may be the result of accidental or deliberate overdose or iatro-
genic error. Specific antidotes may be required and expert advice should be sought.
Local anesthetic toxicity may cause VT and VF. Resuscitation can be difficult
and VF may be resistant to defibrillation, although outcome may be favorable if
good quality CPR is quickly initiated. A bolus of lipid emulsion 2 mL/kg 20% lipid
(such as Intralipid) followed by an infusion of 0.2 mL/kg/h may assist
resuscitation.
Thromboembolic phenomena such as pulmonary embolism are less common in
children than adults, but should still be considered. Children with Fontan circulation
and cardiac conduits are at high risk of clot formation Spontaneous coronary throm-
bosis is very rare in children.
Keypoint
Successful resuscitation requires identification and treatment of the underly-
ing cause.
7.3 Hypoxia and Bradycardia as a Prelude to Cardiac Arrest
The commonest cause of cardio-pulmonary arrest during pediatric anesthesia is

hypoxia due to an airway problem such as laryngospasm or loss of airway, or a
respiratory problem causing inadequate ventilation. Severe hypoxia will lead to a
progressively worsening bradycardia followed by asystole. The priority is to restore
oxygenation and ventilation. External chest compressions should be started if the
heart rate is less than 40 per minute in a child or less than 60 in an infant. Atropine
(20 μg/kg IV) should be given early. Bradycardia may be worsen after suxametho-
nium is given (eg. to break laryngospasm), so co-administration of atropine in the
hypoxic patient should be considered. Adrenaline (10 μg/kg IV) should be given in
severe bradycardia if there are no signs of cardiac output or asystole. Resuscitation
should follow the ALS algorithm for asystole.
7.4 Parental Presence During Resuscitation
Whenever possible, parents should be given the opportunity to be present during the
resuscitation of an infant or child. It is important that a dedicated staff member stays
with family members to provide support and an explanation of events.
7.5 Post-resuscitation Care
Return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) may be recognized by:
• Return of spontaneous movement or breathing

• Return of pulse or blood pressure
• Return of spontaneous arterial pressure waves with intra-arterial monitoring
• An increase in ETCO2
The goals of post-resuscitation care are to preserve neurologic function, prevent

secondary organ injury, diagnose and correct the underlying condition, and enable
the patient to arrive at a pediatric tertiary-care facility in an optimal physiologic state.
Continuous monitoring is required to detect any improvement with therapy or
deterioration. Ventilatory support is usually required and vasoactive drugs are fre-
quently required for hemodynamic support. Hyperoxia should be avoided by adjust-
ing the inspired oxygen concentration to the lowest that will maintain oxygen
saturations above 94%.
Blood glucose should be checked frequently to avoid both hyper- and hypo-
glycaemia. However, tight glucose control does not improve survival compared to
moderate glucose control, and increases the risk of hypoglycemia. Glucose-containing
fluids should not be given during CPR except in the treatment of hypoglycemia.
For infants and children remaining comatose after cardiac arrest, continuous
measurement of temperature and targeted temperature management is recom-
mended. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to recommend routine cooling
over normothermia (36–37.5 °C for 5 days). Fever (>38 °C) in the post cardiac
arrest setting results in poorer neurological outcomes, and active cooling should be
used if the patient is febrile. If a child is severely hypothermic they should not be
actively rewarmed post arrest unless core temperature is less than 33 °C. Rate of
rewarming in severe hypothermia should not exceed 0.5 °C per hour. Multi-organ
failure may occur after cardiac arrest with prolonged hypoxemia or hypotension,
and supportive therapy may be required for many days.
166 P. Russell
Fig. 7.5 The percentage 60

of children surviving to
discharge from hospital
Survival to hospital discharge (%)

Hypoxic respiratory
after in-hospital cardiac etiology
arrest. Most arrests in
children are secondary to
hypoxia and respiratory
causes, and survival
30 Primary cardiac
decreases markedly with
etiology
prolonged CPR. Children
who have a cardiac arrest
due to a cardiac etiology
have a worse initial
outcome as a reflection of
their underlying cardiac
disease. Adapted from 0
Berens RJ et al. Pediatr 0 60
Anesth 2011;21: 834–40 Duration of CPR (minutes)
7.6 Stopping Resuscitation
There is no single factor that predicts the likely outcome following resuscitation.
Factors to consider when deciding to stop attempts at resuscitation include the cir-
cumstances of the arrest, initial rhythm, duration of resuscitation and quality of CPR,
and other features such as hypothermia. Long term outcome from pediatric cardio-
pulmonary arrest is poor if it occurs out of hospital, but better if the arrest is respira-
tory alone or if cardiorespiratory arrest occurs in hospital. Perioperative cardiac
arrest has significantly higher survival rates than other forms of in-hospital arrest.
The duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation is not a reliable predictor of out-
come. However, in cases of prolonged CPR, survival to hospital discharge is more
likely with cardiac induced cardiac arrest, particularly in cardiac surgical patients.
In the setting of respiratory failure induced arrest, survival declines exponentially
after CPR duration of 15 min (Fig. 7.5).
7.7 Emergency Vascular Access
Achieving IV access in a seriously ill or arrested child is difficult, even for an experi-
enced practitioner. The intra-osseous route has become the initial technique to use dur-
ing resuscitation, or otherwise to be used if peripheral IV access cannot be obtained
rapidly. Cannulation of the femoral vein using the Seldinger technique during ultra-
sound guidance is another useful, safe technique, though not in the arrest situation.
7.7.1 Intraosseous Access
Intraosseous (IO) access can often be achieved more rapidly than peripheral venous
access. Unlike peripheral veins, bone marrow vessels will not collapse in shock or
2
90° 1
90°
3
Growth Tibial
plate tuberosity
Fig. 7.6 Intraosseous insertion sites in children. (1) Anteromedial surface of the tibia, 2–3 cm below
the tibial tuberosity. (2) Anterior surface of distal femur, 3 cm above the level of the lateral condyle. (3)
Alternative site for older children on medial aspect of distal tibia about 3 cm above medial malleolus
hypothermia. An IO needle with a stylet is most commonly inserted using an IO

drill or gun. The success rate is 90% or higher, but lower in infants in whom manual
insertion may have a higher success rate than drill insertion.
In infants and children, the preferred site is the anteromedial surface of the tibia,
2–3 cm below the tibial tuberosity, away from the growth plate (Fig. 7.6). In young
children, the tibial tuberosity may not have developed, and insertion point is about
3 cm distal and 1 cm medial to the lower border of the patella. In older children, the
bone cortex can be thick and strong, and the medial side of the distal tibia, about
3 cm above the medial malleolus, can be used. An alternative site only for infants
and small children is the medial side of the distal femur about 3 cm above the lateral
condyle, which is above the growth plate. In any age group, the IO needle cannot be
inserted into bones or limbs that are fractured.
After sterile preparation of the skin, the needle is inserted at a 90-degree angle to
the skin. A loss of resistance is felt when the cortex of the bone is penetrated— this
may only be millimeters from the skin in babies. Correct needle placement may be
confirmed by aspiration of blood or bone marrow (although not always) or free flow
of fluid by gravity. If aspiration is not possible and there is no flow of fluid with
gravity, then attempt infusion of fluid by syringe. Pressurized fluids should flow
without difficulty and there should be no evidence of extravasation. Fluids may be
administered more rapidly by infusion with pressure, and any drugs given IO should
be followed by a saline flush to speed their entry into the central circulation. Injection
and infusion into the medullary cavity causes severe pain in children who are con-
scious and aware. IO lidocaine or opioids may reduce the pain.
In older children and adults, IO access may be more difficult because of the
thicker bone cortex. At this age, the intra-medullary space also becomes less vascu-
lar and fattier, resulting in slower infusion rates. Although the technique can be used
in neonates, fracture or perforation of the bone are risks because it is difficult to feel
the needle enter the marrow cavity, particularly when using a drill device, and
umbilical vein catheterization may be preferable.
Blood or bone marrow may be aspirated and used to measure electrolytes
(although the potassium level may be higher than with venous sample), glucose
168 P. Russell
level and perform cross match. The receiving laboratory should be warned the sam-
ple is from the marrow cavity, as the marrow may block their equipment or the lab
may suspect undiagnosed leukemia. The marrow sample can be used in glucome-
ters, iSTAT® and similar point-of-care devices. All of the drugs used during resusci-
tation can be given via the IO route. The commonest complication is extravasation,
which may cause compartment syndrome if not recognized. Infection is a concern
and is related to the duration of IO access (Table 7.4). Once the child is stabilized,
definitive access should be obtained and IO access removed within 24 h.
7.8 Management of the Choking Child
Airway obstruction with a foreign body should be suspected if there is a sudden

onset of respiratory compromise associated with coughing, gagging and stridor.
Management depends on the severity of the choking episode (Fig. 7.7). If the child
Table 7.4 Complications of intraosseous Potential complications of IO access

insertion Extravasation and compartment syndrome
Infection and osteomyelitis
Growth plate injury
Fracture
Fat embolism
Fig. 7.7 Management of a

Choking on foreign body:
child choking on a foreign
Assess
body
Send for help
Effective cough?
NO YES
Encourage coughing
Conscious?
Support and reassess
NO YES
Open airway
5 back blows
2 breaths
5 chest thrusts
CPR 15: 2
Assess and repeat
Check for FB
has mild airway obstruction with an effective cough, then the child is encouraged to
cough and monitored for signs of recovery or deterioration. If the child is conscious
but has severe airway obstruction and an ineffective cough, then the child is given
up to five back blows between the shoulder blades. If this is not effective, up to five
chest thrusts over the lower half of the sternum (as for chest compressions in CPR)
are given. If the child has severe airway obstruction and is unconscious, then CPR
is begun, starting with two breaths.
7.9 Anaphylaxis
As in adults, the commonest causes of anaphylaxis (both immune and non-immune

mediated) in the peri-operative setting are muscle relaxants, latex, antibiotics and
radio-contrast media. The incidence of anaphylaxis appears to be increasing, espe-
cially in children and young adults. Environmental agents or over-the-counter medi-
cines may play a role in sensitization of individuals and an increased risk of
anaphylaxis with drugs such as muscle relaxants.
The management of anaphylaxis requires early administration of adrenaline (epi-
nephrine), effective airway management, aggressive fluid resuscitation if shock is
present, and escalation of therapy in refractory cases (Table 7.5). If cardiac arrest
has occurred (usually PEA), then the ALS guideline for non-shockable rhythm
should be followed, using the arrest dose of epinephrine (10 μg/kg IV).
Patients at known risk of anaphylaxis should carry self-administration auto-
injector adrenaline pens (eg Epipen®), with two pens (twin-pack) now recommended
in case a second dose is required for persistent symptoms. The standard dose pen
(epinephrine 0.3 mg) is used for adults and children heavier than 30 kg, while the
‘junior’ pen (epinephrine 0.15 mg) is for children 15–30 kg. The recommended site
for IM injection is the lateral thigh.
Table 7.5 Suggested initial adrenaline (epinephrine) treatment of anaphylaxis in children

Initial adrenaline
Route (epinephrine) dose Notes
Intravenous Use 1:10,000 = 1 mg/10 mL Must be titrated carefully
Moderate anaphylaxis: Increase dose if unresponsive
1–2 μg/kg 1–2 min prn Features of ‘life threatening anaphylaxis’
(0.01–0.02 mL/kg of include:
1:10,000) Severe hypotension
Life threatening: Life threatening tachy- or brady-arrhythmia
4–10 μg/kg 1–2 min prn Oxygen saturation <90%
(0.04–0.1 mL/kg of 1:10,000) Inspiratory pressure >40 cmH2O
Intramuscular Use 1:1000 = 1 mg/mL Into lateral thigh
10 μg/kg 5 min prn Consider if no IV access or hemodynamic
(0.01 mL/kg of 1:1000) monitoring, or awaiting epinephrine infusion
up to 0.5 mg
If weight not known:
<6 years: 0.15 mL = 150 μg
6–12 years: 0.3 mL = 300 μg
Based on Australia & New Zealand Anaesthetic Allergy Group guidelines, 2017
170 P. Russell
Any child who has a suspected anaphylactic reaction associated with anesthesia
should be investigated fully with referral to a specialist allergy or immunology cen-
ter. Blood samples for mast cell tryptase collected as soon as feasible after resuscita-
tion has started and again 1–2 h after the onset of symptoms assist with diagnosis.
7.10 Neonatal Resuscitation at Birth
Neonatal resuscitation at birth is different to the resuscitation of other age groups

because of the profound respiratory and cardiovascular changes occurring at birth.
Immediate and adequate support of newborn infants who fail to adapt normally in
the delivery room is critically important for their prognosis. The commonest causes
of death in the neonatal period are related to prematurity, congenital malformations
and perinatal asphyxia.
Neonatal resuscitation is a rapid sequence of steps to identify and manage babies
with impaired breathing or circulation. Ventilation is the key. Most newborns are
vigorous and do not need medical intervention. Approximately 10% require some
sort of medical assistance, but only 0.1% need chest compressions or drugs for
resuscitation after birth.
The neonatal resuscitation guidelines are appropriate for newborns and neonates
with a transitional circulation, and in locations where the neonatal guidelines are
commonly used, such as the delivery room, nursery or NICU. For neonates outside
these locations and beyond the time of transitional circulation, it is reasonable to use
pediatric resuscitation guidelines.
Note
Neonatal resuscitation differs from adult resuscitation in four areas:
Head position of the neonate; position of hands for cardiac compression;
reassessment in 30 s blocks of time; different epinephrine dose in asystole.
7.10.1 Major Changes at Birth: From Fetal to Neonatal Circulation
In utero, the pulmonary and systemic circulations are in parallel, with mixing of
blood between the two circulations at the level of the ductus arteriosus and foramen
ovale (Fig. 7.8). This mixing allows oxygenated blood from the placenta to return to
the right side of the heart to reach the arterial circulation. The lungs are filled with
fluid, the left and right pulmonary arteries are constricted, and only about 7% of the
cardiac output passes through the lungs.
Multiple stimuli initiate breathing after birth. A strong, negative intrathoracic
pressure inflates the lungs for the first breath. Lung fluid is absorbed into the circula-
tion and oxygen triggers prostacyclin release causing nitric oxide formation and a
fall in pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR). Removal of the placenta from the cir-
culation increases the systemic vascular resistance (SVR). The fall in PVR and rise
Fig. 7.8 Schematic

representation of the fetal
circulation with patent
ductus arteriosius and
foramen ovale Foramen
Ovale
Lungs Body Placenta
RV LV
Ductus
Arteriosus
Fig. 7.9 Oxygen 100

saturation after birth in
term and preterm neonates.
Oxygen saturation is 65%
at birth and should reach 90
Pre-ductal (aortic) oxygen saturation
85–90% by 5–10 min after

birth. Based on data from Term Preterm
Wong C, Pediatrics 2010 neonates neonates
80
70
60
50
0 5 10
Time after birth (mins)
in SVR causes functional closure of the ductus and foramen ovale, and right-to-left
shunting of blood is markedly reduced and the pulmonary and systemic circulations
become in-series with one another. Oxygen saturation rises shunting is reduced and
lung function improves (Fig. 7.9).
7.10.1.1 Pre- and Post-ductal Oxygen Saturations

The ductus arteriosus is not fully closed immediately after birth, and there is still
some blood shunting through it. This shunting may be right-to-left (as in utero) or
left-to-right depending on the balance between the SVR and PVR. The oxygen satu-
ration distal to the ductus arteriosus (‘post-ductal’) may therefore vary. The
172 P. Russell
pre-ductal saturation represents cerebral oxygenation and saturation is best mea-

sured in the right hand or wrist of newborns. The left hand is usually pre-ductal, but
not always. The feet are post-ductal, and saturation is usually lower there during the
first 15 min after birth because of R-to-L shunting across the duct. If post-ductal
saturation remains lower, it suggests pulmonary hypertension or aortic lesions keep-
ing the aortic pressure lower than the pulmonary pressure. A post-ductal saturation
higher than the pre-ductal suggests transposition of the great arteries.
7.10.2 Preparation for Resuscitation
The equipment required for resuscitation of newborns (Tables 7.6 and 7.7) is assem-
bled and checked before delivery. The presence of risk factors may be helpful in
predicting the need for resuscitation (Table 7.8) and may also help determine the
initial level of resuscitation. For example, if there is placental abruption and fetal
bradycardia suggesting hypoxia before delivery, then immediate intubation would
be considered. However, if there was no such history and the baby is born unexpect-
edly ‘flat’, then the baby might be observed for 30 s or a trial of bag-mask (or
Neopuff®) ventilation given.
Table 7.6 Equipment required for neonatal resuscitation in the delivery room
Equipment item
Warm dry towels and radiant heat source
Oxygen supply and pressure-limited delivery system such as self-inflating bag, T-piece, or
Neopuff® ventilator
Airway equipment including face masks, oro-pharyngeal airways, laryngoscopes, endotracheal
tubes and introducer
Carbon dioxide detector (eg Pedicap®)
Suction apparatus
Stethoscope
Venous access equipment and drugs
Table 7.7 ETT sizes for newborns

Age Uncuffed ETT size (ID, mm) Cuffed ETT size (ID, mm)
Term baby 3–3.5 3.0
Preterm 3 Not recommended
Preterm <1 kg 2.5 Not recommended
Table 7.8 Some factors Risk factor

during pregnancy and Antepartum Preterm baby
delivery that may indicate a Small for dates
need for neonatal Congenital abnormality diagnosed on screening
resuscitation Intrapartum Fetal distress
Antepartum hemorrhage
Meconium stained liquor
7.10.3 Initial Assessment at Birth
The need for resuscitation is based on clinical observation and not the APGAR
score (see later). The baby needs resuscitation if it is not vigorous and crying, or is
bradycardic or not breathing adequately. Normal heart rate after birth is 110–
160 beats/min. A baby at birth will initially appear cyanosed.
7.10.4 Neonatal Resuscitation
Resuscitation and assessment of the neonate is grouped into 30-s blocks. Initial
actions are to assess the baby while drying and stimulating it, but also keeping it
warm at the same time. Unlike resuscitation in other age groups, breathing and cir-
culation are assessed together as heart rate is an important indicator of response.
While the sequence of actions may differ from adult and pediatric resuscitation, the
basic approach is still Airway, Breathing, and Circulation (Fig. 7.10). Hypothermia
is a risk and is avoided by drying the baby and using an external heat source.
Keypoint
Failure of a neonate to respond to resuscitation is most likely due to inade-
quate ventilation.
Bradycardia is almost always due to hypoxia due to inadequate
ventilation.
7.10.4.1 Airway
The baby’s head should be in a neutral position or slightly tilted back to maintain an
open airway. Neck flexion occasionally occurs from the neonate’s relatively large
head and can be overcome with a roll beneath the shoulders. Check for any obstruc-
tion of the airway such as meconium or blood. Chin support or jaw thrust may be
required to achieve a patent airway.
7.10.4.2 Breathing
Assisted ventilation should be commenced by 1 min in infants who have absent or
ineffective spontaneous ventilation. If positive pressure ventilation is required, chest
movement during the first few breaths may be minimal as lung fluid in the alveoli is
replaced with air or oxygen. Sustained initial inflation breaths may be considered in
preterm infants. After these initial breaths, ventilation is continued at 40–60 breaths/
min while avoiding hyperventilation. Chest movement is observed to confirm air-
way patency. Ventilation is continued until regular breathing is established and heart
rate remains faster than 100 bpm. Ventilation via a facemask or ETT can be
performed with a self-inflating bag or T-piece circuit. The latter is recommended as
they more reliably deliver PEEP or CPAP. PEEP allows faster establishment of
functional residual capacity (FRC) and improved oxygenation. A Neopuff®
174 P. Russell
Assess, stimulate, dry

30s Check heart rate
Open airway
Vigorous, breathing,
HR < 100 bpm or inadequate breathing:
crying
MASK VENTILATE
HR>100
30s FiO2 21% term, 40% preterm
Ensure chest moving
Attach SaO2 right hand or wrist
Monitor SaO2 increase
over time; routine care
HR >60
HR < 60 bpm: Continue mask
30s Call for help; ensure chest moving ventilation
Increase FiO2
External cardiac compression
HR < 60 bpm:
Insert LMA or ETT
Obtain venous access
Epinephrine
Consider 4 H’s and 4 T’s
Fig. 7.10 Flow diagram of the steps during neonatal resuscitation. Infants who have absent or
ineffective spontaneous breathing must have assisted ventilation begun within 1 min
ventilator is a T-piece type pressure-limited ventilator with a non-rebreathing valve

at the patient connection. Suggested initial settings are 30 cmH2O for peak inspira-
tory pressure (20–25 cmH2O if <32 weeks or known lung disease), and PEEP at
5–8 cmH2O. An oxygen-air blender is used to control the inspired oxygen
concentration.
7.10.4.3 Oxygen During Resuscitation

Hundred percent oxygen is not routinely needed during neonatal resuscitation.
There is no evidence that the neonate’s oxygen saturation of 65% at birth needs
to be rapidly increased. High concentrations of oxygen may reduce cerebral blood
flow, predispose to retinopathy of prematurity and also produce free radicals
and a ‘reperfusion injury’ to the neonatal brain. Current recommendations are to
use air for resuscitation of term infants at birth. If, despite effective ventilation,
oxygenation remains unacceptable, use of a higher concentration of oxygen should

be considered. Titration of oxygen concentration delivery should be guided by
oximetry monitored from the right upper extremity. Saturation should reach 90%
by 5–10 min.
7.10.4.4 Circulation
Heart rate is counted with auscultation at the apex (for 6 s, multiply by 10) and later
pulse oximetry.
ECG is also recommended as an adjunct for monitoring resuscitation. Palpation
of the umbilical pulse can be used, but palpation of peripheral pulses is not practical.
Chest compression should be started if the heart rate remains less than 60 bpm
despite adequate ventilation. A hand-encircling technique is the best method to
deliver chest compressions, using the thumbs to compress the chest by one third of
its depth. A two-finger compression of the sternum allows better access for proce-
dures such as vascular access. Perform three compressions and one breath every 2 s.
Stop and recheck the heart rate every 30 s. Chest compressions should be continued
until the heart rate is above 60 bpm. The most common reason for failure to respond
is inadequate ventilation.
Note
To detect neonatal heart rate: Auscultation; palpation of umbilical pulse;
oximetry.
7.10.4.5 Drugs
If chest compressions are needed, vascular access should be considered to enable
administration of intravenous adrenaline (epinephrine). An umbilical venous
catheter is the route of choice. Endotracheal adrenaline is no longer recommended.
If drugs are required for resuscitation, the outcome is often poor. The dose of IV
epinephrine in neonatal resuscitation is 10–30 μg/kg. However, a gestation-based
chart for dose is commonly used as it avoids the need for estimating weight and
performing calculations during resuscitation (Table 7.9). Bicarbonate is no longer
used, and bolus doses of dextrose are avoided. Hypoglycemia is managed with a
10% dextrose infusion. Normal saline may be used as a volume expander.
Naloxone 100 μg/kg IV or IM is used only when the mother has received opioids
during labor.
Table 7.9 Adrenaline (epinephrine) dose for Adrenaline dose

neonatal resuscitation based on gestational age Gestational age (mL 1:10,000
(weeks) adrenaline)
23–26 10 μg (0.1)
27–37 25 μg (0.25)
38–43 50 μg (0.5)
Doses are absolute values, NOT per kg
176 P. Russell
7.10.4.6 Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax is not uncommon, especially in preterm babies. Diagnosis can be
difficult—auscultation is unlikely to detect it and chest expansion may appear
normal. Transillumination through the axilla is often the best technique in pre-
term babies, but is less useful in larger term babies. Emergency treatment is
aspiration of the chest with a 22G needle connected to an IV extension tubing
and a three-way tap. The needle is inserted through the second intercostal space
in the anterior axillary line, or in the fourth space in the mid-axillary line. Have
a high index of suspicion for pneumothorax and consider needle aspiration of the
chest in any child not responding to resuscitation. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
of the neonate should not be stopped until both sides of the chest have been
aspirated.
7.10.4.7 Meconium
Although meconium-stained liquor is common, meconium aspiration is rare. If
meconium exposure has occurred and the baby is vigorous, only oropharyngeal
suctioning is required. If the baby is not vigorous, not breathing or crying and has
poor muscle tone, current guidelines no longer recommend the routine intubation or
laryngoscopy for suctioning due to a lack of evidence of benefit in survival or inci-
dence of meconium aspiration syndrome. Simple oropharyngeal suctioning (with-
out laryngoscopy), and monitoring for signs of respiratory distress are recommended
for these neonates.
7.10.5 APGAR Score
The APGAR score is a tool for recording an infant’s condition at birth as a score out
of 10 (Table 7.10), and is used as a prognostic guide for complications after resus-
citation. It is recorded at 1 and 5 min after birth and for longer if the score is less
than 7 or the baby is being resuscitated. An APGAR score of 3 or less beyond
10 min indicates an increased risk of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy and long
term adverse effects. It does not determine the need for resuscitation, as this is based
on respiratory effort and heart rate rather than any particular score. However, the
score will be low in a baby who needs resuscitation.
Table 7.10 Observations and values for the APGAR score

Score
Observation 0 1 2
Heart rate Absent Slow (<100/min) >100/min
Respiration Absent Slow, irregular Good; crying or gasping
Muscle tone Floppy Some flexion Active movement of
extremities
Reflex irritability (response to No Grimace Cough, sneeze, cry
stimulation) response
Color Blue or Pink body, blue Pink
pale extremities
Note
The APGAR score does not determine the need for resuscitation. Resuscitation
is needed when the baby has poor respiratory effort, a low heart rate, or both.
Review Questions
1. The emergency bell in the PACU is alarming. You arrive to find a child who is not
responsive, grey, apneic, and has no pulse. Nursing staff are performing
CPR. They tell you that the child has just had a tonsillectomy. Describe your
resuscitation of the child.
2. You are asked to provide assistance to resuscitate a baby. One minute after birth
the baby has irregular respiratory effort, is blue all over, limp and has no reaction
to suction. The umbilical cord stump pulse is felt at 60/min.
Describe your resuscitation of the baby.
This baby needs resuscitation because it has poor respiratory effort, is blue
and bradycardic. The baby has already been dried, suctioned and stimulated and
1 min has gone by. A 30 s trial of mask ventilation should be the next step. If the
heart rate still doesn’t increase above 60, cardiac massage needs to be started
and intubation considered.
How is the Apgar score calculated, and what does it mean?
Virginia Apgar was an American anesthetist who devised the score in 1952.
This baby gets 1 for HR, 1 for respiratory effort, but 0 for tone, color and response
to suction. Its score is 2. Remember—the Apgar does not determine the need for
resuscitation.
3. You have performed a caudal block under GA with 1 mL/kg of ropivacaine 0.2%
in a 4 year old who weighs 20 kg. One minute after completion of the block you
see multiple ventricular ectopic beats. As you are checking the patient’s blood
pressure, the ECG changes to this VF. What is the likely diagnosis? Describe
your initial management of the patient
4. The resuscitation trolley is brought into the theatre. The defibrillator is an AED
but does not have pediatric pads. Can this be used? Where would you place the
pads?
Further Reading
Perioperative Cardiac Arrest
Berens RJ, Cassidy LD, Matchey J, et al. Probability of survival based on etiology of cardiopulmo-
nary arrest in pediatric patients. Pediatr Anesth. 2011;21(8):834–40.
Christensen RE, Lee AC, Gowen MS, et al. Pediatric perioperative cardiac arrest, death in the off
hours: a report from wake up safe, the pediatric quality improvement initiative. Anesth Analg.
2018;127:472–7.
178 P. Russell
Shaffner D, Heitmiller E, Deshpande J. Pediatric perioperative life support. Anesth Analg.

2013;117:960–79.
van der Griend B, Lister N, McKenzie I, et al. Postoperative mortality in children after 101,885
anesthetics at a tertiary pediatric hospital. Anesth Analg. 2011;112:1440–7.
Resuscitation Guidelines
Advanced Pediatric Life Support guidelines Jan 2016. apls.org.au. Accessed Jan 2019. https://
www.apls.org.au/sites/default/files/uploadedfiles/Pediatric%20advanced%20life%20sup-
port_0.pdf.
ANZCOR: Resuscitation guidelines. Australian Resuscitation Council/New Zealand Resuscitation
Council. 2016. https://resus.org.au/guidelines/. Accessed July 2019.
de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, et al. Part 12: pediatric advanced life support: 2015 American
Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency
Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015;132(Suppl 2):S526–42.
Maconochie I, Bingham B, Skellett S. Resuscitation Council UK. Pediatric advanced life support:
guidelines 2015. www.resus.org.uk/resuscitation-guidelines/pediatric-advanced-life-support/.
Accessed Jan 2019.
Maconochie I, et al. Part 6: pediatric basic life support and pediatric advanced life support 2015
international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care
science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation. 2015;95:e149–70.
Nolan JP, et al. Part I. Executive summary: 2015 international consensus on cardiopulmonary
resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations.
Resuscitation. 2015;95:e1–e32.
Perkins G, et al. European Resuscitation Council guidelines for resuscitation: 2017 update.
Resuscitation. 2018;123:43–50.
Intraosseous Access
Morrison C, Disma N. Intraosseous access in children. New applications of an ancient technique.

Trends Anaesth Crit Care. 2018;21:21–6.
Pifko EL, et al. Observational review of paediatric intraosseous needle placement in the paediatric
emergency department. J Paediatr Child Health. 2018;54:546–50.
Scott-Warren VL, Morley RB. Paediatric vascular access. BJA Educ. 2015;15:199–206.
Anaphylaxis
Kolawole H, et al. Australian and New Zealand Anaesthetic Allergy Group/Australian and New
Zealand College of Anaesthetists perioperative anaphylaxis management guidelines. Anaesth
Intensive Care. 2017;45:151–8.
Neonatal Resuscitation
Dawson J, Kamlin C, Vento M, Wong C, et al. Defining the reference range for oxygen saturation
for infants after birth. Pediatrics. 2010;125:e1340–7. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1510.
Liley HG, Mildenhall L, Morley P. Australian and New Zealand committee on resuscitation neo-
natal resuscitation guidelines 2016. J Paediatr Child Health. 2017;53:621–7.
Welsford M, et al. Room air for initiating term newborn resuscitation: a systematic review with
meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2019;143:e20181825. Room air has a 27% relative reduction in
short-term mortality compared to 100% oxygen for initiating neonatal resuscitation of infants
35 weeks gestation and older.
Estimation of Body Weight
Appelbaum N, et al. Pediatric weight estimation by age in the digital era: optimizing a necessary
evil. Resuscitation. 2018;122:29–35.
Tinning K, Acworth J. Make your Best Guess: an updated method for pediatric weight estimation
in emergencies. Emerg Med Australasia. 2007;19:528–34.
Crises and Other Scenarios in Pediatric
Anesthesia 8
Tom Rawlings and Tom Flett
The successful management of a crisis is a multifactorial process. A combination of

clinical skills and knowledge is required as well as the application of robust and
effective non-technical skills. These non-technical skills incorporate cognitive and
environmental factors to enhance a successful team environment to successfully
manage a crisis.
The relevant non-technical skills include:
• Leadership and follower-ship

• Communication
• Situational awareness
• Calling for help
• Role allocation
• Right people, right roles
• Avoidance of fixation error
Many experienced clinicians exhibit exceptional non-technical skills that are

involuntary and learnt over time. Teaching and training in non-technical skills aim
to teach ‘experience’ otherwise gained with time. While there is no substitute for
experience, an early understanding of the multiple factors required to successfully
manage a crisis allows trainees to work on their areas of weakness. Effective, tar-
geted simulation training can help reduce the gap between the text book and reality.
This training is particularly important in preparing for pediatric anesthetic crises
because a child’s condition can change rapidly compared to an adult, and team
members may be less familiar with children and their management during a crisis.
T. Rawlings (*) · T. Flett

e-mail: Thomas.Rawlings@health.wa.gov.au; Thomas.Flett@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_8
182 T. Rawlings and T. Flett
This chapter describes the practical management of some clinical scenarios in

pediatric anesthesia. Some of the scenarios describe urgent situations, while others
are less urgent but commonly seen and have the potential to become serious prob-
lems if mismanaged.
8.1 ardiovascular Collapse During Laparoscopic

C
Appendicectomy
An 8 year old boy is undergoing a laparoscopic appendicectomy. He has a two day

history of abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting. He is otherwise previously fit and
well and has never had an anesthetic before. There is no family history of problems
with anesthesia.
The patient is intubated and ventilated and anesthesia is being maintained with
sevoflurane, air and oxygen after an initial dose of fentanyl 2 μg/kg, propofol
120 mg, rocuronium 20 mg and antibiotic prophylaxis with piperacillin with
tazobactam.
Shortly after the first port is inserted and insufflation of carbon dioxide begins,
there is a drop in the ETCO2, tachycardia, desaturation and a fall in blood pressure.
Figure 8.1 shows the monitor screen at this time.
What will you do?
8.1.1 Discussion
An initial approach to this situation could be to take an ‘ABC’ approach and con-
sider acute ‘B’ Breathing or ‘C’ Circulation issues. The first step would be to ask the
surgeon to stop insufflating gas and release the pneumoperitoneum, placing the
child onto 100% oxygen and starting manual bag ventilation.
Breathing issues can be eliminated by checking there is no obstruction in the
circuit and auscultating the chest to confirm bilateral air entry and normal breath
sounds. Causes such as hypoventilation, endobronchial intubation and broncho-
spasm will cause desaturation, but are unlikely to cause profound, acute cardiovas-
cular collapse. The most likely ‘Breathing’ cause of this scenario is a pneumothorax
evolving into a tension pneumothorax from gas insufflation tracking into the pleural
space. Pneumomediastinum is also possible but less likely.
Once establishing there is no acute ‘B’ problem a ‘C’ (cardiovascular) issue
would be considered. Whatever the cardiovascular cause, initial management should
always include asking the surgeon to cease what they are doing, give a fluid bolus
of 10–20 mL/kg of isotonic crystalloid, give an alpha-agonist (either metaraminol
5–10 μg/kg or phenylephrine 1 μg/kg) and consider reducing the depth of anesthe-
sia, balancing the management of the problem with the risk of awareness. More
potent inotropes such as adrenaline (epinephrine) should be considered if cardiovas-
cular collapse is severe and rapidly evolving. Treatment is required to establish a
degree of cardiovascular stability whilst simultaneously attempting to identify the
8 Crises and Other Scenarios in Pediatric Anesthesia 183
Fig. 8.1 (a) Screenshot a

of anesthetic monitor HR
displaying vital signs 100
during anesthesia and
before surgery has started. SaO2
(b) Shortly after
insufflation of carbon
99%
dioxide and creation of
ETCO2
a pneumoperitoneum 40 mmHg
5 kPa 33 = 4.4
mmHg kPa
NIBP
110/60
b
HR
155
SaO2
91%
ETCO2
40 mmHg
5 kPa 18 = 2.4
mmHg kPa
NIBP
52/20
cause of the cardiovascular instability. If the patient continues to deteriorate despite

these measures, they are likely to proceed towards cardiac arrest.
There are several potential causes of cardiovascular collapse during laparoscopic
surgery. One is excessive gas insufflation and impairment of venous return, particu-
larly if the patient is hypovolemic and has not been fluid loaded before the pneumo-
peritoneum. The child’s condition should resolve on release of pneumoperitoneum
if this was the cause. If so, the pneumoperitoneum could be cautiously reapplied
with low inflation pressures (less than 12 mmHg or 1.6 kPa. If the problem persists,
consideration should be given to completing the procedure open.
Another possible cause is vagal response from stretching of the peritoneum, but
this would likely result in bradycardia associated with cardiovascular instability.
Undiagnosed cardiac defects should always be considered in children, especially
if the clinical condition is not improving, or if large volumes of fluid are making it
worse. Although unlikely in an otherwise healthy child, acute cardiac failure from
an undiagnosed cardiac condition can occur under the physiological stresses of
pneumoperitoneum. An echocardiogram or other cardiac investigations could be
considered if the diagnosis has not become apparent.
An anaphylactic cause should also be considered. There may be other signs such
as rashes and lip or facial swelling, but these are not always present. The initial
management is the same as described above, including a fluid bolus, with the addi-
tion of IV or IM adrenaline (epinephrine). The dose is based on the severity of the
collapse and the speed of its progression (see Chap. 7, Sect. 7.9). Intravenous adren-
aline is potent and is best used in a very low dose initially until establishing how the
patient will respond. In practice, adrenaline will also need dilution before being
given. It is important be clear in your mind how to do this dilution, as it will likely
be done under time pressure and stress, and a ten times dose error could have cata-
strophic consequences. A technique to dilute adrenaline is to take 1 mL of 1 in
10,000 adrenaline (100 μg/mL) and add 9 mL of normal saline to it in a 10 mL
syringe. This now creates a concentration of 10 μg/mL. For infants, diluting again
by a factor of 10 to create 1 μg/mL is often advised. IV adrenaline has a short half-
life and repeat doses may be required. An infusion could be started if there is an
ongoing requirement.
Another potential cause of this cardiovascular collapse is gas embolism from
carbon dioxide used for insufflation of the pneumoperitoneum. This is another rea-
son for stopping insufflation if is associated with any change in the child’s condi-
tion. Gas embolism occurs because the trocar is in an abdominal vein. If possible,
the suspected entry site of the gas embolism is flooded with saline, and the patient
placed head down. Accessing the heart via the right internal jugular vein to aspirate
intracardiac gas can be considered, but is unlikely to remove a significant amount of
gas. If gas embolism has been caused by this mechanism there is likely to be signifi-
cant acute hemorrhage from the associated vascular injury.
Insertion of the trocar and port into the abdomen can also damage a major vascu-
lar structure such as the inferior vena cava or the aorta or iliac vessels. There may be
blood coming up the port, or blood visible on the laparoscopic camera but it can be
concealed and not immediately obvious. If concealed or contained in the retroperi-
toneal space, the abdomen will continue to distend despite deflating the pneumo-
peritoneum. An acute, major hemorrhage from these vessels will create a large,
ongoing crisis. The abdomen will need to be opened to identify and stop the source
of bleeding and to stop it. The role of the anesthetic team is to maintain the patient’s
circulating volume and promote coagulation. This will require multiple team mem-
bers and support, as this is likely to be an ongoing crisis. Activation of the hospital’s
critical bleeding pathway will facilitate the rapid supply of blood products.
When it becomes apparent this is the cause of the child’s cardiovascular collapse,
several crisis resource management principles become important in managing this
scenario:
8.1.1.1 Calling for Help

This should be done early and result in many people to assist you, especially in the
initial stages.
8.1.1.2 Leadership and Follower-Ship

Establish a leader or leadership group to assign roles and manage the clinical situa-
tion as it evolves. Ideally this person or persons should not be distracted by having
to do any tasks during this crisis, although this is not always possible in reality.
8.1.1.3 Communication and the Ability to Communicate

Communication is vital, but the ability to communicate is usually the problem. Too
many people, too much noise and excitement can stop vital parts of the process
being communicated. This is not an easy problem to solve. Options are:
• Asking people to only communicate important information and to be quiet at

other times
• Politely asking people who have no particular role to leave the theatre
• Establish an approach to major hemorrhage scenarios based on action cards. This
prevents the need for loud, time consuming role allocation as each individual’s
role is on the card; it speeds role allocation, and helps those without a role card
to leave the theatre.
• Have regular pause and discuss moments. At an appropriate moment silence the
theatre and summarize where things are up to. This helps to bring some control
and calm to the room and reduces noise; it gets everyone up to date on the clini-
cal situation, and it invites useful suggestions from the room to the leadership
group.
8.1.1.4 Use of Cognitive Aids

Bring out the massive transfusion protocol and assign someone to work their way
through it. The chances of the leader or leadership group remembering everything
on the protocol under pressure is unlikely. This frees up the cognitive load of the
leadership group to concentrate on other things.
8.1.1.5 Role Allocation

Several roles are needed, and these roles will include people assigned to:
• A, B, D—Airway, Breathing and ‘D’ anesthesia (This can all usually be done by
one experienced person).
• The patient essentially has a circulation issue but an airway, adequate ventilation
and keeping the patient asleep still need to occur. Ketamine with or without mid-
azolam may be appropriate. Muscle relaxation to facilitate ventilation and sur-
gery is important.
• C—Almost all the other team members will be focused on supporting
circulation.
• This will involve personnel assigned to insert lines for transfusion, monitoring
and administration of vasoactive agents as well as preparing giving sets and moni-
toring equipment. The equipment required would include large bore IV catheters,
an arterial line and central venous access. Team members could remind each other
to gain IV access in the upper limbs when the IVC in the abdomen is damaged, or
blood products and medications will extravasate into the peritoneal cavity.
A team should be assigned to ordering checking and giving blood products as

well as medications useful for maintaining circulating volume, such as inotropes
and calcium. Other members of the team could be assigned to keeping the patient
warm, organizing cell salvage, running blood tests or ROTEM studies and commu-
nicating with the laboratory.
8.1.1.6 Right People, Right Roles

Make sure you get the best available people in the right roles. For example, assigning
someone skilled in the insertion of difficult pediatric lines in that role is a good option.
8.1.2 ummary for Management of Major Hemorrhage

S
in the Pediatric Patient
• Get help early as this is a protracted crisis and many skilled hands will be needed
• Establish a leader or leadership group to manage the evolving crisis
• Help effective communication in the theatre by using the methods described
above
• Assign roles either verbally or by an action card method to speed up vital parts
of the massive transfusion protocol making sure they are the best available peo-
ple for those roles.
• Use cognitive aids to free up the cognitive load for the leader or leadership group.
8.2 Primary Tonsillar Hemorrhage in a 5-Year-Old Child
You have been called by the ENT surgeon who needs to take a child to theatre to
control post-tonsillectomy bleeding. The child is a 5-year-old girl who had an ade-
notonsillectomy for OSA 6 h ago and is now on the post op ward. The ward nurse
has reported the girl is distressed, sitting up spitting out teaspoon quantities of blood
and crying when anyone goes near her. The surgeon is returning to the hospital and
wants to take her back to theatre. She has iv fluids running. She has drunk a choco-
late milk shake and eaten some ice-cream about 2 h ago. The child’s previous anes-
thetic was uneventful with the airway managed using an LMA. She is otherwise fit
and well and there is no family history of anesthetic issues.
You arrive and she has already been transferred back to the theatre holding area.
She will not let anyone near her and is sitting up spitting out large quantities of
blood into a bowl. She is pale, sweaty and looks distressed. Her mother is with her
and is very worried.
Her heart rate is 155 bpm and oxygen saturation is 96% in air.
What will you do?
8.2.1 Discussion
Most children with post-tonsillectomy bleeding have only small bleeding point, and
blood in the airway isn’t a major problem. Some children however have a major
bleeding point, and blood quickly fills the mouth after induction and blocks the view
of the glottic opening.
8.2.1.1 Preparation
There are a number of issues here to plan for.
• You have to go to theatre, essentially straight away

• Acute bleeding in the airway in an unfasted child, and the bleeding may fill the
mouth and obscure the glottis opening during laryngoscopy
• The level of bleeding at this age is difficult to assess as she may be swallowing
blood, but it is potentially significant and might even require transfusion.
• Distressed patient not letting people near her and distressed mother
• Possible hypovolemia
Despite the urgency of the situation, a discussion is needed with the theatre team
about the plan for the child, particularly the anesthetic induction plan. A rapid
sequence induction with cricoid pressure would be the preferred technique, but
there are several concerns around induction:
• Inability to pre-oxygenate the child due to their distress

• The child won’t lie flat
• Possibility of a ‘can’t intubate can’t oxygenate’ scenario
• High aspiration risk
The first step is a conversation with the whole theatre team about a plan for
securing the airway. If intubation is not possible, it is likely face mask ventilation
won’t be possible due to the volume of blood in the airway. The difficult airway
algorithm should be discussed with the team in case it is required, with the final step
being front of neck access (FONA) by the surgeon. Although this step is unlikely to
be required, having the discussion before the case gets the team’s mind focused it
could occur, and to prepare for it. On most occasions when FONA should have hap-
pened but has not been attempted, the team has been unable to shift their mindset in
that direction as the crisis evolved.
The major failure in non-technical skills in the can’t intubate, can’t oxygenate
scenario is fixation error and not being able to move forward through the algorithm.
A robust discussion about the plan will help the lead anesthetist should this scenario
occur. The person attempting to secure the airway is almost always the most fixated
person, and empowering others to help that person move forward is a vital part of
crisis resource management.
Keypoint
Don’t underestimate the calming effect on your theatre team achieved by a
discussion about a plan for when things don’t go as planned. You may feel
stressed, but they are probably feeling more stressed. The more stress you can
remove from the team environment the better they are likely to perform.
8.2.1.2 Induction
Attempting pre-oxygenation is important and will buy you vital time in these cir-
cumstances. If the child patient refuses to accept the mask, a small dose of fentanyl
or propofol for anxiolysis might help—the child can still sit upright and the dose
should not be large enough to cause apnea. Without preoxygenation, the child is
likely to desaturate almost immediately after induction.
A fluid load of 10 mL/kg of isotonic crystalloid and a co-induction technique to
reduce the dose of propofol would be reasonable, because it is possible the child is
hypovolemic. Inducing the child on the side is a possible option, but laryngoscopy
may be made more difficult with this unfamiliar position for intubation.
The key part of the difficult airway algorithm that may be overlooked in acute
tonsillar bleeds is the use of the laryngeal mask. If intubation is not possible with
two attempts, as much blood as possible can be suctioned from the airway and an
appropriately sized flexible (reinforced) LMA inserted while maintaining cricoid
pressure. The LMA will sit distal to the bleeding point and should maintain the
airway. The surgeon can then insert the mouth gag and control the bleeding, and
then the LMA can be changed to an ETT to complete surgery. The LMA retrieves
the airway, and although there is a risk of aspiration, and some blood will inevitably
enter the airway, a small volume of blood is not terribly harmful to the lungs and
retrieving the airway is more important.
Although focusing attention on the airway is appropriate, it must not be at the
exclusion of attention to the cardiovascular status of the child. Assigning a separate,
experienced anesthetist to manage this is useful, but if not available the case should
not be delayed.
A fluid load of 10 mL/kg of isotonic crystalloid and a co-induction technique to
reduce the dose of propofol would be reasonable, and if the bleed is large enough,
use of vasoconstrictors and potentially transfusion. There may not have been time to
arrange a blood typing sample before theatre. It could be collected and urgently sent
after induction if the bleed seems large enough to warrant transfusion. If bleeding
hypovolemia are life-threatening, uncross matched O negative blood can be trans-
fused. The practicalities of obtaining this blood could be discussed with the team
before the case. Although blood loss may look quite dramatic in post-tonsillectomy
bleeds, transfusion is not often required. A calm appraisal of the child’s clinical state
and laboratory or point-of-care tests by the team will guide decision making. Mild
post-operative anemia is often acceptable, particularly if bleeding has stopped and
the child is otherwise well.
8.2.2 ummary of Management of a Large

S
Post-tonsillectomy Bleed
• Prepare the whole theatre team for the possibility of a ‘can’t intubate, can’t oxy-
genate’ scenario, including FONA.
• If necessary use a flexible LMA while the surgeon controls bleeding, and change
to an ETT to finish the procedure
• Make sure the anesthetic assistant knows about the possible use of a flexible
LMA—they can suggest this if you have become fixated on intubation
• Do not lose focus on the cardiovascular status of the patient particularly during
induction and assign others to manage this if available.
8.3 Loss of the Airway During a Routine Tonsillectomy
A 4 year old is undergoing adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnea. The

child is generally well, but had an upper respiratory tract infection 2 weeks ago.
Surgery is progressing—the adenoids have been removed and removal of the first
tonsil has begun. Anesthesia is maintained with 1.2% sevoflurane in 66% nitrous
oxide. The child has a size 2 flexible LMA in place and spontaneous ventilation is
being assisted with pressure support ventilation at a pressure of 10 cmH2O.
The case has been proceeding uneventfully, but now the capnogram has disap-
peared. Oxygen saturation is normal (Fig. 8.2).
What will you do?
Fig. 8.2 Absent ETCO2

waveform during HR
anesthesia 104
SaO2
98%
40 mmHg ETCO2
5 kPa --
mmHg
NIBP
84/49
8.3.1 Discussion
This could be a mechanical problem related to the LMA—it might have shifted or
been compressed by the mouth gag used during tonsillectomy. Airway obstruction
like this can occur with the LMA and is a reason some anesthetists prefer to intubate
children having tonsillectomy. Other circuit problems are unlikely to arise midway
through the case, although a rebreathing filter can become blocked with blood or
regurgitated stomach contents and would stop ventilation—a quick look at the filter
will eliminate this cause. Bronchospasm is a possibility, but suddenly losing all
ventilation seems unlikely.
This child is at risk of laryngospasm—there’s been a recent URTI and anesthesia is
fairly ‘light’ with 1.2% sevoflurane in nitrous oxide. An LMA is a common and accept-
able anesthesia technique for tonsillectomy, but it doesn’t stop laryngospasm from hap-
pening, and mechanical obstruction is more likely with an LMA than an ETT.
The first step is to change to manual ventilation and decide if a pressure can be
generated in the circuit and so exclude disconnections or leaks. Let’s assume a pres-
sure can be generated, but the bag is ‘tight’ and difficult to squeeze, suggesting an
obstruction or poor lung compliance. It would be best now to change to 100% oxy-
gen while continuing to deal with the situation. There’s some urgency now because
although the saturation is normal, there’s no ventilation.
This finding suggests either a mechanical problem—the LMA could be obstructed
by the mouth gag (either the lumen of the shaft occluded or the blade of the gag
forcing the LMA against the larynx) or it could be rotated or shifted. Alternatively,
there could be laryngeal spasm.
With ventilation feeling tight and no ETCO2 trace, it is best to simultaneously
diagnose and treat. A bolus of propofol 2–3 mg/kg is given while asking the surgeon
to stop operating and release the mouth gag to see if this solves the problem. If it
does, the bolus of propofol will deepen anesthesia and cause apnea, which isn’t a
problem. If releasing the gag doesn’t help, laryngospasm is now more likely,
although a mechanical problem is still possible.
8.3.2 Further Information
While you have been doing these things, the child’s condition has worsened because
there’s been no ventilation, and now the child is hypoxic (Fig. 8.3).
What will you do now?
This is an urgent situation and a decision has to be made about the likely cause.
There may be some clues the problem is mechanical— the LMA doesn’t look like
it’s sitting correctly, or looks like it has flipped over. The surgeon will have the LMA
on view and may help. Laryngospasm can’t be excluded, and even if the initial
problem was mechanical obstruction, this might have contributed to lightening of
anesthesia and laryngospasm. Lack of response to the earlier propofol bolus does
not exclude laryngospasm.
Fig. 8.3 Hypoxia and

absent ETCO2 waveform HR
during anesthesia
118
SaO2
82%
40 mmHg ETCO2
5 kPa --
mmHg
NIBP
84/49
Unless there’s an obvious mechanical problem with the LMA, it would be rea-
sonable to assume this has been caused by laryngospasm and begin appropriate
management. Other possibilities can be considered concurrently or if there is not
rapid resolution. There is hypoxia and the saturations will become very low, very
quickly now that the child is on the steep part of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissocia-
tion curve. It’s too late for propofol to treat this laryngospasm.
The next step in this scenario is IV suxamethonium 1–2 mg/kg. Although a
smaller dose may be effective (the aim is to relax the vocal cords, not provide ideal
intubating conditions) there may then be doubt about whether enough has been
given if the saturations are still not rising. By giving a larger dose of suxametho-
nium, this doubt is removed and the duration of paralysis is still only a few minutes.
There is no bradycardia and atropine does not need to be given with the
suxamethonium.
Note
If the child is hypoxic from laryngospasm, it is too late to try a bolus of
propofol.
After giving suxamethonium 1–2 mg/kg, concentrate on watching the chest for
expansion. Make sure that the chest is rising and falling and that the tidal volume is
adequate. The saturation may stay low for a short while, but the displayed reading
is averaged over the last 12–15 s and will not record the higher saturation
immediately.
After the saturations have improved, some lung recruitment breaths are given,
anesthesia deepened and surgery restarted. Other options depend on the stage of
surgery—the LMA probably can’t be removed because blood from the surgical
dissection of the tonsil will enter the trachea. Although the LMA could be changed
for an ETT, this probably isn’t necessary if anesthesia is deepened for the rest of the
case (especially with propofol which suppresses laryngeal reflexes more than sevo-
flurane). Changing to an ETT might result in soiling of the airway with blood during
intubation, and might require further paralysis to facilitate it.
Although there are concerns about the possible side effects of suxamethonium as
discussed in Chap. 2 Sect. 9.3, the risks from suxamethonium are rare compared to
the risks from severe hypoxia in this situation. If this scenario is not managed well,
the child will become severely hypoxic and close to cardiac arrest.
8.3.3 ummary of Management of Lost Ventilation During

S
Pediatric Tonsillectomy
• Manual ventilation with 100% oxygen, assessing compliance and leaks

• Ask surgeon to release mouth gag
• Bolus of propofol 2–3 mg/kg
• Consider LMA malposition, bronchospasm, circuit or filter problem,
laryngospasm
• If no other cause apparent, assume laryngospasm and give suxamethonium
1–2 mg/kg as soon as SaO2 falls
• Lung recruitment breaths as SaO2 improves
• Deepen anesthesia, continue surgery
8.4 Severe Asthma in the Emergency Department
You are called to the emergency department to assist with the management of an 8
year old with asthma who is in respiratory failure. The child has received appropri-
ate treatment for severe bronchospasm but has not improved and is now exhausted
and obtunded. The Emergency Department registrar intubates the child, and 45 s
later the monitor appears as in Fig. 8.4.
What will you do?
8.4.1 Discussion
The monitor suggests the ETT is in the trachea, but the child is still hypoxic.
The most likely causes (assuming the oximeter reading is accurate) are:
• ETT malposition or obstruction

• Ongoing bronchospasm and dynamic hyperinflation, with suboptimal ventilation
strategy)
• Inadequate ventilation-perfusion matching (relative hypovolemia or excessive
dose of induction drug)
Fig. 8.4 Screenshot

during monitoring of HR
intubated 8 year old child
with asthma
125
SaO2
82%
40 mmHg
ETCO2
5 kPa
57
mmHg
7.6
kPa
RR 24/min
NIBP
68/32
Table 8.1 Optimal ventilator setting for child with acute severe asthma
Ventilator settings
FiO2 1.0
PEEP 0–5 cmH2O
Volume controlled, tidal volume 6 mL/kg
Rate 10/min, short inspiratory time and I:E ratio > 1:4
High inspiratory flow rate (80–100 L/min) so peak airway pressure is high but plateau pressure
is low (decreased risk barotrauma)
Permissive hypercapnia (requiring sedation and paralysis while ventilated)
• Tension pneumothorax
• Anaphylaxis
• Inappropriate inspired oxygen concentration
The first step is to ventilate the child with 100% oxygen and assess lung compli-
ance whilst auscultating the chest. Several other steps would then follow:
• Confirm muscle relaxation (residual tone may affect compliance if the child has
a high ETCO2 and attempting to breathe spontaneously)
• Confirm the ETT position with direct laryngoscopy
• Gently ‘sound’ the ETT with a suction catheter or bougie to exclude
obstruction
• Connect to a ventilator, auscultate chest, optimize ventilator settings (Table 8.1)
• Clinically assess for pneumothorax or anaphylaxis
• IV fluids and blood pressure support, continue bronchospasm treatment
• Arrange chest X-ray to exclude complications and confirm ETT position whilst
optimizing sedation and considering invasive arterial BP monitoring
8.4.2 Further Information
You diagnose endobronchial intubation, withdraw the ETT, and the child’s condi-
tion improves. Perhaps this occurred due to the inexperience of the Emergency
Department registrar and the stress of the clinical situation. If this was missed for a
longer time, it would likely cause rapid progression to dynamic hyperinflation,
hypotension and progressive hypoxemia. If the unilateral air entry was incorrectly
managed as a tension pneumothorax, then there could have been a fatal iatrogenic
outcome.
There are several strategies to facilitate a safe intubation and prevent complica-
tions. These include:
• Anticipating and discussing potential complications with the team present before
intubation
• Preloading the child’s circulation with IV fluid to reduce the risk of
hypotension
• Planning appropriate induction drugs and doses, ETT size and expected depth
and ventilation after intubation
• Trouble-shooting considerations
8.4.3 Summary of Management
Ideally an early request for help with the management would enable a team discus-
sion before intubation and a decision about which member will be responsible for
airway management in this child who would have been hypoxic before induction
and likely to have become more hypoxic quickly during intubation. All efforts
should be made to avoid ventilation, as it is carries significant risks of hemodynamic
changes at induction and then complications from positive pressure ventilation.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) is a potent bronchodilator, and a low dose at this time of
crisis may be life-saving by granting extra time to prepare for emergency airway
management. Hypotension occurs predictably at induction, and fluid loading is
needed before induction with ketamine.
8.5 A Toddler in PACU with Stridor
An 18 month old child is awake in the PACU after surgery to repair a dog bite to the
face. The child was previously well, and during the 70 min of surgery, was intubated
with 4.0 cuffed oral (south facing) RAE tube. The ETT was removed with the child
awake about 10 min earlier. The child now has a high pitched inspiratory noise, and
tracheal tug. The attached monitor is alarming (Fig. 8.5). What will you do?
Fig. 8.5 Monitor

screenshot of child with HR
stridor in PACU
143
SaO2
87%
RR
38/min
NIBP
80/37
8.5.1 Discussion
This child has stridor after having been intubated. An assessment of the degree of
upper airway obstruction helps make a diagnosis, judge the severity of the obstruc-
tion and the type of treatment needed.
The most likely causes are:
• Soft tissue obstruction at the level of the tongue or supraglottic area

• Retained blood, surgical pack, mucus or vomit in the upper airway
• Laryngospasm or glottic pathology
• Subglottic inflammation and edema from the ETT.
• Residual muscle relaxation
• Anaphylaxis
The upper airway obstruction is significant because the child is hypoxic along
with the signs of obstruction. The management depends on the likely cause and may
include:
• High flow oxygen by mask. Gently assisting inspiration (CPAP) if tolerated by

the child
• Considering the need for reversal of neuromuscular blocker
• Nasal or oral airway if supraglottic obstruction if able to tolerate
• Giving propofol and performing suctioning and laryngoscopy to examine the
airway for foreign bodies
• Nebulized adrenaline (epinephrine)
• IV steroids
• Considering reintubation with smaller-sized ETT if refractive to treatment
High-flow nasal oxygen could also be considered if available within a safe period
of time. A helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox®) is only a temporizing measure, restricts
the inspired oxygen concentration to 40%, is time consuming to set-up and has
limited evidence to support its use. If this child is awake, and a retained surgical
throat pack is not the cause, then the stridor is most likely caused by intubation and
edema of the subglottic region.
This child is hypoxic and should be given oxygen if not already receiving it.
Because of the signs of upper airway obstruction and significant hypoxia and, nebu-
lized adrenaline (epinephrine) should be given, as a fast onset of action is needed for
this child. Either the IV preparation of 1:1000 can be used, or the more concentrated
nebulizer solution (1:100) (Chap. 1, Sect. 1.9.2). Sometimes, children have milder
stridor, without signs of upper airway obstruction or hypoxia. Nebulized adrenaline
(epinephrine) could be used, but an alternative is IV dexamethasone 0.6 mg/kg (up
to 12 mg). The onset of this is adequate in this non-emergent clinical setting—
within 20 or 30 min based on work using oral prednisolone for treatment of croup
in the Emergency Department (Chap. 1, Sect. 1.9.2).
8.5.1.1 C ould Post-extubation Stridor Have Been

Prevented in This Child?
There was always a chance the 4.0 ID cuffed ETT used for this child would be too
large. The formulae for ETT size are for children 2 years and older. A child this age
needs a 3.5 ID cuffed ETT. A Microcuff brand has a smaller outside diameter, and
the 4.0 cuffed size of that brand might have been appropriate (see Chap. 4, Table
4.9). If an uncuffed ETT was used, then a size 4.0 ID would have been appropriate
as first choice, changed to 4.5 ID if there was an excessive leak. There is some
judgement in selecting the ETT size for any individual child, no matter whether the
ETT is cuffed or uncuffed—some children are larger than average, some smaller,
and sometimes when their age is used in a formula, the result is an in-between size.
When the ETT is passed through the glottis, an assessment is made whether the tube
is tight. Sometimes the tube passes through the cords easily, but resistance can be
felt beyond, at the level of the cricoid ring. If this resistance is more than slight, then
the tube should not be passed, and the next size smaller used instead. Other impor-
tant strategies are:
• Monitor cuff pressure and keep below 20 cmH2O, especially during prolonged
intubation
• Consider possible effects of pre-existing airway pathology that might narrow the
subglottic region (Trisomy 21, recent tonsillectomy, recent intubation, recent
URTI)
• Avoid airway trauma from multiple intubation attempts or self-extubation
8.5.2 Summary
Post-extubation stridor is uncommon, but can be a serious sign of upper airway

obstruction in the PACU—perhaps the frequent use of dexamethasone for PONV
prophylaxis has reduced the incidence. Careful thought is required in selecting ETT
sizes in children, especially smaller ones, and the anesthetist needs a gentle tech-
nique during intubation to assess the suitability of the size of the ETT chosen.
Acute Pain Management in Children
9
Priya Thalayasingam and Dana Weber
The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as ‘an unpleasant
sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage
or described in terms of such damage’. However, the inability to communicate does
not negate the possibility an individual is experiencing pain. The safe and effective
management of pain in children includes the prevention, recognition and assess-
ment of pain, the early and individualized treatment of pain and the evaluation of the
effectiveness of treatment. This goal is the responsibility of all health care providers
caring for children. This chapter describes the assessment of pain in children, and
the management options available. Regional analgesia is also appropriate for chil-
dren and is covered in Chap. 10.
9.1 Pain Assessment
Children’s pain may be difficult to recognize and to measure reliably. Many pain
assessment tools (PAT) have been developed to measure ‘pain scores’ (Table 9.1).
These tools must be age and developmentally appropriate because children’s under-
standing and ability to describe pain will change as they grow older. Additionally,
the tools should be sensitive, specific and validated. There are three types of tools
used for assessment of pain in children:
P. Thalayasingam (*) ∙ D. Weber

e-mail: Priya.Thalayasingam@health.wa.gov.au; dana.weber@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_9
200 P. Thalayasingam and D. Weber
Table 9.1 Examples of pain assessment tools (PAT) validated in children

Assessment tool Age range Assessment Notes/limitations
Premature Infant Pain <33 weeks Gestational age, behavioral For procedural and
Profile (PIPP) state, HR, oxygen saturation, postoperative pain
brow bulge, eye squeeze,
nasolabial furrow
Neonatal Pain >33 weeks Behavioral indicators: posture, Behavioral and
Assessment Tool tone, sleep pattern, facial physiological PAT
expression, color, cry and observation
Physiological indicators:
respiratory rate, HR, oxygen
saturation, BP
The Faces, Legs, 0–7 years Facial expression, leg position, Behavioral PAT
Activity, Cry and activity, cry, consolability May be adapted for
Consolability (FLACC) cognitively impaired
scale children
The Revised Faces Pain 4–12 years Six faces with the first face Self-report PAT
Scale scoring 0/10 and the last scoring
10/10 pain
Visual Analogue Scale 7–8 years to A line expressing an increasing Self-report PAT
(VAS) adult continuum of pain
Numerical Rating Scale 7–8 years to 0/10 = no pain Self-report PAT
(NRS) adult 10/10 = worst pain
1. Self-report: The preferred approach, which can be used in children older than
3–4 years who are not cognitively impaired.
2. Observational or behavioral: An objective assessment by the carer or parent of
signs of distress caused by pain.
3. Physiological: measures physiological parameters of the pain arousal response.
It is best combined with a behavioral assessment of pain. The measured param-
eters can be confounded by underlying illness (e.g. sepsis causing tachycardia)
and have wide inter-individual variability
Of the available tools, the revised faces scale is commonly used for school aged
children, whereas the FLACC scale is commonly used for preschool aged and cog-
nitively impaired children. Although these are generally used, different institutions
may have their own preferred tools. Pain scores form only one component of pain
assessment. Holistic pain assessment accounts for factors influencing a child’s per-
ception of pain, which contribute to different pain experiences in different children
undergoing the same procedure (Table 9.2).
Keypoint
Pain assessment appropriate to the child’s age needs to be performed regularly
so pain is treated early and effectively. Because pain is dynamic, regular pain
assessments provide a trend for the patient’s progress.
9 Acute Pain Management in Children 201
Table 9.2 Factors influenc- Physiological factors—site or severity of surgery

ing a child’s perception of Psychological and cognitive factors— age, gender and
pain maturity
Behavioral factors—child’s coping style and parental
response
Socio-cultural beliefs
Past health and hospitalization experiences
9.2 Management Strategies
Anesthetists most often encounter children with acute pain related to surgery, medi-
cal conditions, cancer or trauma. Acute pain management includes a combination of
pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies.
9.2.1 Non-pharmacological Strategies
These strategies are techniques used to supplement analgesic drugs and are espe-
cially useful for procedural pain. They can be as simple as comforting an injured
child, while others include physical methods such as massage, heat therapy and
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). The most important psycholog-
ical technique is distraction with toys or electronic games and devices, while others
include breathing techniques, imagery, play therapy and hypnosis. These techniques
need to be appropriate to the child’s development, personality and circumstances,
and ideally should be familiar to the child before they are used.
9.2.2 Pharmacological Strategies
Drug treatment is modelled on the 3-step analgesic ladder, starting with simple oral
analgesia and progressing to opioid and regional analgesia if required. As in adults,
simple analgesics reduce opioid use and side effects. Systemic analgesia is usually
given by the oral or IV routes, but rectal, transdermal, intranasal, transmucosal or
inhalational routes are alternatives. Intramuscular injections are avoided in children
because of pain and erratic drug absorption.
Postoperative pain relief and side effects should be discussed preoperatively with
the parents, child (if plausible) and surgeon. It should be safe, efficacious, titratable
and appropriate for the surgery and patient age (for example, an ilio-inguinal block
may be preferable to a caudal in an ambulating 5 year old for inguinal hernia repair).
Regional techniques are useful but an alternative plan is needed if they fail, and
parental education about analgesia when the block wears off is important.
Children’s analgesic needs fluctuate during the day—more analgesia is required
whilst mobilizing, participating in physiotherapy or undergoing therapeutic
procedures such as dressing changes. Thus, effective analgesic regimens need back-
ground analgesia and a pro-active plan for managing break-through pain, especially
in preverbal or cognitively impaired children.
9.3 Analgesic Agents
9.3.1 Paracetamol
Paracetamol has a central analgesic effect mediated through activation of descend-

ing serotonergic pathways. The analgesic and antipyretic plasma concentration in
children is the same as adults and is 10 mg/mL. Higher plasma concentrations only
modestly increase efficacy but increase the risk of hepatotoxicity.
9.3.1.1 Metabolism
Paracetamol undergoes glucuronidation and to a lesser extent, sulfation, in the liver.
In neonates, sulfation is the main mechanism. Clearance increases with post men-
strual age, but in a term neonate it is still only about a third that of an older child
(Fig. 9.1). Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia is a crude measure of hepatic conju-
gating ability and is a reason to reduce the dosage of paracetamol.
Keypoint
Children taking maximal doses of paracetamol for several days are at
risk of hepatotoxicity. The risk is even higher if they are malnourished or
dehydrated.
Fig. 9.1 Schematic 100

representation of
metabolism of paracetamol
with age. Metabolism of 80
Metabolism (% adult level)
paracetamol in neonates is
only 30–40% of the adult Paracetamol
level, but reaches nearly 60
80% by 6 months of age as
the enzymes responsible
for glucuronidation mature. 40
Modified from Anderson
and Holford, Pediatr
Anesth 2018
20
Birth 6mo 1y 2y
Age
9.3.1.2 Oral Administration

Paracetamol is most often given orally. Absorption is rapid in children, though
slower in neonates. Oral paracetamol undergoes 10–40% first pass elimination.
Plasma concentration is maximal 30–60 min after oral administration, but the
brain concentration rises slowly. Maximum analgesia develops up to 2 h after
administration. Doses at various ages are shown in Table 9.3. The manufac-
turer’s dose of 60 mg/kg/day in children is often replaced by a dose of 90 mg/
kg/day for the first 48 h, either by using a larger loading dose or using 20 mg/
kg 6 hourly.
9.3.1.3 Intravenous Administration

IV paracetamol is more effective than oral paracetamol because there is no first pass
metabolism or delay in absorption. The dose in children is 15 mg/kg infused over
15 min. The dose is reduced in neonates and is adjusted in obese children based on
their ideal body weight (Table 9.4).
9.3.1.4 Rectal Administration

Rectal administration has slow and variable absorption, with typical doses fail-
ing to give a therapeutic plasma level. The smallest suppository commercially
available is 125 mg, but cannot be cut to reduce the dose because the paracetamol
may not be evenly distributed through it. IV paracetamol is preferable in clinical
practice.
Table 9.3 ORAL paracetamol dose in neonates and children

Maximum daily
Oral dose Interval dose Maximum duration at
Age (mg/kg) (h) (mg/kg) maximum dose (h)
28–32 weeks 10–15 8–12 30 48
PMA
32–52 weeks 10–15 6–8 60 48
PMA
3–6 months 15 6 90a 48
>6 months 15 6 90a 48
Some suggest a loading dose of 20 mg/kg in children older than 32 weeks. Dose adjustment is
required in overweight and obese patients. Paracetamol dose must be reviewed every 48 h; beware
of risk factors for paracetamol toxicity. If treatment >1 week, use minimum dosing interval of 6 h,
and consider lowering maximum daily dose and monitoring LFT’s. PMA Post menstrual age
a
Maximum 4 g in 24 h for 48 h. After 48 h reduce dose to 60 mg/kg/24 h
Table 9.4 INTRAVENOUS paracetamol dose in neonates and children

Maximum daily dose (mg/kg per
Age Maintenance dose day)
32–40 weeks PMA 7.5 mg/kg 8 hourly 30
40–44 weeks PMA 10 mg/kg 6 hourly 40
44 weeks PMA–18 years 15 mg/kg (up to 1 g) 6 hourly 60
9.3.1.5 Toxicity of Paracetamol

A small amount of paracetamol is oxidized by the cytochrome P450 CYP2E1
enzymes to the reactive metabolite NAPQI. This metabolite binds to glutathione
and is excreted. As sulfation and glucuronidation pathways become saturated,
more paracetamol is shunted into the oxidative NAPQI pathway. However,
once glutathione stores are depleted, hepatotoxicity develops from unbound
NAPQI. Neonates have reduced P450 oxidation, but they can still form the
reactive metabolite. This reduced oxidation paired with increased glutathione
synthesis protects them from hepatotoxicity and gives paracetamol a high ther-
apeutic ratio in neonates. The effect of liver disease on paracetamol metabo-
lism is variable and difficult to determine in any given patient. Paracetamol
may still be used in hepatic impairment, usually as a single dose or smaller,
infrequent doses.
Although safe when used alone or in combination with other analgesics, severe
or fatal hepatotoxicity can occur with analgesic doses of paracetamol. Children
at risk are those who are malnourished, dehydrated, obese (and dosed with actual
rather than ideal body weight), or have been receiving maximal doses for several
days. Such conditions may exist in children after surgery who are not well hydrated
and have been taking regular, maximal dose paracetamol for several days. In these
groups of children, the dose must be reduced after a few days, and liver function
tests performed regularly. When neonates and infants are given IV paracetamol,
the volume of drug is small and they are at high risk of a ten times overdose.
Prescribing in both mLs and mGs has been suggested as a way of avoiding over-
dose. It has also been recommended by the Safe Anesthesia Liaison Group to use
50 mL vials (where available) for children weighing less than 33 kg. The dose of
IV paracetamol should be drawn up in a syringe and given, rather than hanging a
full bag of paracetamol.
Paracetamol toxicity is treated with IV N-Acetylcysteine (NAC), which
restores hepatic glutathione. The nomograms used for the management of
paracetamol toxicity refer to oral overdose. The UK National Poisons Information
Service advises NAC after a single IV dose of paracetamol larger than 60 mg/
kg, and advise against waiting for a serum paracetamol level before NAC is
started. If the dose of IV paracetamol is unknown, a level should be taken 4 h
after the IV paracetamol dose and NAC started if the plasma paracetamol level
is above 50 mg/L.
9.3.2 Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
NSAIDs are effective analgesics and antipyretics in children. As in adults, they

reduce morphine requirements by approximately 30%. Although many NSAIDs are
available for use in adults, few are marketed in a liquid form or in a suppository dose
suitable for children. NSAIDs uncommonly exacerbate asthma in children younger
than 10 years, and can be used in young asthmatic children unless there has been
past sensitivity. Renal dysfunction is also uncommon in children, although dehy-

dration is a predisposing factor as it is in adults. NSAIDs are not recommended
for neonates—they reduce GFR by 20% and may affect cerebral and pulmonary
blood flow. Aspirin is rarely used in children because of its association with Reye’s
syndrome.
Ibuprofen is the most commonly used oral NSAID in children. The dose is
10 mg/kg every 6–8 h in children greater than 3 months old. It is not recom-
mended for children under 3 months of age. It does not need to need to be taken
with food in children. Ibuprofen is unlikely to increase the risk of bleeding after
tonsillectomy and provides useful analgesia, however its use in this setting is
surgeon and institution specific. An intravenous form of Ibuprofen is available
and is dosed at 10 mg/kg (max daily dose 40 mg/kg or 2400 mg whichever is
less) in children younger than 17 years. It must be diluted before administration
and infused over 10 min. It may cause hemolysis if given undiluted and cannot be
given intramuscularly.
Diclofenac is available orally, rectally and intravenously. The doses are 0.3 mg/
kg IV, 0.5 mg/kg rectally and 1 mg/kg orally, usually 8–12 hourly. It is rapidly and
well absorbed from the rectum with peak levels reached faster than either oral or
rectal paracetamol. Parecoxib has not been extensively studied in children and is not
approved for use in children younger than 16 years. However, its pharmacokinet-
ics in children have been reported, and it is an effective analgesic in children after
tonsillectomy.
9.3.3 Opioids
Although many different opioids are used for analgesia in adults, only a few are
used in children because few have oral, liquid forms available and because experi-
ence with many opioids in children is limited. Neither transcutaneous patches nor
opioid agonist-antagonist preparations are made in pediatric doses.
9.3.3.1 Morphine
Morphine is the most widely studied and used opioid in children. It is available in an
immediate release elixir (dose 0.2–0.5 mg/kg, 3–4 hourly PRN) or as a controlled-
release preparation (MS Contin suspension or tablets). Morphine is the only opioid
with a liquid, sustained release preparation suitable for small children who can’t
swallow tablets. (Controlled-release tablets should never be crushed or chewed, as
an unpredictably large dose of morphine is released immediately, resulting in opioid
toxicity).
Morphine metabolism is reduced in neonates and infants (Fig. 9.2).
Furthermore, a larger proportion of morphine is metabolized to the active metab-
olite M6G in neonates. These pharmacokinetic differences place neonates at risk
of respiratory depression compared to children and adults—the incidence of
respiratory depression from opioids is almost ten times more in neonates than
Fig. 9.2 Metabolism of 100

Tramadol
morphine and tramadol in
neonates and young
children. Tramadol 80
Metabolism (% adult level)

undergoes phase I
metabolism by CYP Morphine
iso-enzymes that mature 60
quickly. Morphine
undergoes phase II
glucuronidation, which 40
matures more slowly.
Modified from Anderson
and Holford, Pediatr
20
Anesth 2018
Birth 6mo 1y 2y
Age
Table 9.5 Typical infusion rates for morphine infusions in children of different ages
Age Typical infusion rate of morphine (μg/kg/h)
Neonate 5–10
Infant 10–20
Child 10–40
The lower rates in neonates and infants reflect pharmacokinetic differences
adults. Differences in the blood-brain barrier between neonates and children are
minor and unlikely to be clinically important. Respiratory depression is the same
in neonates and children at equivalent plasma concentrations of morphine, but
the plasma concentration is reached in neonates with much smaller doses than in
children (Table 9.5).
Keypoint
The CO2 response curve at any given morphine concentration is the same
between the ages 2–570 days, suggesting neonates and infants do not have
any pharmacodynamic sensitivity to morphine. Although neonates are ‘sensi-
tive’ to respiratory depression from opioids, this is because of pharmacoki-
netic differences.
9.3.3.2 Fentanyl
Fentanyl is also widely used in children. Its relatively rapid onset facilitates dose
titration in severe, acute pain compared to morphine, and it causes less pruritus.
Fentanyl is very lipophilic and thus can be administered via the intranasal, transmu-
cosal and transdermal routes.
Intranasal Fentanyl
Intranasal fentanyl is an effective analgesic that is non-invasive and needle free,
suitable for children older than 1 year for procedural and post traumatic pain. Onset
of analgesia is within 2–10 min. It is delivered as a concentrated solution (300 μg/
mL) via an atomizer to minimize volume. The dose is 1.5 μg/kg to a maximum of
100 μg, and it may be repeated after 5 min if analgesia is inadequate. The use of a
conscious sedation protocol is recommended to monitor children given intranasal
fentanyl.
Oral Transmucosal Fentanyl Citrate (OTFC)

OTFC is a flavored fentanyl lozenge that was initially developed for break-through
pain management in opioid tolerant adult oncology patients and is not licensed for
pediatric use. It is used in some tertiary pediatric centers.
Transdermal Fentanyl (‘Fentanyl Patches’)

Fentanyl patches should only be used in children who are opioid tolerant, have a
stable analgesic requirement and are being cared for in a tertiary pediatric center.
They are not suitable to treat postoperative pain, for which oral morphine is prefer-
able because it is titratable and clinically more familiar.
9.3.3.3 Hydromorphone
Hydromorphone is a semi-synthetic derivative of morphine. It has a prolonged
duration of action (4–6 h) and half-life (3–4 h). Oral hydromorphone has a bio-
availability of 50–60% and more than 90% is converted in the liver to an inactive
metabolite. It has less metabolites than morphine and can be used in children with
renal insufficiency. It results in lower pain scores and less pruritus compared with
morphine. Hydromorphone is now the preferred second line opioid for infusions
when the initial opioid provided inadequate analgesia or excessive side effects. It is
also becoming the first line opioid in complex pain patients in the tertiary setting.
9.3.3.4 Codeine
Codeine is now rarely used in children. The death of several children who had ultra-
rapid metabolism of codeine to morphine prompted European, Australasian and
North American agencies to restrict its use. It is now listed as contraindicated in all
children having tonsillectomy, and for any reason in children younger than 12 years.
9.3.3.5 Oxycodone
Oxycodone is popular for the treatment of moderate to severe pain and as a step-
down from opioid infusions because it has a high bioavailability and a palatable and
concentrated syrup formulation that requires only small volume to be ingested. Its
bioavailability has less inter-individual variation compared to oral morphine, but it
is not licensed for children in many countries. Although it has less affinity for the
mu-opioid receptor than morphine, it is actively transported through the blood-brain
barrier so its concentration in the brain is higher than the plasma. For this reason,
oxycodone has a greater potency than morphine. Its metabolism to an active metab-
olite is subject to genetic polymorphism, but the metabolite is not particularly active
and differences in its concentration have little clinical effect.
Oral formulations include an immediate release (syrup, tablet or capsule) and
a controlled release preparation. Immediate release oxycodone at an oral dose of
0.1–0.2 mg/kg 4–6 hourly PRN may be recommended for the treatment of acute
pain. Oxycodone is prescribed at lower doses (0.05–0.1 mg/kg 4–6 hourly PRN)
in infants, and is avoided under the age of 3 months due to delayed clearance and
greater inter-individual pharmacokinetic variability.
Controlled release tablets are suitable to give background analgesia in older chil-
dren, but they must not be chewed or crushed due to the potential for dose-dumping
and toxicity. They are dosed 12 hourly with up to 40% of the dose being released in
the first hour after ingestion. Controlled release preparations may be combined with
naloxone in a tablet (Targin), reducing common opioid side effects including con-
stipation and itch. For children who are “stepped” down onto extended release oxy-
codone formulations it is important to ensure that they are sent home with a strict
weaning plan for these medications. An IV form of oxycodone is available, but little
used in the pediatric setting because it does not offer an advantage over morphine.
Keypoint
Prescription of post-operative opioids (especially if discharged home) should
be based on the previous analgesic requirements of the child and the expected
severity and duration of their pain. Opioids should be dispensed only for chil-
dren expected to have moderate to severe pain. A limited quantity of opioid
may be dispensed after a thorough discussion with parents about appropriate
use and side effects. A weaning plan and a cease date is recommended.
9.3.3.6 Tramadol
Tramadol is used alone for mild to moderate pain in children and is also useful in
the management of neuropathic pain or as an adjunct to stronger opioids. It has a
lower incidence of respiratory depression and constipation than other opioids and
is valuable in children with respiratory compromise from neuromuscular disease or
severe obstructive sleep apnea.
Tramadol is converted to an active metabolite by a CYP iso-enzyme that matures
earlier than the enzymes responsible for glucuronidation of morphine (Fig. 9.1).
Genetic polymorphism of the iso-enzyme includes an ultra-rapid metabolism form.
There have been three deaths and several events in children receiving tramadol,
prompting a FDA warning in the United States. Overdosing however, was the likely
cause—the oral form of tramadol was intended for palliative care of adults and is
extremely concentrated. Because there is no suitable liquid preparation, tramadol
is not a first line analgesic agent in young children. Slow release tramadol tablets
1 mg/kg bd are usually well tolerated by adolescents (who can swallow tablets).
It provides a background level of pain relief, which may be useful when stepping
down from parenteral opioids and to reduce the need for break-through analgesia.
Tramadol is not licensed for children younger than 12 years. Its dose in children is
1–2 mg/kg (max 400 mg) 6 hourly PRN up to a maximum daily dose of 8 mg/kg.
9.3.3.7 Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine use has increased in the adult setting due to its low abuse potential,
favorable immunological profile and lower risk of diversion. It is not licensed in
children, however its use is increasing in the pediatric setting for similar reasons as
in adults. It is mainly used for chronic and complex pain, such as cancer, long term
opioid use and opioid rotation. Due to its potency, its use in very young patients is
limited and there have been case reports of respiratory depression following opi-
oid rotation to even very small morphine-equivalent doses of buprenorphine. As a
result, the use of buprenorphine is restricted to tertiary pediatric centers with spe-
cialist oversight.
9.3.4 Ketamine
As in adults, ketamine may be used as an adjunct to opioid analgesia. It is useful

for children who are opioid tolerant and in pain despite maximal doses of opioids,
or who are sensitive to the sedative and respiratory effects of opioids. It may be
given intra-operatively (0.5–1 mg/kg) and then as an infusion at 100–240 μg/kg/h.
Low doses of ketamine generally do not cause troublesome dysphoria or hallucina-
tions. Ketamine may also be used for procedural analgesia for fracture reduction or
burns dressings, with an oral dose of 3–10 mg/kg, or intravenously (0.5–2 mg/kg).
Use the lower end of the dose range if combining ketamine with other sedatives.
Children receiving ketamine sedation should be appropriately fasted and appropri-
ately monitored.
9.3.5 Adjuvants
9.3.5.1 Alpha 2 Agonists

Clonidine and dexmedetomidine act on alpha 2 receptors pre-synaptically in the
brain stem to reduce sympathetic outflow. Dexmedetomidine is more alpha 2 selec-
tive than clonidine. Their effects include anxiolysis, analgesia, behavioral modifi-
cation and hemodynamic modulation. Dexmedetomidine is used in the intensive
care setting, neuro and cardiac surgery. Some centers have utilized the intranasal
formulation in the radiology suite for sedation in MRI.
Clonidine is widely used in the perioperative setting in children for premedica-
tion. Clonidine is used intra- and postoperatively as an adjuvant to analgesia in
regional techniques such as caudal or epidural blocks at doses of 1–2 μg/kg. At

this dose, it prolongs caudal analgesia by up to 4 h. Clonidine is also effective in
facilitating weaning and prevention of withdrawal in children who have been on
long term infusions of opioids, such as the intensive care setting, oncology patients
or major burns.
9.3.5.2 Gabapentenoids
Gabapentin and pregabalin are calcium channel neuromodulators and are used as
anticonvulsants. In the acute pain setting they are indicated for prevention and treat-
ment of neuropathic pain and anxiolysis. They can cause dizziness, delirium and
sedation. They have been shown to reduce overall opioid consumption. However,
the results are mixed in preventing post-surgical neuropathic pain and reduction of
opioid side effects. Gabapentin is usually commenced at 5 mg/kg daily and titrated
up to 5 mg/kg three times a day. It is also an effective premedication at 5 mg/kg.
Patients are not usually discharged home on this medication and if so they are fol-
lowed up to ensure the medication is weaned and ceased.
9.3.5.3 Tricyclic Antidepressants

Amitriptyline and nortriptyline are used for the treatment of neuropathic pain. They act
by inhibiting serotonergic and noradrenergic reuptake in the areas of the brain respon-
sible for pain perception and modulation. Caution needs to be exercised as they can
result in long QT. They also result in increased appetite, improved sleep when taken
before bedtime and improved mood which are all factors that contribute to the pain
experience. The usual starting dose is 5 or 10 mg at night. These medications need to
be monitored closely and their use outside of a tertiary pediatric setting is limited.
9.3.5.4 Melatonin
Melatonin acts on the M1 and M2 receptors in the anterior hypothalamus and is
indicated in primary insomnia with poor sleep quality. Studies on the efficacy of
melatonin at 1–2 mg have been performed in patients over the age of 55. As a result,
its use is restricted to specialist prescription. It is utilized in chronic pain, palliative
care and oncology.
9.4 Practical Use of Analgesics
9.4.1 Management of Analgesia in PACU
Children may be distressed in the PACU (recovery) for a variety of reasons, includ-
ing anxiety, hunger, emergence delirium and pain. Experienced PACU staff are
usually able to differentiate pain from other causes of distress using an age-appro-
priate PAT and indicators such as posture, type of cry and response to pacifiers.
Moderate to severe pain in PACU is best treated with intermittent IV opioid boluses
(Table 9.6), with subsequent adjustment to the ward analgesia regimen if required
(for example, increasing opioid infusion rate or checking extent of epidural block).
Table 9.6 Suggested dilutions and doses for intermittent IV opioid boluses in PACU
Intermittent PACU opioid bolus protocol
Morphine Fentanyl
Composition 2.5 mg morphine diluted to 5 mL of 100 μg diluted to 20 mL with
normal saline normal saline
Concentration 0.5 mg/mL 5 μg/mL
Bolus dose 0.05 mL/kg = 25 μg/kg 0.05 mL/kg = 0.25 μg/kg
Bolus doses can be given at 3–5 min intervals if the child is in pain, provided observations and
conscious state are satisfactory. A review of the child’s pain is needed if five doses have not been
adequate
Table 9.7 Intermittent IV ward morphine bolus protocols

Ward morphine bolus protocol
Age/weight Morphine dose
Infant 6–12 months 0.05 mL/kg = 25 μg/kg
Child older than 12 months and weighs under 0.05–0.1 mL/kg = 25–50 μg/kg
40 kg
Child weighs more than 40 kg 2–4 mL = 1–2 mg (2 mg max dose)
The boluses may be administered at 15 min intervals to treat pain providing the conscious state and
observations are satisfactory. A review of the child’s pain is needed if five doses have not been
adequate, as the child may benefit from a continuous infusion
9.4.2 Management of Intravenous Analgesia on the Wards
Intravenous opioids are the preferred route for the management of severe pain. They
allow rapid titration for effect and may be administered as intermittent boluses,
nurse controlled infusions or patient controlled analgesia (PCA). Intravenous opioid
infusions should only be used in hospital ward settings with appropriate staffing,
nursing education, patient monitoring and an around-the-clock contact for the Acute
Pain service.
9.4.2.1 Intermittent IV Ward Morphine Bolus Protocols

Intermittent IV ward morphine boluses are suitable for children older than 6 months.
Indications include the management of severe, short-term pain or as a rescue for
children recently weaned off continuous infusions (Table 9.7).
9.4.2.2 Continuous, Nurse-Controlled Opioid Infusions

Continuous intravenous opioid infusions are used in children who cannot use a PCA
because of young age, cognitive impairment or physical disability. The baseline rate
of the infusion is titrated to the level of pain, with additional nurse-initiated boluses
(at intervals of 15 min or more) to cover breakthrough pain. Fentanyl, morphine,
hydromorphone and tramadol may be delivered as a continuous infusion after
appropriate loading doses have been given. Lower opioid infusion rates are used in
children younger than 1 year because of the pharmacokinetic differences compared
with older children. Typical infusion rates at this age for morphine are 5–20 μg/
kg/h, about half that of older children.
Infusions are made with a dose of opioid varying according to the weight of
the child (Table 9.8). This is done so the concentration in the syringe varies with
the weight of the child, but the volume administered is similar regardless of age.
There are three important reasons for doing this. Firstly, it standardizes volume
independent of age and weight. For example, regardless of age, a child receiv-
ing a morphine infusion at 2 mL/h with a prescribed bolus of 1 mL, will receive
20 μg/kg/h of morphine by infusion, with a bolus of 10 μg/kg. Staff can see the
infusion rate and are able to place that dose into context of the dose range usu-
ally given to children. Secondly, varying the concentration with weight avoids
the problems of administering tiny volumes for small babies with subsequent
issues of pump inaccuracy during delivery such of small volumes, and difficulty
in overcoming the dead space of IV lines. Finally, the dilute concentration mini-
mizes complications in the scenario of the IV becoming blocked and the IV-line
filling with opioid solution, which is then infused as a bolus when the IV line
is unblocked.
To further reduce complications in this last scenario, the opioid infusion is always
connected to the IV line as close as possible to the cannula to minimize the amount
of opioid that can accumulate in the IV tubing, and an anti-reflux valve is inserted
in the IV line to prevent opioid backtracking and accumulating in the tubing if the
IV stops running.
Keypoint
The drug concentration in the syringe for opioid infusions varies with the
weight of the child. This ensures that independent of weight, children receive
a standard dose (μg/kg/h) at prescribed infusion rates. (e.g.: 1 mL/h always
equals 10 μg/kg/h of morphine).
Table 9.8 A suggested protocol for intravenous opioid infusions on pediatric wards
Intravenous opioid infusion guidelines
Morphine Fentanyl Hydromorphone
Dose to add to 50 mL saline 0.5 mg/kg 20 μg/kg 0.1 mg/kg
Concentration of solution relative to 10 μg/kg/mL 0.4 μg/kg/mL 2 μg/kg/mL
weight
Loading dose 50–100 μg/kg 0.5–1 μg/kg 10–20 μg/kg
Infusion rate 0–4 mL/ha 0–4 mL/ha 0–4 mL/ha
(10–40 μg/ (0.4–1.6 μg/ (2–8 μg/kg/h)
kg/h) kg/h)
Bolus dose 1–2 mL 1–2 mL 1–2 mL
10–20 μg/kg 0.4–0.8 μg/kg 2–4 μg/kg
Varying the dose added to the infusion syringe results in a fixed concentration relative to the weight
of the child, and subsequently the same infusion rate in mL/h for every child. The start rate for
infusions should be in the lower half of the dose range
a
Lower infusion rates are used for infants
Table 9.9 PCA dosing guidelines in school aged children

PCA dosing guidelines
Morphine Fentanyl Hydromorphone
Loading dose (μg/kg) 50–100 0.5–1 10–20
PCA bolus dose 1–2 mL (20 μg/ 1 mL (0.4 μg/kg) 1–2 mL (2–4 μg/
kg) kg)
Maximum bolus dose 1 mg 20 μg 200 μg
Lockout interval (min) 5 5 5
Background infusion rate (μg/ 0.5–1 mL/h 0.5–1 mL/h 0.25–0.5 mL/h
kg/h) (5–10 μg/kg/h) (0.2–0.4 μg/ (0.5–1 μg/kg/h)
kg/h)
Syringe concentrations are the same as for continuous, nurse-controlled infusions
9.4.2.3 Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA)

The use of a PCA pump requires a cooperative, awake child who is able to com-
prehend analgesic delivery depends on pushing a button, and who is also physi-
cally able to push a button. Children aged from 6 years are usually able to use a
PCA. Mature, younger children may be coached to use a PCA, but may forget to
press the button and receive inadequate analgesia. The safety of PCA relies on an
awake child being able to press the button independently and for this reason parents
must be warned not to press the button if their child falls asleep.
Opioids for PCA are prepared in the same way as continuous, nurse controlled
infusions and the concentration of the prepared infusion varies with the weight of
the child (Table 9.9). Unlike adults, background infusions are commonly used in
children, particularly in younger children, within the first 24–48 h after major sur-
gery, in oncology patients and in opioid tolerant patients. Low dose background
infusions improve analgesia, promote sleep and do not increase adverse effects in
children with severe and constant pain.
9.4.2.4 Transition from Parenteral to Oral Analgesia

Successful transition to oral analgesia may proceed when the child’s pain is mild to
moderate in severity and without sudden or severe episodes of pain, and when a reli-
able oral route has been established with good absorption. If opioid use has been large
and for a prolonged duration, then the parenteral requirement during the previous
24–48 h is converted to an equivalent oral dose of slow and immediate release drug.
If opioid use in the previous 24–48 h has been low and there is no risk of withdrawal,
then oral opioids are given as required along with regular non-opioid analgesia.
9.5 Management of Opioid Toxicity and Adverse Effects
Approximately one third of children will experience adverse effects from opioid
infusions. These include pruritus, nausea and vomiting, ileus and constipation, uri-
nary retention, sedation and respiratory depression (Table 9.10). Although these
Table 9.10 Opioid side effects, mechanisms and treatment

Side effect Treatment
Sedation
– Sedation occurs before respiratory – Stop opioid & other sedative drugs
depression and should be monitored using – ABC
a sedation scale (e.g.: University of – IV naloxone 1–2 μg/kg bolus, 1–2 min (max
Michigan Sedation Scale) 5 doses)
– Re-sedation once naloxone wears off
– Reduce subsequent opioid dose
– Maximize use of non-opioid analgesics
– Exclude other causes of sedation
Unrousable and/or respiratory depression/
arrest
Opioids reduce minute ventilation (slow RR – Stop opioid & other sedative drugs
and tidal volume), reduce ventilatory response – ABC
to hypercapnia and hypoxia and suppress the – IV naloxone 10 μg/kg bolus, 1–2 min (max 5
cough reflex doses)
– Re-sedation once naloxone wears off,
consider naloxone infusion
– Avoid routine oxygen supplementation, as it
will hide opioid-induced hypoventilation
Nausea/vomiting
Children are at increased risk of PONV – Ensure adequate hydration, analgesia and
compared to adults exclude other causes of nausea
Risk factors: – Stop/reduce opioid if adequate analgesia or
– Age: risk progressively increases from rotate opioid
3 years to adolescence – Chart antiemetic protocol for children more
– Post pubertal girls higher risk than boys; than 2 years old receiving continuous opioid
consider prophylactic antiemetics and use 2–3 antiemetics from different
– History of previous PONV classes in children at high risk
– Specific surgery: strabismus, – Consider low dose naloxone infusion
adenotonsillectomy, otoplasty etc. (0.25 μg/kg/h IV)
Opioid induced pruritus
– A frequent and early side effect seen with – Switch or cease opioid
IV opioids (10–50%) and centro-neuroaxial – Low dose naloxone IV infusion (0.25 μg/
opioids (20–100%) kg/h) effective for treatment and prevention
– Face, neck and upper chest – Prophylactic 5HT3 antagonist may reduce
– Mainly by activation of central μ opioid incidence and severity of pruritus from
receptors. Also activation of dopamine and neuroaxial opioids
5HT3 receptors and release of – Antihistamines poorly effective. No longer
prostaglandins PGE1, PGE2 used as risk of over-sedation with concurrent
– Histamine release may contribute a small opioids
amount to OIP after systemic opioids
Constipation
Common & persistent – Increase fiber & fluid, mobilize patient, stool
softeners & laxatives.
Urinary retention
Opioid related; exclude pain, bladder spasm, Treat retention, reduce opioid dose, low dose
anxiety, epidural blockade naloxone infusion
Table 9.11 The University of Michigan Sedation Scale (UMSS)

Score Observation of sedation level
0 Awake and alert
1 Minimally sedated, tired, appropriate response to verbal
stimulation/sound
2 Moderately sedated, sleepy, aroused with light tactile
stimulation or verbal stimulation
3 Deeply sedated, aroused only with deep physical stimulation
4 Unrousable
side effects are common, they are often mild and may be tolerated or treated.
Occasionally, adverse effects require opioid cessation or substitution. The addition
of a low-dose naloxone infusion may reduce pruritus and nausea in children receiv-
ing an opioid PCA.
Children particularly at risk of sedation and respiratory depression during opioid
infusions include:
–– Infants younger than 6 months, and especially younger than 1 month

–– Children with serious co-morbidity (cardiorespiratory, central/obstructive sleep
apnea, syndromes associated with airway obstruction, hepatic/renal insuffi-
ciency, neurodevelopmental disorders)
–– Those also receiving other sedative drugs (such as benzodiazepines, sedating
antihistamines, clonidine, gabapentin)
Side effects in these groups can be minimized by adding non-opioid analgesics,

reducing the opioid dose, vigilance, and monitoring for sedation and respiratory
compromise using continuous oximetry and at least hourly assessment of heart rate,
respiratory rate and sedation level. The depth of sedation can be assessed using an
observational scale such as the University of Michigan Sedation Scale (UMSS)
(Table 9.11).
Keypoint
Sedation occurs before opioid-induced respiratory depression. Respiratory
depression (bradypnea and hypoxia) are late signs of opioid toxicity.
9.6 Opioid Withdrawal
Children on prolonged infusions of opioids for pain or sedation will develop

tolerance and require increasing doses to achieve the same effect over time.
Abruptly stopping opioids in these children may lead to a withdrawal syndrome
causing CNS stimulation (irritability, tremors, seizures, uncontrolled crying),

gastrointestinal disturbance (abdominal cramping, diarrhea, poor feeding) and
sympathetic arousal (tachycardia, hypertension, tachypnea, fever, sneezing).
Withdrawal symptoms and signs are easy to overlook unless specifically moni-
tored with a validated withdrawal assessment scale. Withdrawal is minimized
by controlled weaning (reducing the opioid dose no more than 10–20% per
day) and using drugs such as clonidine or benzodiazepines to treat symptoms
of withdrawal. Concurrent use of other sedatives, such as benzodiazepines for
children who have had a prolonged stay in the intensive care unit, may also
contribute to withdrawal.
9.7 anagement of Pain After Ambulatory Day Case

M
Surgery
Most pediatric surgery is performed on an ambulatory, day case basis with effective
analgesia at home an important part of care. More than 30% of children will have
moderate to severe pain at home after day surgery, and especially surgeries such as
tonsillectomy and orchidopexy. Pain at home is often under-appreciated and under-
treated by both families and medical staff. Strategies to improve analgesia at home
after discharge include:
• Parental education about the regular use of simple analgesics and when to begin
them (especially if the child has had a regional technique that will wear off after
discharge)
• Parental education about the signs of pain
• Providing analgesics at discharge in the correct dose and form for the child.
• Dispelling misconceptions about the side effects of strong analgesics
If opioid analgesia after discharge is necessary, parents must be educated about

dosing, side effects and safe and early disposal of unused drugs to their local phar-
macy. Restricting the volume dispensed to only 10 or 20 doses is one strategy to
improve safety regarding opioids that are taken at home.
9.8 Neonatal Pain
Neonatal pain pathways are present before birth, but are not mature and dif-
fer from adults. In neonates, pain produces specific behavioral changes, activates
the somatosensory cortex and induces physiological and neuroendocrine stress
responses. Initially, there is an excess of excitatory mechanisms, as the descending
inhibitory pathways do not mature until later. Therefore, neonates (especially pre-
term neonates), may not be able to discriminate between noxious and non-noxious
stimuli and may respond with a generalized and exaggerated response to low inten-
sity stimuli—they may actually be more sensitive to pain than older children. The
long-term consequences of untreated pain in the newborn period include exagger-

ated responses to future noxious stimuli that outlast the initial injury, hypervigilance
and adverse neurological sequelae.
A number of pain assessment tools are validated for use in neonates. The appro-
priate selection depends on the age of the infant, the type of pain (procedural or
postoperative) and the purpose of the measurement (clinical care or research).
Examples of validated tools include the premature infant profile (PIPP), neonatal
facial coding scale (NFCS) and children’s revised impact of event scale (CRIES).
Reducing discomfort and reducing pain in neonates use strategies such as swad-
dling, breast feeding, tactile or aural stimulation and eye contact. Sucrose is an
effective analgesic for stressful and painful procedures in neonates, possibly through
endogenous opioid release. It is effective within 2 min of administration. In prac-
tice, the “dummy” is dipped in 12–24% sucrose, giving a dose of about 0.2 mL. A
maximum of 2 mL can be used for term babies, less for preterm. Sucrose may cause
coughing, choking and desaturation in very premature neonates. Sucking a pacifier
without any sucrose (non-nutritive sucking) also causes analgesia through stimula-
tion of oropharyngeal tactile and mechanoreceptors. Sucrose is not effective outside
the neonatal period.
9.8.1 Pharmacological Management of Neonatal Pain
Doses of all analgesics are lower in neonates compared to children because of

reduced metabolism. For example, the infusion rate for a morphine infusion in a
neonate is 10–25% of the standard pediatric rate (Table 9.12) Even with lower
doses, neonates are at high risk of overdose and respiratory depression from opi-
oids, and they require careful dose titration and close monitoring.
Keypoint
Neonates (even preterm neonates) perceive pain, and prolonged, untreated
pain may result in adverse long-term consequences.
Like children, neonates need procedural pain minimized with safe and
effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies.
Table 9.12 Suggested neonatal opioid dosing guidelines

Neonatal opioid dosing guidelines
Preterm neonate Term neonate
Morphine
IV bolus 10–25 μg/kg every 2–4 h 25–50 μg/kg every 3–4 h
IV infusion 2–5 μg/kg/h 5–10 μg/kg/h
Fentanyl
IV bolus 0.25–1 μg/kg every 2–5 min
IV infusion 0.4–0.8 μg/kg/h
Table 9.13 The roles of the APS in adult and pediatric hospitals
Roles of adult and pediatric APS Roles unique to pediatric APS
Supervision of specialized Education of parents regarding pain management
analgesic techniques particularly after discharge
Staff education and accreditation Promotion of non-pharmacological techniques (e.g.:
regarding all aspects of acute pain physical and psychological therapies which are especially
management important in the management of procedurally related pain)
Development of guidelines/ Education of staff regarding age related differences
protocols & provision of clinical (pharmacology, physiology, psychology) in the
consultation as required management of acute pain
Teaching of junior medical staff,
performance of quality assurance
& participation in research
9.9 The Acute Pain Service for Children
There is no widely accepted definition of what constitutes an acute pain service—

the structure of each service varies depending on the needs of the institution (num-
ber of patients, complexity of surgery and analgesic regimens), resources available
and the expertise of available staff.
Within Australia and New Zealand, 91% of hospitals accredited for anesthetic
training have an APS run by the anesthetic department. The APS in most tertiary
pediatric centers is multidisciplinary and involves daily clinical input from APS
nursing staff, pediatric anesthetists and possibly a pharmacist (Table 9.13).
9.10 hronic (Complex) Pain Services and Services to Reduce

C
Anxiety Associated with Hospital
Tertiary pediatric centers are managing a growing number of children with com-
plex pain. As oncology survival rates increase and our understanding of child-
hood presentations such as ‘abdominal migraines’ and ‘growing pains’ improves,
the demand for these services will increase. Complex pain services include a
multi-disciplinary team of chronic pain specialists, allied health, nursing and
play therapy. These services treat not just the child but importantly the family in
the context of childhood chronic pain. Children with a complex pain background
should be flagged to the Acute Pain and Complex Pain Service if they present to
hospital with illness or trauma so that they can be appropriately managed. Many
tertiary pediatric hospitals have embraced programs to help children cope with
anxiety, distress and trauma caused by hospitalization. This involves a hospital-
wide education with an emphasis on non-pharmacological strategies (in addition
to appropriate pharmacological management) to support children and parents
whilst receiving treatment.
Review Questions
1. You are asked to review a 7 year old boy who has inadequate analgesia after open
fixation of a fractured femur. His current treatment is with a nurse-controlled
infusion of morphine. What will you do?
2. Why are smaller doses of morphine than would be used in adults appropriate for
infants?
3. What are the post operative analgesic options available to manage a severe spas-
tic quadriplegic 8 year old scheduled for elective major bilateral lower limb
surgery? Discuss and justify your choices.
4. Please discuss how paracetamol may be administered to children.
5. What considerations should be given prior to prescribing procedural analgesia
for ward patients?
6. A 3 year old child has a broken leg. What is the best way to assess pain in this
child?
Further Reading
Key Articles
Anderson BJ, et al. Tramadol: keep calm and carry on. Pediatr Anesth. 2017;27:785–8. An edito-
rial placing the FDA warning about tramadol for the United States into context.
Anesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. Good practice in postoperative pain management, 2nd
edition, 2012. Pediatr Anesth. 2012;22(Suppl 1):1–79.
Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists. Chapter 9. The paediatric patient. In: Schug
SA, Palmer GM, Scott DA, Halliwell R, Trinca J, editors. Acute pain management: scientific
evidence. 4th ed. Melbourne: ANZCA & FPM; 2015.
Brooks MR, Golianu B. Perioperative management in children with chronic pain. Pediatr Anesth.
2016;26:794–806.
Ferland CE, Vega E, Ingelmo PM. Acute pain management in children: challenges and recent
improvements. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:327–32.
Schnabel A, et al. Tramadol for postoperative pain treatment in children. Cochrane Database Syst
Rev. 2015;(3). Art. No.: CD009574. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009574.pub2.
Walker SE. Neonatal pain. Pediatr Anesth. 2014;24:39–48.
Walker SM. Pain after surgery in children: clinical recommendations. Curr Opin Anesthesiol.
2015;28:570–6.
Pain After Day Surgery
Walther-Larsen S, Aagaard GB, Friis SM. Structured intervention for management of pain follow-
ing day surgery in children. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:151–7.
Williams G, et al. The prevalence of pain at home and its consequences in children following
two types of short stay surgery: a multicenter observational cohort study. Pediatr Anesth.
2015;25:1254–63.
Wilson CA, et al. Pain after discharge following head and neck surgery in children. Pediatr Anesth.
2016;26:992–1001.
Wilson C, et al. A Prospective audit of pain profiles following general and urological surgery in
children. Pediatr Anesth. 2017;27:1155–64.
Simple Analgesics
Anderson BJ, Holford HG. Negligible impact of birth on renal function and drug metabolism.
Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:1015–21.
Safe Liaison Group. Intravenous paracetamol. 2013. https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/system/files/CSQ-
PSU-MARCH2013_1.pdf. Accessed July 2019.
Standing JF, et al. Diclofenac pharmacokinetic meta-analysis and dose recommendations for surgi-
cal pain in children aged 1-12 years. Paediatr Anesth. 2011;21:316–24.
Wright JA. An update of systemic analgesics in children. Anesth Int Care Med. 2016;17:280–5.
Neonatal Pain
Pacifici GM, Allegaert K. Clinical pharmacology of paracetamol in neonates: a review. Curr Ther
Res Clin Exp. 2015;77:24–30.
Walker SE. Neonatal pain. Pediatr Anesth. 2014;24:39–48.
Regional Anesthesia for Infants
and Children 10
Chris Johnson and Chris Gibson
Regional anesthesia is an important part of pediatric anesthesia. A comfortable child

is less likely to be agitated after surgery, less likely to dislodge dressings and drains,
and less likely to be psychologically traumatized by their experience. Continuous
regional analgesia is useful where pain is likely to be severe and prolonged and or
difficult to assess such as in children with severe cerebral palsy and subsequent com-
munication difficulties. This chapter will concentrate on areas specific to pediatric
regional anesthesia, and it is assumed the reader is familiar with the various blocks
also used in adults. Rather than repeating their description here, the focus will be on
important differences when performing peripheral nerve blocks in children.
10.1 he Pharmacology of Local Anesthetic Agents in Infants

T
and Children
As is the case with many drugs, the pharmacokinetics of local anesthetic agents are
different in neonates and young children compared with adults. The three most
important differences are reduced protein binding, reduced metabolism and
increased volume of distribution.
Local anesthetics are highly bound to proteins in the plasma, especially alpha-1-
glycoprotein. The level of this protein is low during the first year, and the concentra-
tion of free (unbound) local anesthetic is higher. Liver cytochrome P450 enzymes
metabolize local anesthetics and these enzymes do not mature until 6–12 months of
C. Johnson (*)
Formerly Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management,
Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, WA, Australia
C. Gibson
e-mail: Christopher.Gibson@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_10
222 C. Johnson and C. Gibson
Plasma concentration
Neonate
Child
12 24 48
Duration of infusion (h)
Fig. 10.1 Plasma concentration of bupivacaine increases towards toxic levels over time in neo-
nates, but plateaus in infants and children older than 6 months. Based on Meunier et al.
Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine after continuous epidural infusion in infants with and without
biliary atresia. Anesthesiology 2001;95: 87–95
age. Hence, toxicity is a high risk in neonates and infants. During an epidural infu-
sion in smaller infants the plasma concentration of bupivacaine increases over time,
but plateaus in children (Fig. 10.1). To avoid toxicity, the infusion rate or concentra-
tion of the local anesthetic is reduced in neonates, and the infusion is stopped within
24–36 h. The risk of toxicity after bolus doses is counteracted by the increased
volume of distribution for local anesthetics in neonates and infants—a high plasma
concentration is prevented by the anesthetic distributing into a relatively larger vol-
ume. In clinical practice, the volume in mL/kg of a single, bolus dose is the same
across all ages.
Keypoint
There is a high risk of local anesthetic toxicity in neonates and infants during
infusions because protein binding and metabolism are reduced. Regional
infusions should be stopped after 24–36 h in neonates and infants. The dose
of a single, bolus injection is similar in all ages.
Other developmental changes affect local anesthetics in children. Nerve fibers

at birth are thin, about half the diameter of adult nerves, and they are less myelin-
ated during the first several years. As a result, low concentrations of local anes-
thetics in children achieve a block of similar duration and intensity to higher
concentrations in adults. The volume of local anesthetic needed is however rela-
tively large due to increased tissue blood flow and tissue spread, and more rapid
local clearance.
The maximum dose of bupivacaine in children has been extrapolated to l-
bupivacaine and ropivacaine (Table 10.1). Although the newer local anesthetic
agents have less cardiotoxicity, the maximum doses were extrapolated because they
have been found safe and effective in clinical practice and result in safe plasma
10 Regional Anesthesia for Infants and Children 223
Table 10.1 Maximum doses for single injection blocks and infusions of ropivacaine,
l-bupivacaine and bupivacaine in neonates and children
Maximum bolus injection dose Maximum infusion dose
Age group (mg/kg) (mg/kg/h)
Neonate and infant <6 2.5 0.2
months
Child 2.5 0.4
Based on Berde C. J Ped 1993; 122: S14–20
levels after a variety of regional blocks. Although some suggest a maximum dose of
ropivacaine of 3 mg/kg in the setting of combined (more than one) block in the same
child, the doses in Table 10.1 above should be adhered to for single shot blocks. In
practice, a maximum dose of 1 mL/kg of ropivacaine 0.2% (2 mg/mL) for a single
shot block is a simple method without complex calculations.
Keypoint
The recommended maximum single dose of ropivacaine or l-bupivacaine in
children is 2.5 mg/kg.
10.2 Additives to Regional Blocks
Additives to regional blocks and infusions prolong the duration of the block,
improve analgesia and provide concurrent sedation. In general, they are avoided in
neonates and infants less than 3 months of age due to the risk of sedation and apnea.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) is now rarely used because of concerns about spinal
cord ischemia, although it mildly prolongs the duration of caudal analgesia.
Clonidine provides postoperative sedation for the difficult toddler group, as well
as analgesia. It can be added to a single shot caudal (1–1.5 μg/kg) or to epidural
infusions. A simple mix is to add 1 μg/mL of clonidine to the local anesthetic infu-
sion and run it at the usual rate. Clonidine should be used with caution in infants
under 12 months as they can become very sedated, but is otherwise free of side
effects apart from occasional mild bradycardia. It prolongs and improves the quality
of peripheral blocks in adults, but there is not strong evidence of these effects in
children. Small studies in children have not always shown a significant benefit of
clonidine, and a large review of a regional block database in Philadelphia found
benefit only when very dilute local anesthetic solutions had been used.
Opioids may be added to epidural infusions just as with adults. An alternative is
to use opioids by the oral or IV routes to supplement the epidural as required. Some
centers do not allow nursing staff to titrate epidural infusion doses. By combining
epidural and systemic analgesic techniques, the epidural can provide background
analgesia, and opioids can be titrated by nursing staff as required. Dexamethasone
is not recommended as an additive in children because safety and efficacy have not
yet been established. Ketamine prolongs caudal analgesia, but is not used due to
possible neurotoxicity.
10.3 Ultrasound Guidance of Local Anesthetic Blocks
Similar to adult practice, ultrasound facilitates regional anesthesia in children.

Ultrasound enables smaller doses of local anesthetic to be more easily, safely and
accurately placed in close proximity to nerves, whilst avoiding inadvertent damage
to adjacent structures. Ultrasound based techniques are similar to those described in
adults with a few exceptions. Smaller probes, depths and needle lengths are often
required to optimize the image. Anatomical structures and tissue planes are gener-
ally smaller, shallower and better defined. Particular care needs to be taken not to
‘overshoot’ when passing through shallow elastic tissue structures. Maintaining
needle visualization throughout a short tissue trajectory can be challenging. Using a
sharp hypodermic needle to puncture through the tough elastic skin before inserting
a blunt short-bevel needle, helps maintain needle visualization and avoid inadver-
tent overshoot.
10.4 Complications of Local Anesthetic Blocks
Most pediatric regional blocks are placed after the induction of anesthesia to pro-
vide post-operative analgesia. Performing blocks with the child asleep is safe, and
may even be safer than with the patient awake. Several large surveys with more than
100,000 patients show complications after blocks in children are uncommon. The
most recent prospective survey in 2018 from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia
Network (PRAN), showed complications were uncommon, with a similar, low inci-
dence of complications in peripheral and neuraxial blocks.
10.4.1 Overdose and Systemic Toxicity
These complications are usually due to arithmetic error or accidental use of the
wrong strength of solution. It is best to always calculate the maximum allowable
amount in milligrams and never draw up more than this, regardless of the volume
required. A simple and conservative rule is to limit dosage to 1 mL/kg of ropiva-
caine 0.2%, l-bupivacaine 0.25% or bupivacaine 0.25%, giving a maximum dose of
2.5 mg/kg (Table 10.1). Overdose with cardiac arrest or convulsion is rare, but
infants are more likely to develop these complications. Real-time ultrasound guided
blocks reduce the volume required by 30–50% and allow visualization and avoid-
ance of vessels, reducing the risk of intravascular injection. In an audit of over
100,000 pediatric regional blocks by the PRAN group, the rate of severe local anes-
thetic toxicity was 0.76: 10,000.
Test doses containing adrenaline (epinephrine) have been extensively studied in
children, but changes in heart rate, BP and T waves are not sufficiently sensitive or
specific, and vary between different volatile agents and propofol. Aspiration tests
are also unreliable. It is therefore prudent to give larger volumes of local anesthetic
in divided doses, watching for changes in respiration, T wave amplitude, ST seg-
ments and heart rate or onset of nodal rhythm.
10.4.2 Neurological Injury
There are few pediatric series of sufficient size to draw definite conclusions, but
lasting injury after major plexus and single shot caudal block appears to be extremely
rare. Infants less than 4 months of age and pre-teens appear to be most at risk. In a
prospective multicenter cohort of more than 100,000 peripheral nerve and neuraxial
blocks in children there were no cases of permanent neurological deficit associated
with regional anesthesia. The rate of transient neurological deficit was low at 2.4 per
10,000. A UK pediatric epidural audit of 10,000 epidurals reported only one inci-
dent with residual effects 12 months after surgery in a 4 month old.
10.4.3 Injury to Visceral Structures
Is a concern during blocks of the anterior abdominal wall. Rectal damage during
caudal block has also been reported.
10.4.4 Minor Complications
Pressure areas during continuous blocks in children are not uncommon, usually
manifesting as heel redness or rarely skin loss. Urinary retention is common with
continuous epidural blockade and warrants catheterization at all ages. Lower limb
weakness and delayed ambulation may occur after caudal blockade with high con-
centrations of local anesthetic, or after Iliohypogastric block with inadvertent spread
to the femoral nerve. Block failure is usually due to depositing the local anesthetic
too deeply, as most peripheral nerves are quite superficial. Accurate visualization of
nerves using ultrasound may reduce the incidence of this to zero.
10.5 Neuraxial Blocks
There are important anatomical and physiological differences of the neuraxis

between children and adults:
• The anatomical curves of the spine are absent at birth and not fully fixed until
puberty, altering the spread of spinal and epidural local anesthetics.
• There is less variation in the angulation of the spinous processes in children,
allowing easier access to thoracic and lumbo-sacral epidural spaces.
• The spinal cord ends at L3 at birth and moves to the adult position around L1 by
12 months of age.
• The sacrum is not fully ossified with intervertebral spaces still present, allowing
sacral epidural access.
• The dural sac ends at S3-4 in the neonate, moving to the adult level around S2 by
12 months of age. This is variable and it occasionally extends to the sacral hiatus
in infancy.
• The line joining the two superior iliac crests (the intercristal line) is through
L5 in children and L5-S1 in neonates.
• Hypotension, even with extensive block, is uncommon under 8 years of age
unless hypovolemia is present. (Related to reduced resting sympathetic tone).
10.5.1 Caudal Epidural Blockade
Caudal blocks are best used as a single shot block for procedures below the umbili-
cus in infants and small children. The inferior termination of the epidural space can
be approached via the sacral hiatus which is covered by skin and the sacrococcygeal
membrane (the continuation of the ligamentum flavum). There is usually a clear loss
of resistance or ‘pop’ as the membrane is penetrated. The relationship between vol-
ume of solution injected and extent of the block are reasonably predictable since
only cephalad spread is possible. Recent studies show the anatomical spread of
local anesthetic seen on ultrasound is less than the clinical block obtained, perhaps
suggesting the mechanism of epidural blockade is still not fully understood.
10.5.1.1 Technique
Placing the child slightly beyond the lateral position with the top leg over (rather
than strictly at 90°) stabilizes the pelvis and slightly stretches the skin, making it
easier to feel the sacral hiatus. This is located either at the apex of an inverted equi-
lateral triangle using the two posterior superior iliac crests (Fig. 10.2), or by placing
the tip of the index finger on the tip of the coccyx—the hiatus lies opposite the
second inter-phalangeal skin fold for those with average hand size. This distance
from coccyx to hiatus does not change from around 4–6 months of age and remains
the same for life. For this reason, the hiatus appears to be very cephalad in neonates
and infants, and failure usually relates to aiming too low. The apex of the hiatus
should be carefully located with an index finger and the needle inserted as cephalad
as possible within the apex—this is where the sacral canal is deepest and the needle
is less likely to impinge on the anterior wall of the canal. Reversing the needle bevel
so it faces anteriorly (away from the anesthetist) also reduces this possibility.
Tip
If you are having trouble finding the sacral hiatus, you are probably too low
on the back.
The sacrum is a flat structure in infants and children and the technique of nee-
dle puncture, flattening and advancing is inappropriate and may cause bloody tap
or dural puncture. The needle should be advanced at an angle of 45–60° to the skin
at the apex of the hiatus and not advanced once the sacrococcygeal membrane is
penetrated, as the dural sac may be very close, particularly in babies. Extreme
care is needed to prevent needle dislodgement during aspiration and slow
a Posterior b
superior
iliac spine
Sacral hiatus and
sacrococcygeal Dural sac
membrane ending at S3-4
in neonate
Caudal canal
Sacrococcygeal
membrane
Sacral
cornua
Fig. 10.2 Anatomy of the caudal block. Injection is through the sacral hiatus, located in the lower
sacrum between the two sacral cornua. (a) The sacral hiatus is at the apex of an equilateral triangle
formed by it and the two posterior superior iliac spines. (b) The caudal canal is largest cephalad
rather than caudally, and the needle is best inserted towards the top part of the triangular sacral
hiatus
injection. This is best done by stabilizing the needle with a hand resting along the
child’s back and either making a window between your thumb and index finger or
an underhand technique to allow for early visualization of subcutaneous sacral
swelling during injection, a warning of incorrect needle placement. Importantly,
there should be minimal resistance to injection. If injection is difficult it is invari-
ably an indication of incorrect placement. Many would advocate always using a
similar sized syringe to get a consistent feel for injection.
10.5.1.2 Anatomical Difficulties

The anatomy of the sacral hiatus and caudal canal is highly variable. Sacral variations
such as absent cornua, a bony septum or a presacral fat pad can make locating the
hiatus technically challenging. Difficulty in locating the sacral hiatus has been reported
in at least 11% of children under 7 years of age. Occasionally the sacral hiatus extends
one or two segments more cephalad than usual, making dural puncture more likely if
needle placement is in the most cephalad point of the long, slit-like hiatus. The correct
site for needle placement can be judged using the above two methods. Some advocate
ultrasound guidance to aid placement, particularly if there are concerns regarding the
anatomy, although routine use of this practice is not widespread.
Cutaneous anomalies including sacral angioma, hairtuft, nevus or dimples near the
puncture site may indicate abnormalities of the underlying spine. Midline sacral dim-
ples are found in 2–4% of children and are usually of no significance. Rarely, they are
associated with an occult spina bifida. Warning signs of an underlying abnormality
include multiple dimples, or high on the back (should be below caudal insertion site,
less than 2.5 cm above the anal verge), or more than 5 mm diameter, or associated
with an underlying lump or a deviated or double gluteal cleft. Ultrasound can be used
to clarify the underlying anatomy, or the block can be abandoned and a pediatric opin-
ion obtained after surgery. Finally, if the sacral hiatus doesn’t feel normal, it might be
safer to use different analgesia rather than persisting and causing problems.
10.5.1.3 Needles for Caudal Epidural Blocks

The short-bevel styletted regional or spinal needles have the lowest risk of actual and
theoretical complications. They give an obvious sensation or ‘pop’ passing through
the membrane, and venous and dural puncture is less likely than with standard nee-
dles. The 22G needle is suitable for all ages. Fine gauge needles introduce the risk of
unrecognized intra-osseous injection in neonates and infants. Intravenous needles
(bloody tap rate 10%) and cannulae (require advancement into epidural space and
may kink) still remain popular. Needles without stylettes introduce a small theoretical
risk of implantation dermoid which most practitioners do not regard as significant.
10.5.1.4 Local Anesthetic Agents and Doses for Caudal Block

The Armitage formula (Table 10.2) is simple and reliable for infants and pre-school
children, but the doses and volumes must be reduced for older children. Older chil-
dren are also more likely to be troubled by leg numbness or weakness, and hence
peripheral blocks are often a better alternative.
The duration of analgesia varies with the site of surgery and the patient’s age. For
example, 1–2 h after infant herniotomy, compared with around 5 h after a perineal
procedure in a pre-school aged child. Block regression is quickest in the most ceph-
alad dermatomes. Adding clonidine 1–2 μg/kg can prolong the block duration in
younger children by 50–100%.
10.5.1.5 Complications and Safety

Caudal analgesia is one of the commonest pediatric blocks and has a very low risk.
Several series demonstrate the risks of a major complication (seizure, cardiac arrest,
total spinal) are around 1–6 per 10,000. The incidence of death, persistent neurological
injury, epidural abscess and meningitis was zero. Motor block (inability to walk unaided)
is usually the most troubling side effect in school aged children. Urinary retention is rare
despite sacral blockade, as children invariably pass urine later once home.
Table 10.2 Relationship between volume and block height for caudals in children, based on the
classical paper: Armitage EN, Anaesthesia 1979;34: 396
Volume of local Height of caudal
anesthetic block Example surgical procedure
0.5 mL/kg Sacral block Circumcision
1 mL/kg (maximum Block to umbilicus Herniotomy, orchidopexy, orthopedic
20 mL) (T10) procedures
1.25 mL/kga Block to Upper abdomen (but care with mg/kg dose,
(maximum 20 mL) mid-thoracic upper block first to wear off)
Dilute local anesthetic solutions are used so the dose is below the maximum recommended dose
a
Caudal catheters may be threaded to thoracic levels with a reasonable degree of

certainty in infants under 9–12 months. The catheter entry site in the ‘nappy zone’
appears to be a theoretical rather than actual infection risk. Incomplete vertebral
ossification allows ultrasound to be used to confirm catheter tip position in most
infants up to this age. Ultrasound also reliably demonstrates epidural space expan-
sion with single shot blocks in children up to 2 years of age.
10.5.2 Sacral Epidural Blockade
The sacrum is only partly ossified and there are still discrete sacral vertebrae with
intervertebral spaces in pre-school children. The S1-2 interspace lies above, and the
S2-3 space below, the line joining the posterior superior iliac spines. An epidural
catheter can be placed for continuous analgesia as an alternative to either a caudal
or lumbar approach, particularly for urological or foot surgery. This is a technically
simple block to perform, with good landmarks and wide, easy spaces. Equipment,
technique and postoperative infusion rates are as for a lumbar approach. Initial
bolus doses are the same as for caudal blockade.
10.5.3 Lumbar Epidural Blockade
This technique is often used to provide pain relief after major urological and lower
limb surgery.
10.5.3.1 Technique
Pediatric epidural kits containing short (5 cm), 18 or 19g Tuohy needles are suitable
for all ages, although some centers use 22g needles for infants. Technical problems
including kinking, occlusion, leakage and failure are common with smaller diame-
ter catheters.
Precision is required as it is easy to stray from midline, the ligaments are soft and
the distance to the epidural space is short. A useful guide for epidural depth in the
lumbar area is around 10 mm in newborns and infants and around 1 mm per kg in
older children, reaching the adult range around 10–12 years of age. Loss of resis-
tance to saline is used as it usually gives a more definite end point. It is best to rely
on loss to resistance with limited injection of saline in order to minimize confusion
with dural puncture.
For children up to about 8 years, an initial bolus dose of 0.5 mL per kg reliably
blocks to T12 (watch dose in mg/kg). This is a conservative maximum bolus dose
for a well-sited effective epidural. Older children require smaller volumes, with a
maximum of 1 mL per segment blocked by 10–12 years. Analgesic duration is
about 90 min and the same volume but at half the strength should be repeated
before this time to maintain intra-operative blockade. With repeated top-ups
during long operations the total dose of ropivacaine/l-bupivacaine should not

exceed 2 mg/kg per 4 h. This rule is also useful for calculating maximum postop-
erative infusion rates.
10.5.4 Thoracic Epidural Blockade
Thoracic epidural block is a sub-specialist technique with real risk of cord damage
and is reserved for major thoraco-abdominal procedures. Although the needle angu-
lation is less than required in adults, penetration of the ligamentum flavum may be
quite subtle. For children up to around 8 years, an initial bolus dose of 0.2–0.3 mL/
kg gives an extensive thoracic block. Again, older children require less.
10.5.5 Postoperative Epidural Infusions
The absolute maximum infusion rate for epidurals in children is 0.5 mg/kg/h of
l-bupivacaine or ropivacaine. This dose must be halved in neonates and small
infants because of reduced clearance in these age groups. A requirement to run
maximum rate suggests that the catheter is sited at the wrong dermatome or the
technique is marginally successful and may need supplementation with alternative
analgesia. Typical infusion rates are shown in Table 10.3.
10.5.6 Spinal Anesthesia
Awake spinal anesthesia avoids the difficulties of managing the neonatal and infant
airway, but its use is limited by the technical difficulties of lumbar puncture and the
short duration of spinal anesthesia in infants (Table 10.4). It is used in many parts of
Table 10.3 Infusion rates in mL/k/h of local anesthetics in children and neonates
Child infusion dose Neonate infusion dose
Agent (mL/kg/h) (mL/kg/h)
l-bupivacaine or bupivacaine 0–0.3 0–0.15a
0.125%
Ropivacaine 0.2% 0–0.2 0–0.1
An alternative bupivacaine dose for neonates is half strength bupivacaine 0.0625% 0–0.3 mL/kg/h
a
Table 10.4 Advantages and disadvantages of spinal anesthesia in infants

Advantages Disadvantages
Avoids volatile anesthetic that may be Technically difficult (failure rate over 10%)
neurotoxic to developing brain
Avoids airway problems Short duration—less than 40–60 min
Reduces early postoperative apnea in More difficult to perform lumbar puncture and
former preterm infants surgery if infant larger and older than 6–12 months
the world as an alternative to general anesthesia for procedures in children of all

ages, often with sedation. In contemporary western practice, its main role is for
infant herniotomy in preterm infants. Although spinal anesthesia was thought to
avoid the risk of postoperative apnea, recent work suggests it does not reduce the
risk of apnea compared to general anesthesia. However the number of early apneas
in PACU and amount of stimulation needed to resolve apnea are less with spinal
than general anesthesia.
10.5.6.1 Technique
Trained assistance is essential to maintain the infant in an optimal flexed position
but with neck extension to prevent airway obstruction and desaturation. Either the
sitting or lateral decubitus position is used. A 22g or 25g short neonatal spinal nee-
dle is inserted in the midline below where the spinal cord ends at L3. Lumbar punc-
ture at the level of the intercristal line will always be below the spinal cord in infants.
The distance from the skin to the dural sac varies with weight: distance = 7 + (weight
in kg × 2) mm. Ultrasound gives a reliable estimate of depth and may help to reduce
the common tendency to go too deep.
Note
The spinal cord ends at L3 in neonates and infants and the intercristal line is
at L5-S1 in neonates.
During lumbar puncture, the needle can be inserted at L5-S1 or L4-5.
Some suggest L3-4 is too high, but others suggest it can be used—probably
best to avoid L3-4 unless not successful at lower levels.
The per-kilogram dose of local anesthetic is much larger in infants compared

with adults. Recent MRI studies in neonates and older children have shown that the
differences in CSF volume per kg in the spinal canal below T1 (relevant to LA dilu-
tion) and CSF turnover are much less than previously believed, so there are likely to
be pharmacodynamic or other factors to account for this requirement for high doses.
Spinal CSF volume correlates closely with weight in both preterm and term infants,
but duration is significantly shorter in preterm infants for unknown reasons. A dose
of 0.2 mL/kg (1 mg/kg) of hyperbaric or isobaric 0.5% bupivacaine is injected using
a 1 mL syringe without compensation for needle dead space. No attempt is made to
aspirate CSF at the beginning or end of injection. Infants have no spinal curvature
to restrict the spread of local anesthetic, and high block is the biggest concern. To
control local anesthetic spread, the infant is turned supine and slightly head up
immediately after injection. The block can be accidentally extended cephalad if the
legs and torso are lifted to attach the diathermy plate.
Motor block occurs within seconds as a sign of a successful spinal block. There
is minimal change in blood pressure with spinal blockade in infants—the low rest-
ing sympathetic tone of infants is not changed by the block. Even total spinal
anesthesia is associated with hemodynamic stability in neonates, although it always

causes apnea and sometimes bradycardia. The intravenous line can be placed in a
foot after onset of blockade to minimize distress and the BP cuff should also be
placed on a leg. The baby’s arms can be kept away from the operative field by clip-
ping the surgical drapes onto the operating table sheet near the baby’s axillae.
With minimal stimulation and deafferentation from the block, babies often sleep.
A dummy or soother with or without glucose may also help. Block duration is a
maximum of 45–60 min so the surgeon needs to be scrubbed and ready as the block
is inserted. All advantage of reducing early post-operative apnea is lost if supple-
mental sedatives are required. Spinal anesthesia compared with general anesthesia
does not appear to reduce the risk of apnea in the first 12 h in at-risk infants. For this
reason, post-operative apnea monitoring is still necessary after unsupplemented spi-
nal anesthesia in at risk former preterm infants.
Awake caudal anesthesia can be used as an alternative to spinal anesthesia, but
requires high doses of local anesthetic. With large, difficult herniotomies in pre-
term babies, the best surgical conditions may still be provided by general
anesthesia.
Keypoint
Infants need a larger weight-based dose of local anesthetic for spinal anesthe-
sia compared with adults, but their block is brief and does not cause
hypotension.
10.6 Upper Extremity Blocks
The techniques for upper limb peripheral nerve blocks used in pediatrics do not
differ significantly from those in adults. Ultrasound has improved the confi-
dence and safety in performing brachial plexus blocks in children. Complications
include hematoma, intravascular injection, nerve injury and pneumothorax.
Ultrasound should always be used when performing brachial plexus blocks to
reduce these risks. The interscalene approach is not commonly used due to lim-
ited indications and the increased incidence of complications in pediatric
patients. The supra and infraclavicular approaches can both be safety performed
by those experienced with ultrasound guided blocks. The supraclavicular
approach is preferred as the brachial plexus is generally more superficial and
easily accessible. Both approaches can be used for most procedures on the arm
below the mid humeral level. The axillary approach can be safely performed as
both a landmark and ultrasound guided technique and can be used for proce-
dures of the forearm and hand. Recommended local anesthetic doses of 0.2%
ropivacaine or 0.25% bupivacaine are 0.2–0.4 mL/kg.
10.7 Blocks of the Anterior Abdominal Wall
These blocks provide analgesia to the anterior abdominal wall, muscles and
parietal peritoneum but do not block visceral (peritoneal) structures. They are
useful alternatives to caudal or epidural blocks, particularly for minor day case
procedures such as inguinal and umbilical hernia repair. Numerous landmark-
based blocks are described although ultrasound techniques are becoming the
mainstay.
10.7.1 Iliohypogastric and Ilioinguinal Nerve Block
This is a simple and generally effective somatic block, providing analgesia for her-
niotomy and orchidopexy. Separate scrotal infiltration is also required for orchido-
pexy. The incision for pediatric herniotomy and orchidopexy is higher and more
medial than for adult herniorrhaphy, and lies in the iliohypogastric nerve distribu-
tion. The ilioinguinal is incidentally blocked but this is not required to provide anal-
gesia. About 50% of children having unilateral herniotomy require no further
postoperative analgesia following successful iliohypogastric nerve block. Both cau-
dal block and wound infiltration at the end of surgery are equally effective, but the
latter does not provide intraoperative analgesia.
This block was traditionally carried out using short-beveled needles and a loss of
resistance technique, introducing the risk of intraperitoneal injection.
Ultrasound-guided techniques have been shown to provide better quality
intra and post-operative analgesia with smaller volumes of local anesthetic. A
linear transducer is placed medial to and against the anterior superior iliac
spine (ASIS), oriented on a line joining the ASIS with the umbilicus. The three
muscle layers are identified—external oblique, internal oblique and transver-
sus abdominis. The nerves are often but not always seen as hypoechoic ovals in
the plane between the internal oblique and transversus abdominus muscles. A
short-beveled needle is advanced in plane from medial to lateral. Two ‘pops’
are often felt passing through the external and then internal oblique aponeuro-
sis. Following aspiration, an initial 1–2 mL bolus is injected, which should be
easy to inject and be seen to spread along the plane between the internal oblique
and transversus abdominus muscles. If the local anesthetic appears to be intra-
muscular the needle should be advanced or withdrawn 1–2 mm and another
small bolus injected until spread along the plane is seen. This is repeated until
the correct needle position is achieved. Total dose can be reduced to 0.1–
0.2 mL/kg.
Inadvertent femoral nerve block occurs in up to 10% of patients secondary to
diffusion of solution when larger volumes are injected. Intraperitoneal injection and
bowel injury are possible (and described) however this risk is reduced with real time
ultrasound guidance (Fig. 10.3).
a b
Ultrasound
LATERAL MEDIAL
transducer
Anterior Ext oblique
superior ASIS Int oblique
iliac spine Transversus
Iliohypogastric n. abdominus
Iliohypogastric &
Inguinal ilioinguinal nn Bowel
ligament Ilioinguinal n.
Fig. 10.3 (a) Schematic of Ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves. The ultrasound transducer is
positioned just medial to the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS), parallel and below a line between
the ASIS and the umbilicus. (b) Transverse plane at the level of the transducer showing abdominal
wall muscles and location of Ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves below the internal oblique and
above the transversus abdominus muscle, below which is the peritoneal and bowel. The external
oblique often appears as a hyperechoic aponeurotic layer during ultrasound
10.7.2 Rectus Sheath Block
This simple block provides effective pain relief for umbilical or epigastric hernia
repair and other surgical incisions of the midline abdominal wall. Direct infiltration
of local anesthetic can obliterate landmarks and make surgery difficult.
The anterior cutaneous branches of the ninth, tenth and eleventh thoracic nerves
can be blocked distally in the space between anterior rectus sheath and rectus abdo-
minus muscle where they pass before exiting to supply sensation to the anterior
abdominal wall. Spread is limited in this space by three fibrous intersections
between the sheath and muscle and medially by the linea alba, but only a limited
spread is required. The injection point is at the apex of the bulge of rectus abdomi-
nus, slightly cephalad to the hernia at right angles to the skin using a 22G short-
bevel needle. A small volume is also injected subcutaneously to cover the anatomical
variant of subcutaneous passage of the nerves. A definite pop is felt as the needle
passes through the anterior rectus sheath and a volume of 0.2 mL/kg is injected on
both sides. The anterior sheath is a clear landmark making it difficult to inadver-
tently penetrate into the abdominal cavity.
An alternative technique aims to block the thoracic nerves (T7-T11) where they
run posterior to the rectus abdominus muscle just anterior to the posterior sheath.
Here spread is not limited by the fibrous intersections. This technique appears to be
more effective but there is poor correlation between child size and depth to the
space, leading to an increased risk of penetrating the peritoneal cavity. This block
should only be performed using real time ultrasound. A linear ultrasound probe is
placed lateral to the umbilicus and the rectus abdominus muscle is identified. Using
an in-plane technique a 22G short bevel needle is advanced in a lateral to medial
direction to deposit local in a potential space between the rectus abdominus muscle
and its posterior sheath. Injection between the two layers of the posterior rectus
sheath will result in block failure. This is an effective technique with children
requiring no additional analgesia in the perioperative period. 0.2–0.3 mL/kg is ade-

quate to provide excellent analgesia for umbilical hernia repair.
10.7.3 Transversus Abdominus Plane (TAP) Block
The TAP block provides analgesia to the anterior abdominal wall from T8 to L1. The
nerves lie in the plane between the internal oblique and transversus abdominus mus-
cles. TAP block has been used for laparoscopic procedures to provide analgesia for
port placement sites as well as for larger abdominal incisions. Few studies have looked
at the efficacy and safety of TAP blocks in children and its use among pediatric anes-
thetists remains limited. Landmark and ultrasound-based techniques are the same as
those used in adult practice. The dose is 0.2–0.4 mL/kg to a maximum of 20 mL.
10.8 Dorsal Penile Nerve Block (DPNB)
The dorsal nerve of the penis is the terminal branch of the pudendal nerve (S2-4).
Dorsal nerve block is used for circumcision, hypospadias repair and other penile
procedures. Both landmark and ultrasound guided techniques are commonly used.
A large randomized controlled trial in children comparing the effectiveness of the
ultrasound-guided and landmark-based dorsal nerve block found no differences in
pain scores or analgesia requirements after circumcision. No adverse events were
noted however ultrasound guidance may reduce the risk of deep puncture and dam-
age to the neurovascular bundle within Buck’s fascia.
10.8.1 Landmark-Based Technique
The block is performed in the sub-space between the pubic symphysis and corpora
cavernosa (Fig. 10.4a). At this level, the left and right dorsal nerves, veins and arter-
ies are enclosed within Buck’s fascia, on top of the corpora cavernosa and shaft of
the penis. Superficial to Bucks fascia is the pear-shaped sub-pubic space, divided by
the midline suspensory ligament of the penis (Fig. 10.4b). Local anesthetic is
injected into this space, which is deep to the membranous layer of the superficial
fascia (Scarpas fascia). By injecting into this space rather than deeper (through
Buck’s fascia), damage to the accompanying vessels and penile ischemia is avoided.
The base of the penis is retracted caudally and a short-bevel needle inserted in
the midline a few millimeters cephalad of the junction between the penile shaft and
abdominal wall. The needle is gently touched onto the pubic bone for depth orienta-
tion and then redirected vertically and to one side by 10–20° and advanced until it
pops through Scarpa’s fascia. This is often surprisingly deep. There should be no
resistance to injection. After injection, it is withdrawn to just under the skin and
redirected in the mirror image to the other side. l-bupivacaine 0.5% is used with a
volume for each side of 1 mL + an extra 0.1 mL/kg—a total of 2 mL for neonates,
10 mL for adults. Adrenaline (epinephrine)-containing solutions must not be used.
This relatively large volume ensures block of the nerves that supply the ventral side
a b
Membranous Dorsal
layer of nerve
superficial Skin
fascia
Membranous Suspensory
layer of ligament of
superficial the penis
fascia
Dorsal nerve Arteries & vv
Corpus
Buck’s fascia cavernosum
Symphysis
pubis Urethra
Fig. 10.4 Landmark-based technique for dorsal nerve block of penis. (a) Sagittal section through
pelvis and penis showing needle inserted through membranous layer of superficial fascia within
potential space between it and buck’s fascia of penis. (b) Cross section of base of penis (through
dotted line in a) showing needle directed first one side and then the other of the midline suspensory
ligament, deep to the superficial fascia. Local anesthetic diffuses through Buck’s fascia to block
dorsal nerves. Based on Brown et al., Anaesth Intens Care 1989;17: 34–8
of the foreskin. These ventral branches can also be blocked with a subcutaneous
injection of local on either side of the midline at the peno-scrotal junction.
10.8.2 Ultrasound-Guided Technique
In the technique described by Sandeman, the ultrasound probe is positioned to give a

sagittal view of the penile shaft and subpubic space. The needle is inserted on each side
of the into the triangular sub pubic space and local anesthetic injected until either the
space is filled or the calculated volume (as above) injected. The probe is rotated into the
transverse plane to confirm bilateral spread. An alternative approach is described using
a transverse ultrasound position as described above. Local anesthetic is injected into
each side of the subpubic space, using either an in plane or out of plane approach. The
description of both techniques includes a separate injection of local anesthetic to block
the ventral branches, as described with the landmark-based technique.
10.9 Lower Extremity Blocks
Many of these blocks used in children are the same as used in adults, and detailed
descriptions will not be given here.
10.9.1 Fascia Iliaca Block
This reliably blocks the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves where they run
under the fascia iliaca. It is commonly used for burn graft donor sites, femoral shaft
fracture or osteotomy, quadriceps muscle biopsy and surgery to the patella, distal
femur and anterior part of the knee. It is a volume-block and relies on local anesthetic
spreading in the plane between the fascia iliaca and iliacus (iliopsoas) muscle.
Performing this block with ultrasound increases ease, reliability, and safety by
allowing visualization of the needle path, fascial planes and local anesthetic spread. A
linear probe is placed transversely, immediately below the inguinal crease. The femo-
ral artery is identified then the transducer is moved laterally to identify the triangular
looking femoral nerve, the fascia lata, fascia iliaca and the iliopsoas muscle. A short-
beveled needle is used and the block can be performed with an in plane or out of plane
approach. Two fascial ‘pops’ are often felt as the needle tip passes though the fascia
lata then iliaca. This brings the needle tip under the fascia iliaca and lateral to the
femoral nerve. On injecting the local anesthetic, the fascia iliaca should be seen to
separate from the iliopsoas muscle with local spreading both medially towards the
femoral nerve and laterally to block the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. If above the
fascia iliaca or in the iliopsoas muscle the needle will have to be adjusted before fur-
ther injection. A volume of 0.5 mL/kg is required to a maximum of 30 mL. A catheter
can be reliably passed into the space for prolonged postoperative analgesia, infusing
at 0.2 mL/kg/h. Leakage is common but does not usually impair efficacy.
10.9.2 Femoral Nerve Block
Femoral nerve block can be safely performed as a landmark-based technique, how-

ever real-time in plane or out of plane ultrasound has become the new standard. The
ultrasound-guided technique is similar to the fascia iliaca technique described
above, but smaller volumes of local anesthetic (0.2–0.3 mL/kg) can be placed
around the triangular femoral nerve. Block duration is around 6 h. Parents and chil-
dren should be warned that weight bearing activities must be avoided until resolu-
tion of the blockade.
10.9.3 Saphenous (Adductor Canal) Block
The saphenous nerve is a purely sensory terminal branch of the femoral nerve which
innervates the anteromedial aspects of the lower leg from the distal thigh to foot. This
block is used to provide analgesia without causing quadriceps weakness for knee and
tibia surgery, and in combination with a sciatic nerve block for major foot surgery to
cover the medial aspect of the ankle and foot. It is commonly blocked using an ultra-
sound-guided technique in the mid-thigh, where it runs in the adductor canal underneath
the sartorius muscle, directly lateral to the superficial femoral artery and vein. The tech-
nique is the same as in adult practice and 0.1–0.2 mL/kg of local anesthetic is used.
10.9.4 Sciatic Nerve Block
Landmark and ultrasound approaches at both the gluteal and popliteal areas are
similar to adult techniques and provide analgesia to all superficial and deep struc-
tures below the knee, apart from the medial aspect of the calf and foot. This block is
useful as an alternative to epidural analgesia in major foot surgery (talipes, tarsal

osteotomy), combined with femoral or saphenous nerve block if surgery involves
the medial side of the foot. The volume required is 0.3–0.5 mL/kg to a maximum of
20 mL.
10.10 Peripheral Nerve and Wound Catheters
Peripheral catheters are popular in pediatric anesthesia to provide prolonged anal-

gesia for surgery associated with moderate to severe postoperative pain. They are
used primarily for major limb surgery but can also be used for truncal blocks or as
wound catheters. Catheters offer a longer duration of analgesia over single shot
blocks, improving postoperative pain management and facilitating early rehabilita-
tion. They are also used for various chronic pain states. Peripheral catheter tech-
niques are considered safer than neuraxial techniques as the sequelae from
complications such as bleeding and infection are likely to be less severe. Minor
complications such as catheter dislodgement, occlusion and leakage are common. A
prospective study of over 2000 peripheral nerve block catheters in children by the
PRAN group showed a complication rate 10.7–13.5%, similar to adult practice.
There were no reports of persistent neurological problems, serious infection or local
anesthetic systemic toxicity. Catheter tip position should be confirmed with ultra-
sound and generally no more than 2–3 cm of catheter needs to inserted beyond the
tip. Tunneling the catheter helps to minimize the risk of accidental dislodgement
and application of tissue glue at the puncture site reduces leakage under the dress-
ing. The catheter should be flushed once it has been tunneled and secured as cathe-
ters can easily become kinked. Recommended rates using ropivacaine 0.2% (2 mg/
mL) or levobupivacaine 0.125% (1.25 mg/mL) are 0.1–0.2 mL/kg/h to a maximum
of 5 mL/h.
Review Questions
1. Describe anatomy and technique to perform caudal epidural block for postopera-
tive pain relief for circumcision in a 3 year old. What volume and concentration
of agents will be required?
Why isn’t a fluid load required before performing the block?
2. What factors need to be considered when running local anesthetic infusions in
neonates?
3. What are the local anesthetic options to provide pain relief after bilateral ingui-
nal hernia repair in a 2 year old? What are the risks and benefits of each
technique?
4. You are about to perform a caudal block for a 8 month old baby and you notice
a midline indentation in the skin in the sacral region. How will you decide if it is
still safe to proceed with the caudal?
5. You plan to perform a spinal block in 3 month old baby. What level will you
insert the needle? What local anesthetic will you use, and how much will you
inject? How long is this block likely to last? If the baby becomes apneic, what
might this indicate?
Further Reading
Davidson A, et al. Apnea after awake regional and general anesthesia in infants. The general anes-
thesia compared to spinal anesthesia study—comparing apnea and neurodevelopmental out-
comes, a RCT. Anesthesiology. 2015;123:38–54.
Frawley G, Ingelmo P. Spinal anaesthesia in the neonate. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol.
2010;24:337–51. A detailed description of anatomy and technique of spinal anesthesia from
the Royal Children’s Hospital in Melbourne.
Ingelmo P, et al. The optimum initial pediatric epidural bolus: a comparison of four local anesthetic
solutions. Pediatr Anesth. 2007;17:1166–75.
Ivani G, Mossetti V. Continuous central and perineural infusions for postoperative pain control in
children. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2010;23:637–42.
Johr M. Regional anesthesia in neonates, infants and children. An educational review. Eur J
Anesthesiol. 2015;32:1–9.
Wiegele M et al. Caudal epidural blocks in paediatric patients. BJA. 2019;122:509–17.
Lees D, et al. A review of the surface and internal anatomy of the caudal canal in children. Pediatr
Anesth. 2014;24:799–805.
Llewellyn N, Moriarty A. The national pediatric epidural audit. Pediatr Anesth. 2007;17:520–33.
Lonnqvist PA. Adjuncts should always be used in pediatric regional anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth.
2015;25:100–6.
Lundbald M, Lonnqvist P. Adjunct analgesic drugs to local anesthetics for neuraxial blocks in
Marhofer P. Regional blocks carried out during general anesthesia: myths and facts. Curr Opin
Anesthesiol. 2017;30:621–6. A review article showing in adults and children, blocks performed
under anesthesia are as safe or safer than awake.
Mossetti B, Ivani G. Controversial issues in pediatric regional anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth.
2012;22:109–14. Discussion of test doses.
Rochette A, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid volume in neonates undergoing spinal anaesthesia: a descrip-
tive magnetic resonance imaging study. Br J Anaesth. 2016;117:214–9.
Sandeman DJ, et al. Ultrasound guided dorsal penile nerve block in children. Anesth Intens Care.
2007;35:266–9.
Suresh S, Sawardekar A, Shah R. Ultrasound for regional anesthesia in children. Anesthesiol Clin.
2014;32:263–9.
Teunkens A, Van de Velde M, et al. Dorsal penile nerve block for circumcision in pediatric patients:
a prospective, observer-blinded, randomized controlled clinical trial for the comparison of
ultrasound-guided vs landmark technique. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:703–9.
Tsui BCH, Suresh S. Ultrasound Imaging for regional anesthesia in infants, children and adoles-
cents. Anesthesiology. 2010;112:473–92 and 719–28.
Walker BJ, et al. Complications in pediatric regional anesthesia; an analysis of more than 100,000
blocks from the pediatric regional anesthesia network. Anesthesiology. 2018;129:721–32. A
large prospective study from the multicenter PRAN group.
Visoiu M. Paediatric regional anaesthesia: a current perspective. Curr Opin Anesthesiol.
2015;28:577–82.
Willschke H, et al. Current trends in paediatric regional anaesthesia. Anaesthesia. 2010;65(Suppl
1):97–104.
Zywicke HA, Rozzelle CJ. Sacral dimples. Pediatr Rev. 2011;32:109–13.
Respiratory Illnesses and Their Influence
on Anesthesia in Children 11
Britta von Ungern-Sternberg and David Sommerfield
Respiratory disease is a frequent co-morbidity in children, and is the commonest

reason for hospital admission in children aged 4 years and younger. Illnesses of
the upper airway and respiratory tract are often the cause of adverse events during
pediatric anesthesia. Approximately two thirds of critical incidents and one third
of cardiac arrests in pediatric anesthesia have a respiratory cause. Whilst arrests
due to a cardiovascular problem occur mainly in children with known cardiac
disease, critical incidents or cardiac arrests with an underlying respiratory cause
are seen in children who were previously healthy. This is particularly important in
younger children since the risk for respiratory events decreases by about 10% for
each year older the child becomes. Many of the risk factors for respiratory events
are associated with airway inflammation and subsequent hyper-reactivity of the
airway and bronchi, such as asthma, recent upper respiratory tract infection
(URTI) or passive smoke exposure. These risk factors are common in the pediatric
population and easily detectable by thorough history taking. They are cumulative
and the risk of adverse events correlates with the number of risk factors better than
with tests of airway inflammation such as blood markers of allergy or exhaled
nitric oxide.
B. von Ungern-Sternberg (*)

Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
e-mail: Britta.Regli-VonUngern@health.wa.gov.au
D. Sommerfield
e-mail: David.Sommerfield@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_11
242 B. von Ungern-Sternberg and D. Sommerfield
Table 11.1 Risk factors for respiratory events during anesthesia

Key points from history associated with risk of respiratory events during anesthesia
Young age
History of prematurity, chronic lung diseases including asthma or cystic fibrosis
Recent upper respiratory tract infection
Symptoms associated with bronchial hyper-reactivity: wheeze, nocturnal cough, purulent nasal
discharge, fever
Symptoms of sleep disordered breathing: snoring, apnea, mouth breathing
Personal or family history (>1 first degree relative) of atopy (asthma, eczema, hay fever)
Exposure to passive (parental) smoking
11.1 Bronchial Hyper-Reactivity
Recent upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), passive smoke exposure, chronic
lung diseases such as asthma or cystic fibrosis, and atopy are associated with bron-
chial hyper-reactivity and increased airway reflexes (an ‘irritable’ airway). Mechanical
stimuli during procedures such as laryngoscopy, intubation and suctioning of the air-
way can lead to bronchospasm or laryngospasm, particularly in those with increased
reactivity. These reflex responses are mainly under vagal control and are more active in
younger children. Thus, induction and extubation are the commonest periods for these
problems to occur. This section highlights how to identify and manage at risk children.
Atopy, a general tendency to allergic hypersensitivity, may be present in children
with eczema, hay fever, asthma or environmental allergies. Eczema, and to a lesser
extent hay fever, are early risk factors for development of recurrent wheeze and
asthma. These conditions or even a family history of them, is associated with a
higher risk of respiratory events during anesthesia. A history of eczema is of impor-
tance in the younger child as symptoms of bronchial hyper-reactivity might not yet
have become apparent. Additionally, about 10–15% of parents report respiratory
symptoms such as nocturnal cough, wheezing, or wheezing with exercise even
when asthma has not been diagnosed. These symptoms usually reflect underlying
bronchial hyper-reactivity and increased risk (Table 11.1).
11.2 Asthma
For unknown reasons, the incidence of both allergy and asthma have increased in
recent decades, with the prevalence of asthma around 20% in western societies. The
rise appears to be levelling off.
11.2.1 Background
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airway associated with variable

airflow obstruction and airway re-modelling. Wheezing is the main symptom, but
there is underlying airway inflammation and increased airway reactivity. Children
without a history of allergy tend to outgrow their asthma, making asthma more
11 Respiratory Illnesses and Their Influence on Anesthesia in Children 243
Table 11.2 Commonly used medications for treatment of asthma in children

Example
Group Agent product Route Role
Beta-2 agonists:
– Short Salbutamol Ventolin Inhal/ Treatment of bronchospasm
acting Neb Pre-op optimization
– Long Salmeterol Serevent
acting
Inhaled steroids Fluticasone Flixotide Inhal Treatment of airway inflammation
Budesonide Pulmicort Prevention of bronchospasm
Leukotriene Montelukast Singulair Oral Anti-inflammatory and b/dilator
modifiers effects. Reduce frequency
exacerbations
Cromolyns Cromolyn, Intal, Tilade Inhal Prevention of bronchospasm
Nedocromil
Prednisolone Oral/ Rescue therapy for acute
IV exacerbation
common in children than adults. Of children aged 3 years who wheeze, 60% will
stop wheezing by school age, and even more by adolescence.
Treatment is directed at the airway inflammation and resulting bronchospasm
(Table 11.2). All children should use metered dose inhalers (MDI) via a spacer
device and facemask, rather than the inhaler directly. The spacer is a tubular con-
tainer placed between the inhaler and mask. The inhaler dose mixes with air in the
spacer, and is then inhaled over several breaths. The combination of an MDI with a
spacer gives better deposition of the inhaled drug into the bronchioles compared to
a nebulizer. If no spacer is available, a nebulizer is better than an MDI with no
spacer. Although the dose in the nebulizer bowl is much larger than an MDI dose,
only a tiny proportion of the nebulizer dose is inhaled, and most is lost to the atmo-
sphere. Nebulizers are also noisy and may frighten young children.
Oral steroids are only used in short courses to control an acute flare in symptoms,
as long-term systemic steroids affect growth. Most children have mild asthma that
is well controlled and characterized by infrequent episodes, perhaps only related to
URTIs in the winter months. Children particularly at risk are those with recent hos-
pital admissions, escalating therapy or use of oral steroids, and those who have had
episodes of sudden, severe asthma requiring intensive care.
Note
Although asthma causes wheezing, the underlying chronic airway inflamma-
tion is the focus for long-term treatment. This is why bronchospasm may
occur from a stimulus that would not normally cause bronchospasm.
11.2.2 Anesthesia and Asthma
Airway instrumentation during anesthesia is a potent stimulus that can trigger bron-
chospasm. Perioperative management of asthmatic children aims to optimize
asthma treatment and minimize the effects of increased airway reactivity. Although
asthmatic children have an increased risk of respiratory events, the risk of broncho-
spasm and morbidity is low in the child with stable asthma.
Keypoint
Audible wheeze at the time of preoperative assessment indicates a high risk of
intraoperative respiratory adverse events. The child should be wheeze-free at
induction.
11.2.2.1 Preoperative Treatment for Asthmatic Patients

Children with stable asthma should continue their regular medications. Children
who have had recent symptoms or are undergoing tonsillectomy benefit from preop-
erative salbutamol. Children who are wheezing at the time of the preoperative
assessment are at high risk for respiratory complications and should therefore
always be given inhaled salbutamol preoperatively. If the child’s symptoms are
poorly controlled, a short course of oral steroids could be discussed with the child’s
physician. Steroids need to be given at least 24 h before surgery because their effect
on airway reactivity begins after 6–8 h and is maximal after 12–36 h. Children tak-
ing long-term inhaled steroids do not have suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary
axis and do not need perioperative steroid supplementation, unlike the rare child
taking long-term oral steroids.
Note
An inhaler used with a spacer is the best way to give salbutamol to young
children. If this combination is not available, use a nebulizer. The nebulizer
dose for salbutamol in children is 0.05 mg/kg (minimum 1.25 mg, maximum
2.5 mg) in 3 mL saline.
11.2.2.2 Intraoperative Management of Asthmatic Children

Bronchospasm can be avoided by choosing appropriate anesthetic techniques
(Table 11.3). It is most likely to occur with airway manipulation such as the inser-
tion or removal of an airway device, and particularly an endotracheal tube. A bolus
dose of propofol 1–3 mg/kg suppresses airway reflexes and should be considered in
the absence of contraindications. Although there is little difference between the
effect of sevoflurane and isoflurane on the airway, desflurane increases airway resis-
tance in all children and should be avoided. IV induction with propofol is also pro-
tective compared with an inhalational induction with sevoflurane—although
inhalational agents are bronchodilators, airway obstruction and other respiratory
events are common during the slower induction with them. Agents that may blunt
reflex bronchoconstriction or cause bronchodilation such as clonidine, ketamine or
propofol are preferred. Atracurium and morphine and are associated with histamine
release, although usually only cutaneous histamine release occurs in children and
Table 11.3 List of factors during anesthesia that may contribute to incidence of bronchospasm in
children with bronchial hyper-reactivity
Less likely to trigger More likely to trigger
Preoperative inhaled salbutamol
α2 agonists, clonidine Inhalational induction with sevoflurane
IV induction with propofol
Ketamine Desflurane
Fentanyl Morphine
Maintenance with Propofol, sevoflurane or isoflurane Atracurium and neostigmine
Face mask or LMA Endotracheal intubation
Deep removal of airway device Awake removal of airway device
Specialist pediatric anesthetist
these drugs are often used in asthmatic children. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory

drugs can worsen bronchospasm by increasing leukotrienes. However apart from
children with nasal polyps or severe, uncontrolled asthma, the risk from NSAIDs is
low (2% compared to 7% in adults) and generally easily treated.
Tip
A bolus of propofol 1–3 mg/kg reduces the risk of airway and respiratory
events during insertion or deep removal of any airway device.
Tip
Deepening anesthesia is an important step because infants and young children
often cough, breath hold, develop rigidity of the chest and abdominal muscles
and become very difficult to ventilate as anesthesia is lightened. This is often
confused with severe bronchospasm.
11.2.2.3 Treatment of Bronchospasm During Anesthesia

As soon as a bronchospasm is suspected, 100% oxygen is given and anesthesia
deepened. Deepening anesthesia is an important step because infants and young
children often cough, breath hold, and develop rigidity of the chest and abdominal
muscles as anesthesia is lightened. Repeated doses of salbutamol are given until
bronchospasm is relieved. Less than 3% of aerosolized drug given through a supra-
glottic airway or endotracheal tube reaches the patient. Many factors reduce the
delivery of the drug, and the disease itself will favor delivery to areas of the lung that
are already better ventilated. Only very limited drug delivery is achieved with ‘home
made’ devices such as a 50 mL syringe delivering into the angle piece or trachea,
and the devices are not without risk. The most effective method during anesthesia is
to use an MDIs with an inline spacer (Fig. 11.1). Second best is directly connecting
the outlet of the aerosol canister to the airway device. If repeated doses of salbuta-
mol from an MDI are insufficient, then give IV salbutamol 10–15 μg/kg IV bolus
over 10 min and consider infusion 1–5 μg/kg/min. In severe resistant cases
Fig. 11.1 An inline

inhaler as close as possible
to the ETT or LMA is the Salbutamol
best method to deliver MDI
salbutamol into the
anesthetic circuit
Inline spacer
ketamine, magnesium sulfate (40 mg/kg/IV over 20 min) and adrenaline (epineph-
rine) (0.01 mg/kg IV) can be considered. Neuromuscular blockade may also help.
Consider that suctioning of airway secretions via the ETT is a powerful stimulus
that may worsen bronchoconstriction. Ventilation with slow breaths, a long expira-
tory time and plateau pressures less than 30 cm–35 cmH2O all aim to allow full
expiration and reduce air trapping. Flow-time loops can be monitored to ensure
expiratory flow has finished and avoid raising intrinsic PEEP.
11.3 Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (URTI)
Over 200 viruses are associated with the common cold, or URTI, and there is often
superimposed bacterial infection. Rhinoviruses account for about 80% of URTIs
and have a predilection for the nasal mucosa and upper respiratory tract. Respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) can cause cold-like symptoms but causes a more severe infec-
tion particularly affecting the bronchi. The viral infections causing URTIs also
cause airway inflammation, increased secretions and hyper-reactivity of the airway
and bronchi, much like asthma. It can be difficult to decide whether or not to pro-
ceed with elective surgery in a child with a recent URTI. Between a third and a half
of children presenting for surgery have had an URTI in the preceding 6 weeks.
Preschool-aged children undergoing ENT surgery have an average of six to eight
URTIs per year, potentially leaving only a few weeks of the year when the child is
well and not recently had an URTI.
Note
Although called upper respiratory tract infections, the lower respiratory tract
is often affected, causing bronchial hyper-reactivity and a susceptibility to
atelectasis.
11.3.1 Risks of Anesthesia After a Recent URTI
The risk of adverse respiratory events are two to three times more likely with a cur-
rent or recent URTI. Increased reactivity of the airway can persist for 6 weeks or
longer, well beyond clinical symptoms. The risk for adverse events is highest 2
weeks after an URTI. During the acute URTI itself, the incidence is increased com-
pared to healthy children but is still less than the risk 2 weeks after the URTI. By 4
weeks, the risk for respiratory adverse events is similar to, or even lower, than in
healthy children—probably due to endogenous mechanisms counteracting the
hyper-reactivity.
A child with an URTI or recent URTI is prone to laryngospasm, coughing and
bronchospasm and tends to desaturate more rapidly during disconnection for posi-
tioning or transfer (Table 11.4). They often need oxygen for an hour or two postop-
eratively and occasionally develop a chesty cough that was not present before
surgery. Factors affecting the risk from URTI are listed in Table 11.5.
Table 11.4 List of risks and reasons to proceed with anesthesia despite recent URTI in a child
Possible risks Reasons to proceed
Risk of laryngospasm and bronchospasm Risk does not reduce for 2–3 weeks
Irritable airway with coughing and URTIs frequent so difficult to find URTI free
desaturation time
Possibly increased risk chest infection Family disruption and inconvenience
Brief oxygen dependency postoperatively Most airway problems minor and easily
managed
Maintain efficiency of theatre utilization
Table 11.5 Risk factors for developing perioperative adverse respiratory event or complications
from URTI
Factor Clinical feature
Child Infant or young child
Former preterm baby
Pre-existing cardiac or respiratory disease
Comorbidities, ASA 3
Clinical signs:
• Green or yellow nasal secretions
• Productive, moist cough
• Wheezing or crepitations
• Fever >38°
• Headache; irritability; not feeding
Lethargic or generally unwell
Passive smoking
Anesthesia Intubation required
Surgery Major elective surgery with post-op stress response
Painful wound likely to inhibit coughing
Surgery involving airway
Logistics Limited expertise in team managing child with URTI or of this age
Hospital facilities (private day hospital vs tertiary center
11.3.2 Reasons to Proceed Despite a Recent URTI
There are several practical reasons to proceed with anesthesia in a child who has
had a recent URTI. Airway incidents can occur in children with or without an
URTI and any anesthetist caring for children should be able to manage these
incidents. Although there is an increased risk, with careful management children
can undergo procedures safely. Also, URTIs are frequent and it may be difficult
to arrange theatre time when the child is well. Finally, cancellation creates practi-
cal problems for the family and health service. Parents may have travelled from
far away, arranged time off work, and arranged child care for siblings. Time in a
busy operating theatre may be wasted. Clearly the child’s safety is paramount
and these various practical problems can be considered, but placed into context
(Table 11.4).
11.3.3 Decision on Whether to Proceed or Cancel
Anesthetizing a child with a recent URTI is sometimes unavoidable. There are

however, children in whom the likelihood of problems is so high that most anes-
thetists would not proceed with elective surgery. Factors to help identify these
children are listed in Table 11.5. In children with symptoms of a lower respira-
tory tract infection (productive moist cough, crackles or wheeze on auscultation
or positive chest-x ray findings) or with a fever, elective surgery should be post-
poned for approximately 3–4 weeks. These children are usually off-color and
look ill. Parents are helpful in determining the child’s condition, as they are
usually able to clarify the severity of symptoms and report if the child is getting
better or worse. In chronically ill children with recurrent (aspiration) pneumonia
it can be very difficult to assess whether the child is fit for surgery or not. Often
a decision can be made based on the parent’s assessment that the child is as well
as possible. If proceeding, children should be observed longer post operatively or
kept overnight and should be advised to seek review early if respiratory symp-
toms develop.
11.3.4 Management of Anesthesia in a Child with Recent URTI
If the risk-benefit ratio suggests proceeding with anesthesia, management is similar

to that of a child with asthma. IV induction and avoiding intubation if possible are
worthwhile steps. It is important to minimize instrumentation of the airway, ensure
adequate depth during instrumentation and to maintain end-expiratory lung volume
with recruitment maneuvers and PEEP to reduce atelectasis. Maintaining CPAP for
a short time after extubation will also prevent atelectasis. Positioning the patient on
their side with 30° head up is also useful to help maintain the airway open and reduce
basal atelectasis. Removal of any airway device under deep anesthesia should be
considered, or otherwise with the child well awake. However, as anesthesia lightens
the irritable airway is likely to result in a combination of coughing, breath-holding,

chest and abdominal muscle rigidity and desaturation, which is often mistaken as
bronchospasm.
Tip
Steps to manage coughing and desaturation during anesthesia or at
extubation:
• Deepen anesthesia with propofol or volatile agent

• Confirm airway remains patent with capnography. Ventilate or assist inspi-
ration holding CPAP with 80–100% O2
• If desaturation, include a recruitment maneuver to reverse atelectasis. Give
5–10 slow breaths held for 5–10 s up to 35–40 cmH2O, then restart ventila-
tion or allow spontaneous breathing with PEEP or CPAP.
• Slow emergence with propofol or clonidine, and consider deep extubation
if appropriate
11.4 Bronchiolitis
Bronchiolitis is a lower respiratory tract infection with coryza, cough, respiratory dis-
tress and wheeze mostly affecting infants. One third of children are affected in the first
2 years of life, and one in ten of these children are hospitalized, including a small num-
ber who develop respiratory failure requiring ventilation. Most cases are caused by the
respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causing bronchial inflammation with airway plug-
ging, increased work of breathing, atelectasis and hypoxia. It may also cause apneas in
neonates. Mortality is low, but young infants and those with underlying cardio-respira-
tory disease are vulnerable. The difficulty with bronchiolitis and anesthesia is the
underlying ventilation-perfusion mismatch and increased airway reactivity. These
changes persist after the acute illness and gradually improve over several weeks. The
considerations are similar to children with URTI, though in this case the patient group
is typically younger and the disease process more severe. When possible, postponing
anesthesia and surgery for several weeks after the acute episode is best.
11.5 Passive and Active Smoking
Young children are exposed to cigarette smoke in the home, car and outdoors.
Passive smoking results in airway hyper-reactivity and increases respiratory com-
plications with anesthesia. Carboxyhemoglobin and nicotine levels are also
increased in children exposed to passive smoking. Cessation of passive or active
smoking 48 h before surgery partly reverses these changes, although in adults it
takes 4–6 weeks after cessation to improve pulmonary function.
11.6 hronic Lung Disease of Infancy

C
and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
Chronic lung disease of infancy is a group of disorders starting in the neonatal

period. Several pulmonary conditions and their treatment (high FiO2 or ventilation)
in the neonate produce airway and parenchymal inflammation and then limit devel-
opment of the airways, leading to chronic airflow obstruction and airway hyper-
reactivity. The commonest disorder is bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). BPD is
defined by the requirement for supplemental oxygen at 28 days of life. Severity is
graded by the oxygen requirement and respiratory support needed at 36 weeks post
menstrual age. Advances in neonatal care have made BPD infrequent in infants born
after 30 weeks. The commonest cause of BPD is Respiratory Distress Syndrome
(RDS) of the newborn. RDS is a clinical and radiological diagnosis made shortly
after birth in preterm neonates with difficulty breathing due to surfactant deficiency.
It was previously known as hyaline membrane disease (HMD) based on histopatho-
logical characteristics seen in babies that died before modern neonatal care.
In normal human lung development, alveolarization begins around 36 weeks
gestation, and alveoli grow in size and number until 8 years of age. In BPD, lung
development limits the final branching divisions of the alveoli and the lungs have
larger but far fewer alveoli available for gas exchange. Inflammation from disease
or supportive treatments superimposed on the under-developed lung can lead to
more reactive airways in the long term, and lower capacity lungs that will be symp-
tomatic at an earlier stage and with a lesser reserve (Fig. 11.2).
100% FEV1
Normal
decline
Normal
growth
Symptoms
Impaired Accelerated
lung growth decline from
of preterm disease
0 5 10 20 40 60
Age (y)
Fig. 11.2 Effect of lung disease on subsequent lung function later in life. Bronchopulmonary
dysplasia in the neonatal period slows lung development, and former preterm children do not reach
the same lung function at age 20 years. After that age, lung function deteriorates in all adults, but
former preterm patients are starting at a lower level and develop symptoms earlier in adulthood.
The decline in lung function is accelerated by other injuries, such as smoking (dashed line)
Infants with BPD may require low flow oxygen therapy at home after discharge.
They are often ‘chronically chesty’, have lower respiratory reserve and are prone to
respiratory failure from viral chest infections. Pulmonary vasoconstriction is more
likely as BPD renders the pulmonary capillary network sensitive to stimuli such as
hypothermia, pain or acidosis. A small number of infants with severe BPD have
impaired right ventricular function which can worsen during anesthesia. Those with
mild disease eventually become asymptomatic by 2–3 years, but still have abnormal
reactivity and poorer function compared to the normal population through life
(Fig. 11.2).
Note
Babies born very preterm and who developed BPD have abnormal pulmonary
function throughout childhood. Pulmonary function improves as the child
grows older but is starting from a lower reserve. Risk factors for significant
BPD include being born before 28 weeks, needing more than brief mechani-
cal ventilation, oxygen therapy after 40 weeks and re-admissions for chest
infections.
11.7 Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessively inherited, multisystem disorder pre-

dominately affecting the lungs. It has a very broad spectrum of severity but in gen-
eral worsens as the patient becomes older. Molecular subtype diagnosis and therapy
have improved immensely over the years and most children with CF are reasonably
well. The end stages of the disease have mainly shifted into adulthood.
11.7.1 Background
The underlying problem in CF is mutation of the transmembrane conductance

regulator (CFTR) gene on chromosome 7 causing abnormal chloride transport
in epithelial cells. Ultimately, this affects electrolyte transport in the airway,
sweat ducts, pancreas, intestine and vas deferens of males. The severity of the
clinical illness is variable, but progressive, obstructive lung disease is the main
cause of morbidity and death. The underlying epithelial defect causes thicken-
ing of airway mucus and abnormal clearance of secretions in the lung. This in
turn causes mucus plugging, mechanical obstruction of the airway, atelectasis
and recurrent bacterial infections. Thickening of intestinal secretions often
leads to intestinal obstruction, including meconium ileus in newborns. Many
children with CF develop progressive pancreatic disease which causes intestinal
malabsorption and malnutrition. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy before
meals is routine. Diabetes becomes common in adolescence. Hepatic
Table 11.6 Manifestations of cystic fibrosis

Organ system Manifestation
General Failure to thrive (malabsorption)
Respiratory Bronchiectasis
Bronchial Hyper-reactivity
Eventual respiratory failure
Large FRC, decreased FEV1, obstructive pattern on VFT’s
Cardiac Eventual right ventricular hypertrophy and Cor pulmonale
ENT Nasal polyps and sinusitis
Gastrointestinal Meconium ileus or intestinal atresia as neonate
intestinal obstruction
Eventual cirrhosis and portal hypertension
Gastro-esophageal reflux (rarely a problem in children)
Hypersplenism
Bone Osteoporosis and uncommonly recurrent arthritis
Reproductive Delayed puberty, infertility
Not all manifestations are present in childhood and many become apparent only as the disease
progresses throughout adulthood
Table 11.7 Progression of lung disease with advancing age in cystic fibrosis
Age group Lung pathology
Infancy Mucous plugging
to Recurrent bacterial infections
Childhood Colonization with resistant organisms
Progressive parenchymal disease
Adolescence Bronchiectasis
to Cystic, fibrotic changes
Adulthood Emphysema
Respiratory failure
Cor pulmonale
dysfunction also gradually develops as the patient grows older. Abnormal

mucous clearance in the upper airway causes chronic sinusitis (Table 11.6).
Multiple chest infections cause diffuse airway inflammation and damage to
the airways and surrounding lung parenchyma. This leads to bronchiectasis,
emphysema, fibrotic cavitations and diffuse cystic changes on chest X-ray in
adulthood (Table 11.7). Inflammation and infection begin early in life and infants
who have CF may have considerable pulmonary dysfunction despite appearing
asymptomatic.
Proactive medical treatment has greatly improved prognosis with a median
predicted survival age of nearly 38 years. Infants born now with CF would be
expected to live into their 50s. The past decade has seen the development of
orally bioavailable small molecule drugs that target some of the defective
CFTR proteins and are disease-modifying in some patient subsets. Management
aims to prevent infections causing this lung damage, either with regularly
scheduled intravenous antibiotics independent of clinical status, or therapy in
response to acute changes. Both approaches require anesthesia for vascular
access. Some centers also regularly perform surveillance bronchoscopy with

CT scanning, which also requires anesthesia.
11.7.2 Anesthesia and CF
Anesthesia is frequently required for endoscopy, bronchoscopy, ENT and vascular

access procedures. Since these children now have stratified follow-ups, periopera-
tive therapy should be optimized by the treating specialist physician. This will usu-
ally include physical therapy and preoperative antibiotic therapy. For emergency
surgery, the treating specialist physician would be involved in at least the postopera-
tive care.
Pulmonary function is assessed through exercise tolerance, recent infections
or requirement for admission, changes in sputum and oxygen saturation on air.
Chest X-ray and pulmonary function tests may have been performed recently
or can be requested in selected children. Arterial blood gases are rarely helpful
and are painful. Children with CF have a lot to do with hospitals and they and
their parents will be useful sources of information about their condition and
past anesthetic experiences and preferences. CF children often benefit from
premedication.
Tip
Principles of anesthesia in cystic fibrosis are:
• Maintain lung volume

• Prevent secretions drying and accumulating
• Be alert to bronchial hyper-reactivity
• Tailor anesthesia and analgesia to allow child to cough as soon as
possible
Although CF is associated with gastro-esophageal reflux, aspiration does not

appear to be a problem in children with CF. Pulmonary disease slows the uptake of
volatile agents but inhalational induction is usually straightforward. Chronic infec-
tion and airway inflammation mean precautions similar to those taken in an asth-
matic child to avoid bronchospasm and airway irritation are advisable. Other
precautions taken during anesthesia are humidification to prevent further drying of
secretions, maintenance of end-expiratory lung volume, avoidance of nitrous oxide
to reduce atelectasis and enabling the child to cough effectively soon after the pro-
cedure. Most children tolerate anesthesia for minor surgery as well as any other
child, though perhaps requiring oxygen briefly afterwards. Children at risk are
mainly those who are older with more noticeable lung disease having major surgery,
particularly surgery that inhibits coughing afterwards. This is a high-risk group
needing special care with anesthesia and postoperative management. Recent data
suggests that CF children with mild to moderate lung disease do not experience
significant deterioration in central or peripheral airway function following GA and
have a low rate of complications.
11.8 Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Sleep disordered breathing encompasses a range of upper airway obstruction dur-

ing sleep. The mildest form is primary snoring without other symptoms.
Intermediate forms have associated symptoms or changes in PaCO2 or PaO2. The
most severe form is obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The incidence of perioperative
respiratory complications is ten times higher for children with OSA compared to
those without OSA.
OSA is characterized by repeated collapse of the upper airway with periods of
obstructive or central apnea. Narrowing of the upper airway is not confined to a
discrete region, but rather occurs in the entire upper two-thirds of the airway where
adenoids and tonsils overlap. Children in the preschool and primary school years
have the highest incidence of OSA, as this is the age when their tonsils are largest
relative to the rest of their airway. Adenotonsillar hypertrophy is the main cause of
OSA in children and tonsillectomy is the initial treatment (Table 11.8). In contrast
to adults, there is little relationship between OSA and obesity in children—only
10% of children with OSA are obese and up to a quarter of children are undernour-
ished. Teenagers with OSA, however, follow the adult pattern of causation and
symptoms. Obesity is still a common reason for unanticipated readmission and
residual disease after adenotonsillectomy. There are three broad reasons for OSA in
children: enlarged soft tissues, small bony upper airway and poor neuromuscular
control of the upper airway (Table 11.9).
11.8.1 Diagnosis
Parental history is relied upon for a clinical diagnosis. Nearly all children with OSA
snore and children who do not snore are unlikely to have OSA. Primary,
Table 11.8 Comparison of features of OSA in children and adults

Child with OSA Adult with OSA
Most common 2–6 years Middle-aged
age
Main cause Adenotonsillar hypertrophy Obesity
Sleep Normal, restless sleep. Obstruction Decreased REM, arousal after
architecture during REM sleep apnea. Obstruction during
non-REM and REM sleep
Consequences Behavioral changes, hyperactivity, Day time somnolence
enuresis. Day time somnolence may
occur but uncommon
Treatment Surgical (tonsillectomy) Medical (CPAP)
Table 11.9 The three underlying mechanisms of OSA in children with common examples
Mechanisms Examples
Enlarged soft tissues Adenotonsillar hypertrophy
Macroglossia
Obesity
Small bony upper airway Craniofacial syndromes
(Small midface or mandible) Down syndrome
Pierre Robin
Achondroplasia
Hypotonia of upper airway Cerebral palsy
Neuromuscular disorders
unobstructed snoring occurs in 3–12% of preschool aged children, whereas OSA

with obstructed snoring occurs in only 2% of this age group. A large number of
children with OSA show behavioral changes including lack of concentration at
school, hyperactivity and enuresis, which contrasts with the day time somnolence
seen in adults. Long-standing, untreated OSA in older children can lead to pulmo-
nary hypertension and cor pulmonale, though this is rarely seen in contemporary
practice. History and examination do not reliably distinguish between primary snor-
ing and OSA. Overnight polysomnography is the gold standard for diagnosis, but
other modalities such as nap polysomnography or oximetry are occasionally used.
A hypopnea is an episode of restricted flow in breathing. The Apnea Hypopnea
Index (AHI) is the number of obstructive, central or mixed apneas and hypopneas
per hour of sleep and is the parameter from polysomnography used to quantify the
severity of the sleep disordered breathing. Only obstructive apneas are used to make
the diagnosis, with one or more regarded as significant. Severe OSA is defined as 10
or more obstructions per hour (this would be regarded as mild disease in an adult),
or saturations falling below 80%. Central apneas are common in very young chil-
dren even without OSA, and AHI can be divided into central and obstructive indexes.
Central apneas will also have anesthetic implications for the level of postoperative
monitoring and risk from opioids.
11.8.2 Anesthetic Implications
Since tonsillectomy is the main treatment of OSA in children, these children are
most likely to be encountered on ENT lists. Management of anesthesia for tonsil-
lectomy in these children is covered in Chap. 16 Sect. 16.2. In summary, the main
issues are airway obstruction in the postoperative period and sensitivity to opioid
analgesia. Characteristics of children with OSA who are particularly at risk are
listed in Table 11.10. Children who have had tonsillectomy are amongst the highest
risk for postoperative airway obstruction. Children with OSA who are undergoing
anesthesia for other procedures seem to be at much lower risk and can usually be
managed as day cases. The 5 point STBUR (Snoring/Trouble Breathing/
Un-Refreshing sleep) is a brief, validated preoperative questionnaire with a score >2
predicting desaturation events post operatively.
Table 11.10 Risk factors for airway obstruction after anesthesia in children with OSA
Children with OSA at higher risk after anesthesia
Age less than 2 years, and especially less than 1 year
Airway surgery (including tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy)
Facial abnormality with reduced oropharyngeal size
Downs Syndrome
Serious comorbidity (neuromuscular disease, cardiac)
Preterm birth
Obesity
Severe OSA on polysomnography or saturation <85% on overnight pulse oximetry
SpO2 nadir of <80% or peak pCO2 > 60 mmHg (8 kPa)
Sedative premedication can be used with caution if required. Midazolam occa-

sionally causes airway obstruction in these children and a reduced dose of around
0.3 mg/kg may be safer. Clonidine is a better choice as it does not lead to hypercar-
bia or hypoxemia. Children having an inhalational induction can enter a phase with
quite an obstructed airway needing CPAP, when they are still too light to accept an
oral airway. Bag-mask ventilation after an IV induction may be awkward, but is
facilitated by jaw thrust and by inserting an oral airway. Intraoperative management
is directed at minimizing postoperative airway obstruction. The principles include
maintaining a level of anesthesia that facilitates rapid awakening, minimizing opi-
oid use and arranging appropriate monitoring postoperatively. This may include
HDU/ICU for high risk children undergoing airway procedures, or additional time
in the day ward before discharge home or overnight stay with pulse oximetry.
The clinical features of OSA are usually improved after tonsillectomy, although it can
take a number of days to weeks after surgery. Overall 20% of children are not improved
by surgery, but the improvement depends on the severity of the OSA before tonsillec-
tomy. One hundred percent of children with mild OSA resolve their symptoms, but only
64% of those with severe OSA (AHI > 20/h) resolve their symptoms. In children with
comorbid conditions such as obesity, craniofacial abnormalities, age less than 3 years, or
severe OSA, the cure rate as gauged by sleep study can be as low as 40%. Thus, high-risk
patients are likely to have some residual disease which accounts for much of their
increased risk of respiratory adverse events post operatively. For those deemed suitable
for discharge with opioids, a test dose with monitoring should be considered.
Note
OSA may not improve for several days or weeks after adenotonsillectomy and
around 20% of children are not improved by surgery.
Review Questions
1. A 2 year old child is being ventilated through a 4.5 mmID ETT using a constant
pressure ventilator. The ETCO2 has risen, and you suspect bronchospasm.
(a) List the common potential triggers of intraoperative bronchospasm
(b) What other causes of increased ETCO2 should you consider?
(c) What is the management of intraoperative moderate to severe bronchospasm?
2. Why are children with OSA more likely to develop respiratory problems after
tonsillectomy than those without OSA?
3. Why is a 3 year old who has an URTI scheduled to undergo tonsillectomy at
greater risk of complications compared with a 6 year old who has an URTI
scheduled for circumcision?
4. A 4 year old ex-preterm child presents for myringotomy and grommet insertion
as a day case. On arriving you notice a nasal discharge.
(d) What features in the history and examination are associated with an increased
risk of airway complications?
(e) Apart from history and examination what factors (surgical, social, institu-
tional) would you consider in deciding whether this child should be deferred
or not?
(f) If the case proceeded, what anesthetic strategies could be used to reduce the
risk of complications?
Further Reading
Asthma
Doherty GM, et al. Anesthesia and the child with asthma. Paediatr Anaesth. 2005;15:446–54.
Guill MF. Asthma update: epidemiology and pathophysiology (part 1). Pediatr Rev.
2004;25:299–305.
Regli A, von Ungern-Sternberg B. Anesthesia and ventilation strategies in children with asthma:
part I & II. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2014;27:288–94, 295–302.
Trend S, et al. Current options in aerosolised drug therapy for children receiving respiratory sup-
port. Anesthesia. 2017;72:1388–97.
URTI
Cote CJ. The upper respiratory tract infection dilemma: fear of a complication or litigation?
Anesthesiol. 2001;95:283–5. An excellent editorial that discusses the overarching issue of bal-
ancing risks with various reality factors when presented with children with a recent URTI
needing anesthesia.
Parnis S, Barker DS, Van Der Walt JH. Clinical predictors of anesthetic complications in children
with respiratory tract infections. Pediatr Anesth. 2001;11:29–40.
Regli A, Becke K, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. An update on the perioperative management
of children with upper respiratory tract infections. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2017;30:
362–7.
von Ungern-Sternberg BS, et al. Risk assessment for respiratory complications in paediatric anaes-
thesia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2010;376:773–83.
Bronchiolitis
Zorc JJ, Hall CB. Bronchiolitis: Recent evidence on diagnosis and management. Pediatr Rev.
2010;125:342–9. A review that gives detailed information about pathophysiology and medical
management. Anesthesia issues are not discussed.
Cystic Fibrosis
Cutting G. Cystic fibrosis genetics: from molecular understanding to clinical application. Nat Rev.
Genet. 2015;16:45–56.
Della Rocca G. Anesthesia in patients with cystic fibrosis. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2002;15:95–101.
Pandit C, Valentin R, De Lima J. Effect of general anesthesia on pulmonary function and clinical
status on children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Anesth. 2014;24:164–9.
OSA
Gipson K, Lu M. Sleep-disordered breathing in children. Pediatr Rev. 2019;40:3–13. An excellent

review of the causes, diagnosis and management of OSA in children.
Scalzitti N, Sarber K. Diagnosis and perioperative management in pediatric sleep disordered
breathing. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:940–6.
Chronic Disease of Childhood
12
Alison Carlyle and Soo-Im Lim
This chapter describes several important non-respiratory diseases that may affect
anesthesia in children. Optimal anesthetic management of these children requires
careful planning and a collaborative approach with the multidisciplinary teams
involved in their care.
12.1 Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral Palsy (CP) is an umbrella term used to describe a spectrum of neurological

motor disorders that can be associated with other conditions such as seizure disor-
ders and intellectual impairment. Most children have increased muscle tone or spas-
ticity in one of more muscle group or limb. A minority of children have ataxia or
dystonia rather than spasticity. Cerebral palsy results from pathogenic insults to the
developing brain in utero or in the post-natal period. These insults include intrace-
rebral hemorrhage, genetic disorders, fetal infection such as rubella and CMV, pre-
eclampsia, peri-partum hemorrhage and maternal hyperthyroidism. Extreme
prematurity and low birth weight are important risk factors. Approximately 80% of
cases develop antenatally with the remainder in the first 2 years of life. The inci-
dence is 1–2.5/1000 live births in western countries and has remained steady with
the increase in survival rates of premature infants.
These children present with a broad range in the severity of their symptoms.
Some have an isolated limb spasticity and normal intellect, while others have severe
spasticity, limb deformity and developmental delay. The Gross Motor Function
Classification System (GMFCS) categorizes the severity into mild (level 1) to severe
(level 5) based on the level of movement and activity a child can perform. Children
A. Carlyle (*) · S.-I. Lim

e-mail: Alison.Carlyle@health.wa.gov.au; Soo-Im.Lim@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_12
260 A. Carlyle and S.-I. Lim
with the severe GMFCS 5 level often have difficulty swallowing and feeding and
may require nasogastric or gastrostomy feeds. Despite this, they often have weight
loss and may have nutritional deficiencies, dehydration or anemia. Chronic low
fluid intake coupled with pre-operative fasting may increase the risks of developing
pre-renal renal failure.
Children with cerebral palsy require a multidisciplinary approach of community
and hospital care. The aims are to improve mobility and posture by minimizing
muscle contractures, spasticity and spasms, as well as controlling symptoms of
accompanying disorders such as seizures and gastro-esophageal reflux with pulmo-
nary aspiration. Management includes a combination of physical therapies, surgical
procedures and medical treatments to reduce spasticity such as diazepam, baclofen,
vigabatrin and botulinum toxin. Anesthesia is commonly required in these children
for orthopedic or dental procedures, feeding gastrostomy, fundoplication and botu-
linum toxin injections.
Botulinum neurotoxin is derived from clostridium botulinum bacteria and blocks
the release of acetyl choline at the neuromuscular junction. An intramuscular injec-
tion produces muscle weakness lasting between 2 and 6 months, with peak effects
at 4 weeks post-procedure. Treatment involves injections into multiple muscles at
regular intervals, improving function across the CP spectrum. In children with mild
CP (GMFCS 1 and 2) it improves movement and gait, whilst in more severely
affected children (GMFCS 4 and 5) it assists with supine positioning and basic
quality-of-life care by preventing limb contractures. Systemic absorption and gen-
eralized weakness are extremely rare side effects.
12.1.1 Anesthesia Management
Cerebral palsy patients present a number of challenges (Table 12.1). Communication

may be difficult because of developmental delay, and children with normal or
delayed intellect may be anxious because of past hospital experiences. Parents are
usually a reliable source of information about past medical history and previous
anesthesia. Some children have mild respiratory failure requiring CPAP ventilation
at home. Premedication is often worthwhile in this patient group, taking care to
minimize the likelihood of respiratory side effects.
Keypoint
Children with severe CP have many potential anesthetic problems depending
on the procedure, but the most important are the potential postoperative respi-
ratory complications and pain management issues.
Many of the children with severe cerebral palsy are at risk of reflux and aspira-
tion, but unfortunately also often have very difficult venous access. In children who
have not had multiple previous episodes of pulmonary aspiration, a careful inhala-
tional induction is a reasonable approach. Although neck and jaw contractures can
12 Chronic Disease of Childhood 261
Table 12.1 Summary of Key anesthetic issues in children with severe cerebral palsy
important anesthetic issues in Anxious; communication may be difficult
care of children with cerebral Bulbar problems and poor swallowing of saliva; postop
palsy secretion clearance
Some are at risk of reflux and aspiration
Poor cough, frequent chest infections, kypho-scoliosis; risk of
pneumonia or respiratory failure
Limb contractures; positioning for surgery may be difficult;
pressure area risk
Altered thermoregulation and risk of hypothermia
Pain assessment difficult; painful muscle spasms after
orthopedic surgery common
Pre-existing seizure disorder
occur, airway management is usually straightforward. Suxamethonium does not

cause rhabdomyolysis in children with cerebral palsy, but there is resistance to non-
depolarizing muscle relaxants because of an up-regulation in the number of acetyl-
choline receptors. Nevertheless, a non-depolarizing relaxant would be used more
often than suxamethonium for a rapid sequence induction. MAC values are reduced
in the children most severely affected (GMFCS 4 and 5).
Positioning can be difficult as a result of limb contractures and spasticity.
Great care must be taken to protect pressure areas and to avoid neuropraxia.
Hypothermia is a significant problem. These children have abnormal thermo-
regulatory control and cool quickly as they have minimal subcutaneous fat and
muscle mass and a high surface area to volume ratio. Active warming is needed
even for short procedures.
12.1.2 Post-operative Care
Respiratory care and pain management are the major postoperative problems in
children with severe cerebral palsy. These children often have a weak cough and
diminished respiratory drive leading to sputum retention, atelectasis, chest infection
and respiratory depression. Some may require a period of respiratory support or
close observation in a high dependency area.
Pain can be difficult to assess in children with cerebral palsy, and input from their
parents is useful to gauge the effectiveness of analgesia. Muscle spasms triggered
by pain and anxiety are a particular problem in this patient group. They cause par-
oxysms of intense pain that can be difficult to prevent and treat. Post-operative
analgesia is optimized using a combination of non-opioid analgesics, intravenous
opioid infusion, epidural analgesia or other regional technique, and sometimes a
ketamine infusion. Regional techniques are particularly useful in reducing spasms.
Epidural clonidine helps reduce spasms and may produce mild sedation which is
often useful in the early postoperative period. Intravenous opioid infusions are com-
monly used, but require caution in this vulnerable patient group who are at risk from
cough suppression, sedation and respiratory depression.
12.2 Muscle Disease
Muscle diseases, or myopathies, are uncommon conditions that have important

implications for anesthesia. There are three specific risks—the risk of rhabdomy-
olysis from suxamethonium in any child with a myopathy; the risk of rhabdomyoly-
sis from volatile agents in a child with muscular dystrophy, and finally the risk of
malignant hyperthermia (MH) in some children with rare, specific muscle disorders.
With increasing age and progression of the disease, myopathies become multi-organ
diseases affecting cardiac and pulmonary function.
Practice Point
Before anesthetizing a child with a known or suspected myopathy, consider
the following:
• Is the health care facility suitable?

• Is there a risk of MH?
• Is there a risk of rhabdomyolysis from volatile agents?
• Is there a risk of metabolic acidosis from propofol anesthesia?
• Are there cardiac or respiratory problems?
12.2.1 Categories of Muscle Disease
There are a large number of rare, eponymously named myopathies in children, but a
simple classification of the more important ones with their specific anesthesia prob-
lems is listed in Table 12.2. Some myopathies have a causative or genetic link with
MH, although there is variation within these, reflecting the rarity and complexity of
the disease. As the child gets older, other consequences of the underlying muscle
Table 12.2 Overview of specific anesthesia problems related to muscle diseases

Muscle disease Specific concerns
All myopathies Rhabdomyolysis with suxamethonium
Muscular dystrophies Rhabdomyolysis with volatile agents
Cardio-respiratory problems later in life
Mitochondrial myopathies Lactic acidosis with fasting
King Denborough Known association with MH
Central Core, Multi-Minicore, Centronuclear
Congenital myopathy with cores & rods
Nemaline rod
Congenital fiber type disproportion
KDS, idiopathic hyperCK-emia
Native American myopathy
Exercise induced rhabdomyolysis
Based on Litman et al. Anesthesiology 2018;128: 159–67
fiber problem become more apparent. Cardiac muscle is often affected, leading to
arrhythmias, conduction defects and cardiomyopathy. Postural and mobility changes
occur with limb deformities, contractures and scoliosis. Respiratory muscle weak-
ness causes poor swallow and cough, a propensity to chest infection and respiratory
failure. Developmental delay and seizures occur with some myopathies.
12.2.2 Rhabdomyolysis with Suxamethonium
Every child with a muscle disorder is at risk of hyperkalemic cardiac arrest from
suxamethonium, and it should not be used under any circumstances. Suxamethonium
causes depolarization of the muscle cell membrane, causing a prolonged contrac-
tion of the abnormal muscle fiber with breakdown of the cell membrane and release
of potassium. The breakdown of the muscle cell membrane destroys the muscle
fiber and is called rhabdomyolysis. It is the depolarisation caused specifically by
suxamethonium that is the problem, and non-depolarizing relaxants are safe to use.
Treatment of a suspected hyperkalemic cardiac arrest follows APLS guidelines
but specific therapies to consider are calcium, sodium bicarbonate and dextrose-
insulin. Resuscitation should continue until the plasma potassium has been
normalized.
Tip
If laryngospasm occurs in a child with myopathy, suxamethonium cannot be
used to treat it. Options are a bolus of propofol 3–5 mg/kg and a non-
depolarizing relaxant. The dose of relaxant needed to relax the vocal cords is
not known, but is likely to be small, such as 0.2 mg/kg atracurium or 0.2 mg/
kg rocuronium (the latter could be antagonized with sugammadex).
12.2.3 Muscular Dystrophy (Duchenne and Becker)
The muscular dystrophies are characterized by the absence of dystrophin in the

muscle fiber (including cardiac), making the sarcolemma unstable. They occur only
in males. Asymptomatic female carriers have no specific risks with anesthesia. The
disease usually presents during the first years of childhood, so there is small a group
of yet-to-be diagnosed preschool boys with the condition. However, up to half of the
children with muscular dystrophy have a positive family history. There were several
deaths from rhabdomyolysis each year in the USA in this group of children when
suxamethonium was routinely used for elective intubation.
Young children with muscular dystrophy are active and reasonably well but later
develop multi-organ problems, most commonly during the teenage years. Limb
contractures and scoliosis develop, and ventilatory failure progresses from respira-
tory muscle weakness and restrictive lung defects secondary to kyphoscoliosis.
Autonomic dysfunction may occur, suggested by a resting tachycardia. Dysphagia

results from weakness of striated muscle in the upper pharynx and smooth muscle
of esophagus which can result in aspiration and passive regurgitation during anes-
thesia. Cardiomyopathy becomes more of a concern over the age of 10 years—30–
50% of teenagers and 100% of 18 year olds have cardiomyopathy.
Note
The muscular dystrophies are not associated with MH. The same triggers as
MH may however, cause rhabdomyolysis and an MH-like clinical picture.
12.2.3.1 Anesthesia for Children with Muscular Dystrophies

There are several problems with anesthesia in these children (Table 12.3).
Suxamethonium is contra-indicated. Non-depolarizing relaxants can be used, but
the block is likely to be more profound and longer lasting than usual.
The safety of volatile anesthetic agents in these children is controversial. Volatile
agents have been used without problems in the past, but there are regular case
reports of them causing hyperkalemic cardiac arrest. Volatile agents probably trig-
ger rhabdomyolysis under unknown predisposing factors, and their inconsistent
effect has led to discussion about their safety in muscular dystrophy patients—most
would completely avoid volatiles.
Practice Point
When presenting for anesthesia, young children with DMD have the problem
of rhabdomyolysis with suxamethonium and volatiles; older children and
adults also have the problems of cardiac and respiratory failure, and steroid
dependency.
Table 12.3 Anesthesia- Anesthesia-related problems in DMD and Becker’s

related problems in children Dystrophinopathy with hyperkalemia from
with Duchenne’s and suxamethonium and probably volatiles
Becker’s muscular dystrophy At risk of ventilatory failure from anesthesia and surgery
in later childhood
Cardiomyopathy in later childhood
Dysphagia and pulmonary aspiration in later childhood
Solutions:
Avoid suxamethonium
Avoid volatile agents
Use propofol-remifentanil anesthesia and avoid muscle
relaxants
Avoid post-op deterioration in respiratory function
Take precautions for cardiomyopathy and aspiration in
older children
12.2.4 Malignant Hyperthermia
Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a rare, inherited disorder of the skeletal muscle

that predisposes to a life threatening hypermetabolic state after suxamethonium and
volatile anesthetics. MH reactions are rare, but approximately half occur in children
younger than 15 years. It is very rare in the first year of life, and an uneventful anes-
thetic in the past is meaningless. Most children at risk of MH are asymptomatic,
with only a few myopathies known to be associated with an MH risk (Table 12.2).
12.2.4.1 Diagnosis
Intraoperative MH causes a hypermetabolic state with lactic acidosis. Masseter muscle
rigidity or spasm in response to suxamethonium may be the first sign, but is not specific
to MH (see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.9.3). Early signs are increased CO2 production, tachycar-
dia, and metabolic acidosis. Fever develops, but it is often a late sign. Subsequently,
muscle cell membrane pumps fail and there is leakage of intracellular elements with
hyperkalemia, myoglobinemia and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Rarely,
MH may begin in the postoperative period, up to several hours after anesthesia.
12.2.4.2 Management of a MH Reaction

A brief overview of management is listed in Table 12.4, but is more comprehensively
covered in the guidelines from the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists
and the Association of Anaesthetists in Great Britain and Ireland. The dose of dan-
trolene in children is the same as in adults, 2.5 mg/kg. There is no need to eliminate the
anesthetic machine because the load of volatile agent in the patient will higher than that
in the machine. High flow oxygen should be used though to wash-out the volatile from
the patient and machine. The role of charcoal filters is still being determined.
12.2.4.3 MH Testing of Children

The in-vitro contracture test is the gold standard test for MH susceptibility. It is not
usually performed in children under 10 years or 30 kg as they do not have an ade-
quate thigh muscle from which to obtain a muscle sample. Genetic testing is used
but not as a first-line test for index cases or their relatives. MH genetics remain
heterogeneous and multiple mutations are likely to be involved, although a handful
of mutations can definitely be characterized as MH causative. A negative genetic
test does not rule out the disease.
Table 12.4 Overview of Management of MH reaction

management of suspected Call for help
MH reaction in children Hyperventilate with 100% oxygen
Intravenous anesthesia if clinically appropriate.
Dantrolene 2.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg dose can be repeated to
maximum of 10 mg/kg
Start active cooling to less than 39 °C
Treat arrhythmias, hyperkalemia, acidosis
Transfer to ICU for continuing treatment and monitoring
12.2.4.4 Management of a Child with a Family History of MH

Many children who present for anesthesia have a family history of an MH reaction, but
their susceptibility is not certain as they cannot be tested. Children who should be con-
sidered particularly at risk are those where the reaction was in a close relative, or more
than one relative in the family. The history of an MH reaction however, is often in a
more distant relative. In this situation, a pragmatic approach is usually taken and the
child treated as susceptible, even though the real risk is not known but likely to be low.
Fortunately, trigger-free anesthesia is simple to achieve in most circumstances. The
principles are the same as in adults: propofol-based anesthesia, volatile-free equipment
and avoidance of suxamethonium. Elective cases are scheduled first on the list—anesthe-
sia workstations can take up to an hour to prepare and flush so their residual agent con-
centration is less than 5–10 parts per million. Activated charcoal filters can shorten this
time. There are also alternatives to the machine preparation if the circle circuit and posi-
tive pressure ventilation are not needed. One alternative is to use a disposable T-piece
circuit with oxygen from a wall source. Another is to use the machine’s common gas
outlet, which can usually be prepared by flushing with oxygen at 10 L/min for 10 min.
Reactions after trigger-free anesthesia are rare. MH-susceptible children may be
safely managed as day procedure cases with standard times for postoperative moni-
toring and care, although some units observe for fever for several hours before dis-
charge. Like any other child undergoing anesthesia, these children are at risk of
laryngospasm. Although a bolus of propofol is a reasonable first treatment, having
a non-depolarizing relaxant drawn up and ready to use is wise in any child with a
contraindication to suxamethonium.
12.2.5 Metabolic and Mitochondrial Myopathies
Disorders of fatty acid metabolism in the mitochondria affect muscle and other organs
such as the brain and heart. This group of disorders is termed metabolic myopathies,
or mitochondrial myopathies. These children present with neurological and muscle
symptoms, cardiomyopathy, respiratory failure and metabolic disorders. Fasting may
initiate fatty acid metabolism and trigger lactic acidosis, so the duration of fasting is
minimized and IV fluids containing 2.5–5% glucose given. These children are consid-
ered at risk of developing propofol infusion syndrome at relatively low doses of pro-
pofol. An induction dose of propofol is safe, as is volatile anesthesia. Brief
propofol-based anesthesia may also be safe, although there is debate about this tech-
nique in these children. Suxamethonium is contraindicated as with all myopathies.
12.2.6 Anesthesia for Muscle Biopsy
A muscle disorder might be suspected in infants who are hypotonic (‘floppy’) or

have other clinical signs, and these infants might require anesthesia for muscle
biopsy. Anesthetic management is tailored to the suspected diagnosis and any pos-
sible link to MH or propofol infusion syndrome, as well as any cardiac or
respiratory problem. Apart from avoiding suxamethonium, many types of anesthe-

sia have been used without apparent problem. If the child’s creatine kinase is ele-
vated, it would seem reasonable to avoid volatile agents, and if the lactate level is
elevated, minimize propofol anesthesia. Alternatives such as ketamine or regional
techniques can also be considered.
12.3 Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS)
This is a group of inborn errors of mucopolysaccharide (also known as glycosamino-

glycans) metabolism. Mucopolysaccharides are long chain carbohydrates forming
connective tissues and bones. An enzyme deficiency in the degradation pathway
causes deposition of these molecules throughout the body. Hurler syndrome is the
most severe form. The other mucopolysaccharidoses include Hunter, San Filippo and
Morquio syndromes and share some or all of the Hurler characteristics in a somewhat
milder form (Table 12.5). Patients with Hurler’s syndrome present early in infancy
with hernias, macrocephaly, recurrent respiratory infections and limited hip abduc-
tion. These children gradually develop the characteristic features and complications
over time as more mucopolysaccharides deposit in tissues, and developmental delay
is apparent by 1 year of age. Stem cell transplant or enzyme replacement therapy is
now available for many forms of mucopolysaccharidosis. If started at a young age, it
improves long term outcome and reduces the severity of airway changes. It does not
however prevent neurocognitive, cardiac valvular or skeletal changes.
12.3.1 Anesthetic Management
Anesthesia for these children in infancy is relatively straightforward as airway

and other changes are mild. However as the child becomes older, airway
Table 12.5 Characteristics of Hurler syndrome

System Features
Airway Coarse facies, macrocephaly
Micrognathia and macroglossia
Decreased mobility of cervical spine and TMJ
Atlanto-axial instability with subluxation common
Tracheal narrowing from deposition of mucopolysaccharides
Respiratory Obstructive sleep apnea
Ventilatory failure and respiratory infections related to skeletal and
neurological abnormalities
Cardiovascular Cardiomyopathy, valvular defects, arteriosclerosis, coronary artery
involvement
Difficult IV access
Neurological Progressive decline in intellect with eventual severe mental and motor
retardation, poor gag and swallowing reflexes
Other Progressive skeletal dysplasia, joint contractures, kyphoscoliosis
management becomes difficult as more and more mucopolysaccharides are depos-

ited in the tongue, oropharynx, neck and periglottic structures. Extremely difficult
and failed intubations are common, and these airway difficulties generally worsen
over time as the disease progresses. As the child grows older, progressive anxiety
and intellectual impairment may cause increasingly difficult behavior at induc-
tion. IV cannulation also becomes difficult, sedative premeds become risky to use
and inhalational induction often ends up being a hurried, ‘guerilla’ induction
rather than a smooth, gradual descent into anesthesia. The mask airway is often
difficult to manage and obstructed. The LMA is not always a reliable method of
obtaining a clear airway.
A fiberoptic intubation under anesthesia with spontaneous ventilation is often
attempted. Unfortunately, as the child grows older their airway becomes even
more difficult to manage and they are more likely to have cardiovascular disease
that makes deep, inhalational anesthesia problematic. For these reasons, this
group of children is one of the most difficult and challenging for pediatric
anesthetists.
Note
Children with MPS have the combination of difficult airway, difficult behav-
ior, difficult venous access and reduced myocardial function. This group of
children are one of the trickiest for pediatric anesthetists.
12.4 Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle cell disease is an inherited hemoglobinopathy originating in areas of Central

Africa, India, the Mediterranean and Middle East. Patients with sickle cell disease
have the abnormal hemoglobin S (HbS) that becomes insoluble in its deoxygenated
form. The HbS precipitates, causing red blood cells to take on the rigid, characteristic
sickle shape, obstructing the microvasculature and causing ischemia in distal tissues.
Most of the hemoglobin in patients with sickle cell disease is HbS, and sickling
occurs at oxygen saturations of approximately 85%. Sickle cell patients have chronic
hemolytic anemia (Hb 50–100 g/L) and may have episodes of pain related to vaso-
occlusive episodes and gradually worsening organ damage. Sickle cell patients rarely
survive past their fifth decade. Patients with sickle cell trait (30–40% HbS) are largely
asymptomatic because sickling only occurs at sub normal venous oxygen saturation.
Children with sickle cell disease rarely present before 6 months of age because of the
masking effects of fetal hemoglobin. Acute pain related to a vaso-occlusive crisis is the
commonest presenting symptom. Vaso-occlusive crisis can affect any part of the body
and can be associated with concurrent infection, dehydration, nausea and vomiting,
extreme hypothermia, fatigue and psychosocial stress. Treatment of a vaso-occlusive
crisis is supportive: rehydration, antibiotic treatment if necessary and opioid analgesia.
Sickle cell disease is diagnosed by high performance liquid chromatography

(HPLC). Peripheral blood films are an alternative and show target cells, elon-
gated RBCs and sickle cells. The “Sickledex test” is a rapid test of hemoglobin
solubility but does not differentiate between sickle cell disease and sickle cell
trait and can give false negative results in the presence of severe anemia and
fetal hemoglobin. In practice, preoperative screening is at the discretion of the
individual anesthetist. It is often omitted, particularly if it delays urgent surgical
management, because a well-formulated anesthetic and analgesic plan as aimed
for in every patient, would minimize the chances of triggering a crisis.
Screening for Sickle cell disease before anesthesia and surgery remains con-
troversial: guidelines such as those for NICE in the UK suggest testing should
be performed in susceptible populations. Newborn screening is performed rou-
tinely in some countries including the UK, and targeted testing occurs in
Australia based on the antenatal histories of parents. If screening is not per-
formed, children will generally have had a crisis and be diagnosed by 5–10 years
of age.
12.4.1 Anesthesia for Children with Sickle Cell Disease
It is important to assess the severity of the disease and identify triggers. Signs
and symptoms of pre-existing organ dysfunction should be looked for and inves-
tigated if clinically indicated. Traditionally, blood transfusions were given to
sickle patients to reduce the HbS concentration to 30% in an effort to minimize
post-operative complications such as cerebral-vascular accident and vaso-
occlusive crises. Aggressive transfusion regimens are probably unnecessary for
outpatient and minor procedures, and put patients at higher risk of problems
related to transfusion. The decision to transfuse an individual child before sur-
gery should be made following consultation between the hematologist, anesthe-
tist and surgeon caring for the child.
The anesthetic aims are to minimize RBC sickling by avoiding dehydration,
maintaining normal levels of oxygen, promoting venous return through careful
patient positioning and treating infection aggressively (Table 12.6). Surgical
tourniquets have been safely used but carry a risk of sickling. After surgery,
patients are monitored for complications related to the disease such as acute
chest syndrome. Optimal pain control is vital because untreated pain can trigger
sickling. Opioid requirements may be higher in sickle cell patients than the
normal population.
Table 12.6 Key points for Key anesthetic issues in sickle cell disease
anesthesia of children with Careful pre-op assessment of pre-existing organ damage
sickle cell disease (Children Plan anesthetic to avoid the conditions in which RBC sickle
with sickle cell trait can be Optimal post-op analgesia
managed as normal)
12.5 Diabetes
The prevalence of diabetes mellitus in the pediatric population is increasing.

Approximately ninety percent of children with diabetes present with type 1 diabetes
(insulin-dependent), 10% with type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent) and a few
children present with rare types. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is growing as the
number of obese children increases. Insulin pumps giving a continuous infusion of
subcutaneous short-acting insulin are common in pediatric practice. In contrast to
adult diabetics, secondary organ damage (renal, cardiac, ophthalmic and gastropa-
resis) is not a major concern in pediatric patients and instead the focus is on control
of glucose homeostasis in the peri-operative period. Pediatric diabetic physicians
are commonly involved in the care of children undergoing surgery, and many hospi-
tals have agreed guidelines and protocols for these children.
12.5.1 Anesthesia for the Child with Diabetes
A formal plan for diabetes management is made before admission. Careful manage-
ment aims to keep the child’s blood glucose level (BGL) at 5–10 mmol/L and to
avoid ketosis. Scheduling surgery as the first case in the morning simplifies manage-
ment (Table 12.7). Hypoglycemia is the greatest risk and it is safer to have the
child’s blood glucoses a little higher than normal. Consider IV fluids while the child
is fasting, although this is not always necessary. If hypoglycemia develops while the
child is fasting, IV glucose is given. If there is no IV access, the parent can give the
child oral clear fluids containing glucose as part of their usual hypoglycemia man-
agement. This clear fluid is unlikely to affect theatre scheduling with the recent
acceptance of short fasting times for children (see Chap. 6, Sect. 6.2).
12.5.1.1 Minor Surgery in the Morning

Minor surgery lasts less than 2 h, is not associated with major metabolic disturbance,
and the child is able to eat soon after. It includes endoscopy and tonsillectomy.
If the child has an insulin pump the basal rate is continued or reduced by 20%
at 0300 h, especially if they usually tend to a low BGL in the morning. The pump is
continued during anesthesia, and can be stopped for no more than 30 min to treat
mild hypoglycemia. BGL is checked every 30–60 min. Consider fluids without glu-
cose, at least initially, if the BGL is within the target range of 5–10 mmol/L.
If the child is receiving injections of insulin, the dose of long-acting insulin on
the evening before surgery is reduced by 30–50%, and the next morning’s dose of
short-acting insulin is omitted. IV fluid 5% dextrose with normal saline should be
given at maintenance rate during surgery.
Table 12.7 Key points for Key anesthetic issues in children with diabetes
anesthesia of children with First on morning list
diabetes Continue pump at basal or reduce by 20%
Check BGL
Aim for BGL 5–10 mmol/L and avoid hypoglycemia
5% dextrose with normal saline is a suitable fluid
Input from diabetic physician useful in the peri-operative period
12.5.1.2 Minor Surgery in the Afternoon

If the child has an insulin pump, it is continued as normal for breakfast and there-
after. Their pump will be at basal rate by the time of admission. For children
receiving intermittent injections, they are given their usual dose of long-acting
insulin and 50% of their short-acting insulin with breakfast. BGL is monitored
and IV fluid 5% dextrose and normal saline at maintenance started before
surgery.
Major surgery usually lasts more than 2 h, is associated with major metabolic
changes and prevents the child eating soon after surgery. The child’s diabetic phy-
sician should be involved with management, which will include admission to hos-
pital before surgery and a dextrose-insulin infusion started at least 2 h before
surgery. Most children require between 0.1 and 0.2 Units/kg/h (maximum 5
Units/h) of insulin, adapted regularly to the BGL.
BGL during surgery is monitored every 30–60 min. If the BGL is <4 mmol/L,
10% dextrose 1–2 mL/kg is given. If BGL is >14 mmol/L for longer than 1 h,
subcutaneous short-acting insulin is given and blood ketones measured. The dose
is the same as the child’s usual correcting dose, or 5–10% of their total daily dose.
Many children have continuous glucose monitors. These may be left attached to
the patient, although there are some reports of inaccurate readings during anesthe-
sia and surgery, and cross checking abnormal readings is advised.
12.6 Obesity
Obesity is an increasingly common problem in children, with 50% of obese children

becoming obese adults. Apart from rare syndromes, most childhood obesity is due
to diet, inactivity and behavioral tendencies. The definition of obesity in children
varies, clouding research into obesity. The normal range of BMI varies with gender
and age in children, although BMI is still often used for diagnosis. Alternative defi-
nitions use the 85th centile of BMI for age and gender, or the Cole definition using
centile curves. There is an increased incidence of hypertension, type 2 diabetes and
asthma in obese children. Additionally, functional residual capacity and forced vital
capacity are reduced in obese children and the incidence of OSA is higher than in
non-obese children.
Anesthesia for obese children is associated with an increased risk of minor
morbidity, but care of this group of patients is not as challenging as that of obese
adults. Tact and sensitivity are required in the preoperative assessment. Exercise
tolerance is a useful measure of cardio respiratory function. Gastro-esophageal
reflux is not increased as there is normal gastric emptying. Ultrasound guidance
for IV access is useful, or inserting a fine-gauge cannula for induction and replac-
ing it later with a large cannula is an alternative. Initial drug doses are based on
ideal weight and then titrated to effect. The induction dose of propofol is based on
ideal weight, but an increased maintenance rate is needed when using intravenous
anesthesia. Airway management in obese children is more straightforward than
obese adults. Although obese children may be more awkward to mask ventilate
due to their fleshy cheeks, large tongue and flaps of soft tissue, they are not usu-
ally difficult to intubate.
12.7 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder in which

inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity is more frequent and severe than is nor-
mal in similar aged children. It has a worldwide prevalence of 6–12% in schoolchil-
dren compared with 1% in adults. It is much more common in boys, though no
single cause has been identified. About half of children diagnosed with ADHD are
medicated, although this seems to be decreasing. Treatment is usually with stimu-
lants such as dexamphetamine, a methylphenidate or the norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitor atomexetine. These stimulants enhance central nervous system catechol-
amine action in areas regulating attention, arousal, and impulse control. Non-
stimulant agents used in children with ADHD include clonidine.
A potential issue when anaesthetizing children with ADHD is a perioperative
deterioration of behavior. Children with ADHD are twice as likely to be uncoopera-
tive at induction and more likely to have maladaptive behavior postoperatively than
other children. Interactions between ADHD and the drugs used to treat it are not
apparent clinically, and stimulant medications do not affect the bispectral index and
depth of anesthesia. Continuing or withholding ADHD medication before anesthe-
sia is probably best decided in conjunction with the child’s parent, who will know
what will be best for their child’s behavior. There is no evidence to support stopping
or continuing these medications. Some children with ADHD may benefit from pre-
medication. Clonidine might a reasonable choice given its use in the treatment of
ADHD, but there is no data comparing it with the anxiolytic midazolam in these
children.
12.8 Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (‘autism’) is a group of disorders characterized by defi-

cits in social interaction and communication, and repetitive behaviors and restricted
interests. Autism varies in its severity, with some children only mildly affected, or
‘high functioning’. It is more common in boys, occurring in 6/1000, and becomes
apparent by the age of 3 years. Affected children find difficulty forming bonds with
their parents, are upset by changes in their routines, and may have repetitive or ritu-
alistic behaviors. They often have poor speech, refuse to cooperate, do not like
being touched and refuse oral medicines. Some are treated with antipsychotic medi-
cations such as risperidone to reduce aggressive tendencies. Managing their periop-
erative behavior and enabling a non-traumatic induction and smooth emergence in
recovery are the main challenges for anesthesia.
Admission for surgery changes the child’s routine and can distress the child.
Their behavior often deteriorates as a result and is upsetting for the parents, other
patients and staff. Several steps can be implemented to minimize the stress on the
child and family (Table 12.8). Notification before admission highlighting the child’s
needs allows planning of the perioperative care. The time between admission and
surgery can be minimized, information regarding the child’s likes, dislikes or
Table 12.8 Key points in Important steps in perioperative care of the autistic child
the management of autistic Notification before admission
children presenting for Coordinate multiple procedures to one anesthetic if possible
anesthesia and surgery Minimize admission to surgery time
Admit to quiet room
Premedication
Flexible approach to induction
PONV prophylaxis
Remove IV cannula as soon as possible
Discharge as soon as possible
behavioral triggers can be used to tailor management in an appropriate area of the

admissions ward. Parents can also be asked to bring any calming objects such as
weighted blankets, noise cancelling headphones or favorite objects. Some autistic
children use alternative communication devices such as picture charts. Parents are
well informed and know many effective strategies for their child.
12.8.1 Premedication of Children and Young People with Autism
Preoperative assessment determines how communicative and cooperative the child

is—some will not allow any form of examination. Older children with autism may
exhibit extraordinary strength when under stress and restraining them can be diffi-
cult, as well as putting the child and care givers at risk of injury.
As the severity of autism increases along the spectrum, the optimal type of pre-
medication changes (Fig. 12.1). Distraction and other behavioural techniques are
useful. The parent will know their child’s preferences.
Children with mild, high functioning autism might not need a premed, while
some will benefit from oral midazolam or clonidine. Children with more severe
autism may need more than these agents. Oral clonidine followed by oral midazolam
is one such strategy—clonidine 3–4 μg/kg (maximum 150 μg) given 60 min before
induction is followed by oral midazolam 0.3 mg/kg (maximum 15 mg) given 30 min
later. This combination may produce deep sedation and airway obstruction, and it
should be given in an area with adequate monitoring and airway equipment. Children
and young people with severe, non-verbal autism may be very difficult to restrain and
become violent if they become stressed or agitated. In this group of children, oral
ketamine 2–5 mg/kg 30 min before induction is often more effective. Alternatively,
lower doses of ketamine 1–3 mg/kg can be combined with midazolam 0.3 mg/kg
mixed together 30 min before induction. This combination may produce deep seda-
tion and airway obstruction in some children. Ketamine may contribute to postopera-
tive vomiting. If it is used, antiemetics, IV fluids and reduced doses of opioids are
suggested. The IV preparation of ketamine is used to make these premeds, and the
taste is masked with the child’s favorite flavoring (often cola, lemonade or apple).
The child may be reluctant to drink the premed, but parents have often developed
their own strategies to enable their child to take medicines. Intranasal premeds can
be used, but may be difficult to administer to a large and uncooperative child.
Fig. 12.1 Different types Mild, high Severely affected,

of pharmacological functioning anxious and fearful
premeds are needed for
children with different
severities of autism None or midazolam or
clonidine
Clonidine +
midazolam
Ketamine ±
midazolam
Intranasal premeds include dexmedetomidine 3 μg/kg, or ketamine, or midazolam.

Another premed option is intramuscular ketamine 3–4 mg/kg into the deltoid mus-
cle or thigh. Most children can be persuaded to take an oral premed if managed
carefully, and fortunately IM premeds are rarely required.
An IV or inhalational induction is used, depending on the effect of the premed
and child’s behavior at induction. In large children who are not well sedated despite
premedication, an IV induction is often easier than restraint and an inhalational
induction. In this case, have all equipment ready, insert a fine cannula and inject
induction agent as soon as possible. Tape or connect the giving set after induction.
Thiopentone has a smaller volume than propofol and is worth considering as one of
the rare uses of thiopentone nowadays.
To minimize distress in the postoperative period, the parent should be present
early in recovery, and the IV cannula removed as soon as the child starts to wake. IV
fluids and antiemetics are routinely given during anesthesia to minimize PONV and
avoid the need to retain the IV cannula. Reducing the time that the child stays in
hospital after the procedure minimizes stress on the child and helps the parents
return the child to their usual environment. As soon as the child meets discharge
criteria, they should be allowed to go home.
12.9 Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia is a psychiatric disorder with multi-system physiological sequelae. It con-

sists of reduced body weight (at least 15% below expected), weight loss that is self-
induced by food avoidance or vomiting and distorted body image. It is most common
in teenage girls. There are two types: restrictive anorexia, and purging/bulimic
anorexia (although bulimia can also occur without anorexia). A specialist team
including a psychiatrist and gastroenterologist usually looks after these patients.
There are many possible sequelae which depend on the severity of the disease
(Table 12.9). Most patients are thin but generally well and pose no problems with
Table 12.9 Systemic complications arising from anorexia nervosa

Organ system Possible problems (notes)
Cardiovascular Hypotension, bradycardia from decreased metabolic rate
ECG changes, arrhythmias (including during anesthesia)
Reduced contractility via anorexia and also if abusing ipecac to induce
vomiting
Mitral valve prolapse
(A bradycardia would suggest ECG needed. ECHO would be needed if other
clinical features indicate CVS problems)
Respiratory Pneumothorax
Aspiration pneumonitis
Reduced compliance from starvation
(CXR not routinely performed)
Renal Reduced GFR common
Electrolyte disorders from vomiting or abuse of diuretics, laxatives or
purgatives: low Mg or phosphate, low calcium
Gastrointestinal Strict dieting appears to prolong gastric emptying time
Hematological Leucopenia and thrombocytopenia common
Anemia unusual
Endocrine Panhypopituitarism, diabetes insipidus
Musculo- Muscle weakness from electrolyte disturbance, osteoporosis with fractures at
skeletal young age
Most patients, however, are thin but pose no major problems with anesthesia
anesthesia. Some are desperately ill and need intensive care, although this group
will look ill from the end of the bed! Investigations before anesthesia would depend
on symptoms, examination and previous tests, with anesthetic management adjusted
according to the severity of the illness.
12.9.1 Refeeding Syndrome
During starvation, cellular metabolism slows and there is intracellular depletion of

electrolytes (especially potassium, magnesium and phosphate), proteins and B vita-
mins. Refeeding syndrome refers to the metabolic and fluid disturbances that can
occur after severe, prolonged starvation. With the initial reintroduction of nutrition,
cellular metabolism increases and cells start to take up electrolytes, which can cause
significant disturbance in their circulating levels with metabolic effects on organ
function (and in particular, cardiac arrhythmias).
12.10 von Willebrand’s Disease
von Willebrand disease (vWD) is a bleeding disorder caused by inherited defects in

the concentration, structure or function of von Willebrand factor (vWF). About 1%
of the population has some form of the disease.
Von Willebrand factor is released from platelets and endothelial cells and medi-
ates the adhesion of platelets and stabilizes factor VIII. There are three categories of
von Willebrand disease. Type I makes up 70% of cases, and vWF function is mildly
reduced (about 20–50% of normal levels). These children have no problems in daily
life from the disease. Type II has four subtypes, but all are severe forms with signifi-
cant bleeding problems. Type III is an absence of vWF and is characterized by
bleeding unresponsive to treatment with desmopressin (DDAVP).
vWf levels are measured using several techniques, including ristocetin activity.
The activated partial thromboplastin time (APPT) is mildly prolonged in 50% of
patients with vWD due to low factor VIII. PT is normal. Bleeding time is non-
specific and does not help predict whether patients will have problematic bleeding
during surgery. For all but the most straightforward minor surgeries, a pre-operative
discussion with a hematologist is warranted regarding specific treatment advice for
the child’s von Willebrand subtype.
Desmopressin (DDAVP) is effective in 95% of children with vWD and 0.3 μg/kg
IV over 30 min causes a three to five times increase of vWF in patients with Type
I. The maximal effect is 30–60 min, and duration 6–10 h. It is given at 12 h intervals
if needed postop. The effect of DDAVP in Type II is variable. Children with vWD
not responsive to DDAVP need vWF-containing FVIII concentrates. Local antifibri-
nolytic activity in the oral mucosa compromises hemostasis, and antifibrinolytics
such as tranexamic acid may be used peri- and postoperatively to stop breakdown of
blood clots after dental extractions and oral surgery (including tonsillectomy).
Tranexamic mouth washes and oral administration have been described in these
settings.
12.11 Latex Allergy
Latex allergy in children is relatively common, often being detected by a history of

lip swelling after blowing up balloons. There is known cross-reactivity with avo-
cado, banana and kiwi fruits (amongst others). Fortunately, allergic reactions during
anesthesia and surgery are rare. Children with spina bifida have a higher incidence
of latex sensitization than any other patient group due to the frequency and duration
of exposure to latex. It is possibly due to immune changes rather than direct expo-
sure to latex. Current practice is to take latex-free precautions from birth. Children
with urinary tract malformations are also at high risk due to multiple urinary cath-
eterizations. Of children who have had multiple operations (an average of 7.7 opera-
tions), more than half are sensitized to latex independent of their underlying
diseases. Standardizing on a latex-free anesthetic environment is a logical approach
and nearly all equipment for pediatric anesthesia is now available without latex.
Maintaining a standardized latex-free anesthetic environment is a logical approach.
Chemoprophylaxis using histamine receptor antagonists in children with latex
allergy is ineffective. Routine use of non-powdered gloves in most theaters has
eliminated the problem of aeroallergens and order of scheduling latex allergic
patients on the OR list.
Review Questions
1. Why is suxamethonium contraindicated in patients with muscular dystrophy?

2. How would you initiate treatment for suspected MH? What is the dose of
Dantrolene?
3. Why do patients with Hurler’s syndrome have difficult airways?
4. Why might a child with Trisomy 21 have a difficult airway?
Further Reading
Cerebral Palsy
Nolan J, et al. Anaesthesia and pain management in cerebral palsy. Anaesthesia. 2000;55:
32–41.
Prosser DP, Sharma N. Cerebral palsy and anaesthesia. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain.
2010;10:72–6.
Muscle Disorders
Barnes C, et al. Safe duration of postoperative monitoring for malignant hyperthermia patients
administered non-triggering anesthesia: an update. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2015;43:98–103.
A survey of 206 patients showing standard postoperative monitoring times are safe and
appropriate.
Brandon BW, Veyckemans F. Neuromuscular diseases in children: a practical approach. Pediatr
Anesth. 2013;23:765–9. A very good review from a practical viewpoint of anesthetizing a child
with a known or suspected myopathy.
Cripe LH, Tobias JD. Cardiac considerations in the operative management of the patient with
Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophy. Pediatr Anesth. 2013;23:777–84.
Gupta PK, Hopkins PM. Diagnosis and management of malignant hyperthermia. BJA Educ.
2017;17:249–54.
Hopkins PM. Anaesthesia and the sex linked dystrophies: between a rock and a hard place. Br J
Anaesth. 2010;104:397–400.
Lerman J. Perioperative management of the paediatric patient with coexisting neuromuscular dis-
ease. Br J Anaesth. 2011;107(S1):i79–89. A comprehensive and well written review.
Litman R, et al. Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility and related diseases. Anesthesiology.
2018;128:159–67.
Schieren M, et al. Anaesthetic management of patients with myopathies. Eur J Anesthesiol.
2017;34:641–9.
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Hack HA, Walker R, Gardiner P. Anaesthetic implications of the changing management of patients
with mucopolysaccharidosis. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2016;44:660–8. Excellent review.
Walker R, et al. Anaesthesia and airway management in mucopolysaccharidosis. J Inherit Metab
Dis. 2013;36:211–9.
Sickle Cell Disease
Hyder O. Surgical procedures and outcomes among children with sickle cell disease. Anesth
Analg. 2013;117:1192–6.
Jemmett K, Williams A. Preoperative screening for sickle cell disease in children: a pragmatic
solution in a UK district hospital. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:48–51.
McCavit TL. Sickle cell disease. Pediatr Rev. 2012;33:195–204. A medical review article with a
good description of the pathophysiology of sickle cell disease.
Diabetes
Jefferies C, et al. ISPAD clinical guidelines 2018: management of children and adolescents with
diabetes requiring surgery. Pediatr Diabetes. 2018;19:227–36.
Simha V, Shah P. Perioperative glucose control in patients with diabetes undergoing elective sur-
gery. JAMA. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.20922. This short, contemporary article
reviews management in adults with diabetes, but is still very useful.
Tjen C, Wilkinson K. Perioperative care of children and young people with diabetes. BJA Educ.
2016;16:124–9.
Obesity
Baines D. Anaesthetic considerations for the obese child. Paediatr Resp Rev. 2011;12:144–7.
Lerman J, Becke K. Perioperative considerations for airway management and drug dosing in obese
ADHD
Floet AMW, Scheiner C, Grossman L. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Rev.

2010;31:56–68. Review article aimed at pediatricians but with much interesting information
for anesthetists.
Tait AR, et al. Anesthesia induction, emergence and postoperative behaviors in children with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:323–9.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Rainey L, Van der Walt JH. The anaesthetic management of autistic children. Anaesth Intensive
Care. 1998;26:682–6. An overview of autism as well as practical advice about premedication.
Old but still good.
Short JA, Calder AC. Anaesthesia for children with special needs, including autistic spectrum
disorder. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2013;13:107–12.
Taghizadeh N, et al. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and its perioperative management. Pediatr
Anesth. 2015;25:1076–84.
Vlassakova BG, Emmanoui DE. Perioperative considerations in children with autism spectrum
disorder. Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2016;26:359–66.
Anorexia Nervosa
Goldstein MA, et al. Eating disorders. Pediatr Rev. 2011;32:508–20.

Hirose K, et al. Perioperative management of severe anorexia nervosa. Br J Anaesth.
2014;112:246–54.
Von Willebrand’s Disease
Mensah PK, Gooding R. Surgery in patients with inherited bleeding disorders. Anesthesia.
2015;70:112–20.
Sarangi SN, Acharya SS. Bleeding disorders in congenital syndromes. Pediatrics.
2017;139:e20154360.
Latex Allergy
Wu M, et al. Current prevalence rate of latex allergy: why it remains a problem? J Occup Health.
2016;58:138–44.
Congenital Syndromes and Conditions
13
Prani Shrivastava and Dana Weber
13.1 Robin Sequence
Robin sequence (formerly Pierre Robin) is a clinical triad of micrognathia, glos-

soptosis and airway obstruction often in association with cleft palate. Mandibular
hypoplasia in the first trimester causes the tongue to be in a superior position, pre-
venting midline fusion of the palatal shelves. Robin sequence may occur alone or in
association with many syndromes, most often Stickler, velocardiofacial and fetal
alcohol spectrum disorder. It occurs in 1 in 8500 births.
The baby’s small jaw causes airway obstruction, sometimes even while the baby
is awake. Some are nursed prone to help the tongue fall away from the back of the
pharynx, and occasionally they need tracheostomy soon after birth. The jaw grows
along with the baby, and eventually the amount of space within the oral cavity is
sufficient to avoid airway obstruction. Other organ systems may be affected either
from associated syndromes or secondary to chronic upper airway obstruction.
However, the main problem for anesthesia is the airway and difficulty with intuba-
tion during infancy and early childhood.
Note
It’s Robin sequence because a single event, mandibular hypoplasia, sets off a
sequence causing the other signs. A syndrome has multiple, independent
anomalies.
P. Shrivastava (*) · D. Weber

e-mail: Prani.Shrivastava@health.wa.gov.au; dana.weber@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_13
282 P. Shrivastava and D. Weber
Anesthesia may be required either during the neonatal period for intubation or tra-
cheostomy, or during infancy for cleft palate repair or mandibular advancement.
The mid face and mandible grow in the first years of life, and so by primary school
age the mandibular profile may be near normal with an improved airway.
The most important aspect of airway assessment is jaw size—the smaller it is,
the more difficult airway management will be. Having to nurse the child prone or
use a nasal airway even while awake are indicators of more severe forms. The LMA
reliably provides a clear airway as the obstruction is at the level of the oropharynx
and this is bypassed by the LMA. Anesthesia management therefore usually involves
inhalational induction and intubation aided with a videolaryngoscope. A scope with
a curved, hyperangulated blade would be best (see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.12.3). Another
technique is to use an LMA used as a conduit for fiber optic intubation. Some neo-
nates with severe Robin sequence needing tracheostomy have the airway topical-
ized and the LMA inserted awake.
Keypoint
The small jaw size in Robin sequence is the key. It prevents the tongue fitting
within the oral cavity, causing airway obstruction and preventing the tongue
being compressed enough to visualize the larynx at intubation. As the jaw
grows, the airway improves.
13.2 Achondroplasia
Achondroplasia is the commonest cause of dwarfism. Most cases are spontaneous,

with autosomal dominant inheritance of a mutation of a fibroblast growth factor
receptor. The features of achondroplasia are described in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Features associated with achondroplasia

Organ
system Feature
Appearance Short stature, short arms and legs with relatively long trunk
Macrocephaly and frontal bossing
May develop scoliosis
CNS Tendency to develop hydrocephalus, foramen magnum stenosis and
craniocervical cord compression (risk factor for sudden death during infancy)
Airway Midface hypoplasia
Choanal atresia
High arched palate, macroglossia
High incidence of obstructive sleep apnea
Dental malocclusion, crowding
CVS May develop pulmonary hypertension if severe untreated OSD or scoliosis
13 Congenital Syndromes and Conditions 283
Airway considerations include a potentially awkward mask fit and bag-mask venti-
lation, and restriction of cervical spine movement. Management of the airway in
most children with achondroplasia however, is straightforward. Positioning for
laryngoscopy may require planning due to the presence of hydrocephalus, foramen
magnum stenosis or craniocervical cord compression. Intubation using a videolar-
yngoscope reduces neck movement. The size of the ETT may be smaller than pre-
dicted by an age-based formula. Planning for post-operative observation or
ventilation may be necessary depending on the presence of obstructive sleep apnea
or neurological problems.
Tip
Children with achondroplasia appear small but are developmentally normal—
it is a frequent trap to treat them as a younger child.
13.3 Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
Trisomy 21 is the most common chromosomal syndrome, occurring in 1 in 800 live

births. Several different mechanisms can result in three copies of chromosome 21,
so phenotypic expression is variable. Approximately 50% of pregnancies with
Trisomy 21 are reported to spontaneously terminate. Risk factors include increasing
parental (maternal and paternal) age. Antenatal screening with the offer of elective
termination in high risk pregnancies has reduced the incidence.
The many features that may be present are listed in Table 13.2. In practice, atlanto-
axial instability, obstructive sleep apnea and cardiac defects have the greatest impli-
cations for anesthesia. Despite their many airway changes, intubation is usually not
difficult.
13.3.2 The Cervical Spine and Anesthesia
Craniocervical abnormalities are common in Trisomy 21 (approximately 1 in 5).

Abnormalities include atlanto-axial & atlanto-occipital instability, lax trans-
verse ligaments between C1 and C2, and hypoplasia of the occipital condyles &
the posterior arch of C1. While most children have uneventful anesthesia, there
are case reports of adverse neurological outcomes after surgery including rare
cases of cervical cord compression. Of concern are reports of neurological
Table 13.2 Features of Trisomy 21 patients

Organ system Feature
Appearance Characteristic facies
Brachycephaly, flat occiput
Upslanting palpebral fissures
Brushfield spots on iris
Short hands with a single, Simian crease
CNS Variable developmental delay, frequently social & friendly
Atlantoaxial instability (approximately 15%, symptomatic in 2%)
Cataracts, strabismus, refractive errors
Airway Macroglossia (relative to midface hypoplasia)
Micrognathia
Subglottic stenosis in 10% (may require a smaller ETT than predicted)
High incidence of obstructive sleep disorder
Frequent respiratory tract infections
CVS High incidence heart disease, classically endocardial cushion defects
(atrioventricular canal—VSD + ASD), PDA, Tetralogy of Fallot
Cor pulmonale/pulmonary hypertension if severe, untreated heart disease or
airway obstruction
Venous hypoplasia and difficult veins
Hematological Prone to myeloproliferative disorders (Acute Myeloid leukemia)
Immunosuppression
GIT Hirschsprung’s disease, duodenal atresia
Table 13.3 Signs and symptoms that suggest a craniocervical abnormality with cord compres-
sion in children with Trisomy 21
Cord compression signs and symptoms
History Refusal to participate in usual activities, refusal to turn the head due to pain or
stiffness, increasing fatigability
Dizziness or syncope (vertebral artery kinking or stretching)
Deterioration of gait
Loss of fine motor skills (clumsiness)
Bladder or bowel dysfunction
Altered sensation in hands or feet
Examination Altered head & neck movement (flexion, extension, rotation), torticollis
Abnormal gait
Long tract neurological signs in legs
injury associated with upper respiratory tract infections either spontaneously or

during the perioperative period.
The signs and symptoms that suggest a craniocervical abnormality with cord
compression are listed in Table 13.3. The parents of these children are generally
very knowledgeable about Trisomy 21 and will know if there are any concerns
about their child’s neck. Nevertheless, if any of these indicators are present, elective
surgery should be deferred until the cervical spine has been evaluated. Otherwise,
consideration should be given to whether the patient is likely to be a difficult intuba-
tion or if surgical positioning will require an abnormal neck position.
In practice, x-rays are infrequently ordered in the asymptomatic child before
anesthesia, and instead the head and neck are kept in a neutral position. The
13 Congenital Syndromes and Conditions 285
American Academy of Pediatrics states routine radiographs are not recommended

in asymptomatic children at any age. Cervical radiographs are inaccurate before age
of 3 years due to lack of vertebral mineralisation as well as having a low predictive
value for risk of developing atlanto-axial instability. Furthermore, the interpretation
of plain films is not straightforward. The problems include lack of patient co-
operation for successful imaging, lack of ossification, and debate about the upper
limit of normal for the anterior atlanto-dental interval (often quoted as 4.5 mm).
Plain films only assess passive and not active flexion of the cervical spine. If the
films are abnormal, either CT with sagittal reconstructions or MRI is performed to
show the abnormalities. If previous films were abnormal, repeat radiography is jus-
tified, particularly if ossification was incomplete at the time of the original films.
The greatest subluxation occurs during neck flexion. However, both laryngos-
copy (which involves extension & lifting of the skull on C1) and rotary sublux-
ation during surgical positioning have been implicated in adverse outcomes. The
LMA secures the airway with reduced head & neck movement compared to intuba-
tion. Videolaryngoscopy also reduces movement compared to direct laryngoscopy.
Changes to surgical positioning such as rotating the table instead of the patient, or
avoiding use of a shoulder roll during tonsillectomy reduce head and neck movement.
Wake-up tests for patients requiring prolonged sedation in ICU have been suggested.
13.3.3 Obstructive Sleep Disorder
Many children with Trisomy 21 undergo tonsillectomy to treat OSD. They are consid-
ered at risk of postoperative airway obstruction, particularly when young and small.
13.3.4 Cardiac Defects
About 50% of children with Trisomy 21 have congenital heart disease. They are
usually screened at birth and correctional surgery performed if required. Detection
of a previously undiagnosed murmur would be an indication for postponement of
anesthesia and referral to a cardiologist.
Keypoint
Consider imaging and neurological referral if the patient has neurological
symptoms, previous abnormal radiology without follow-up, or surgery requir-
ing unusual positioning of the neck.
13.3.5 Summary
Although children with Trisomy 21 have many changes to the various organ sys-
tems including the airway, they are usually reasonably straightforward to manage.
Apart from taking care with their neck, intubation is usually not difficult. From a
practical point of view however, they often have difficult veins and are anxious at
induction. As they grow older, managing their behavior at induction in a stress-free
manner can become a major challenge.
Review Questions
1. Robin Sequence is associated with mandibular hypoplasia. Why does this cause
airway obstruction and difficulty with intubation?
2. A 7 year old child with Trisomy 21 presents for tonsillectomy. He has no neck
symptoms.
(a) Why is he at risk of neurological problems with anesthesia and surgery?
(b) Would you request cervical spine X-rays before anesthesia?
(c) What precautions would you take to minimize the risk of neurological
sequelae?
Further Reading
Bertolizio G, Saint-Martin C, et al. Cervical instability in patients with Trisomy 21: the eternal
gamble. Focused review. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:1–4.
Bull MJ, Committee on Genetics. Health supervision for children with Down syndrome. Pediatrics.
2011;128:393–405. A comprehensive review of the changes associated with Trisomy 21 at dif-
ferent ages.
Cladis F, Kumar A, et al. Pierre Robin sequence: a perioperative review. Anesth Analg.
2014;119:400–12.
Hobson-Rohrer WL, Samson-Fang L. Down syndrome. Pediatr Rev. 2013;34:573–6.
Horton W, Hall J, Hecht J. Achondroplasia. Lancet. 2007;370:162–72.
Hunter A, et al. Medical complications of achondroplasia: a multicenter patient review. J Med
Genet. 1998;35:705–12.
McKay DR. Controversies in the diagnosis and management of the Robin sequence. J Craniofac
Surg. 2011;22:415–20.
Raj D, Luginbuehl I. Managing the difficult airway in the syndromic child. Contin Educ Anaesth
Crit Care Pain. 2015;15:7–13.
Neonatal Anesthesia
14
Chris Johnson and Dan Durack
This chapter outlines differences between the neonate and older patients, some
common neonatal conditions, and some aspects to consider in the care of the pre-
term neonate so that trainees will have some background knowledge if they are
involved with these patients.
14.1 The Neonate
A neonate is a baby in the first 4 weeks of life. Preterm neonates are those born
at less than 37 weeks gestation. Several terms are used to describe the age of for-
mer preterm infants (Table 14.1). The neonatal period is when physiological and
pharmacological changes are greatest and technical and equipment needs most
specialized. Great changes and differences occur even within the neonatal period,
particularly in the first few days of life when the changes from birth are stabilizing.
14.2 The Neonatal Cardiovascular System
When based on weight, the neonate has twice the metabolic rate of an adult. As a
result, neonates have twice the oxygen consumption, twice the minute ventilation
and twice the cardiac output of an adult (Table 14.2). As the cardiac output in a
neonate is already high, there is less ability to increase it in response to illness.
Other differences of the cardiovascular system of neonates are listed in Table 14.3.
C. Johnson (*)
Formerly Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management,
Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, WA, Australia
D. Durack
e-mail: Daniel.Durack@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_14
288 C. Johnson and D. Durack
Table 14.1 Various terms used to describe the age of preterm neonates
Term Description
Gestational age Time between the first day of the last menstrual period and
delivery. A term baby is 37–40 weeks gestation
Chronological age Time since birth. A baby celebrates its first birthday 52 weeks
(Post-natal age) after birth
Postmenstrual age (PMA) or Gestational age + chronological age. A 6 week old baby born at
Post-conceptual age (PCA) 35 weeks gestation has a PMA of 41 weeks
Corrected age Chronological age minus the number of weeks born before 40
weeks of gestation. A 6 week old baby born at 35 weeks has a
corrected age of 1 week
Postconceptual age is no longer used
Table 14.2 Respiratory and Parameter Neonate Adult

cardiovascular differences Oxygen consumption 7 mL/kg/min 3 mL/kg/min
between neonate and adult RR (breaths/min) 30–60 15–20
MV 220 mL/kg/min 100 mL/kg/min
Tidal volume 6 mL/kg 7 mL/kg
FRC 30 mL/kg 34 mL/kg
Anatomical dead space 2.2 mL/kg 2.2 mL/kg
Cardiac output 200 mL/kg/min 70 mL/kg/min
Note increased oxygen consumption, cardiac output and increased
minute ventilation achieved by increased respiratory rate
Table 14.3 Characteristics of the cardiovascular system in neonates

Cardiovascular system characteristics Reason
Contractility dependent on extracellular Poorly developed sarcoplasmic reticulum
calcium concentration
Rate dependent cardiac output Relatively fixed stroke volume from
non- compliant ventricle
Poorly developed sympathetic nervous system Unable to increase systemic vascular
resistance
Parasympathetic nervous system predominance Prone to bradycardia
Term neonates have a heart rate of 100–160 bpm and normal systolic blood pressure
of approximately 60–70 mmHg. Preterm neonates have a lower blood pressure.
14.2.1 Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
The ductus arteriosus is a vascular communication between the pulmonary artery and
descending aorta, and is an essential component of fetal life. It generally closes soon
after birth but in some types of congenital heart disease, ongoing patency may be
essential for survival. A small PDA is usually benign and NSAIDs may be used to
promote closure. Left-to-right shunting through a large PDA risks pulmonary over-
load and congestive heart failure. This is managed with fluid restriction and diuretics.
Surgical closure may be required, either by cardiac catheter or by thoracotomy.
14 Neonatal Anesthesia 289
Table 14.4 Summary of airway differences

Neonatal airway features
Occiput relatively large—more difficult to position for optimal intubating conditions
Obligate nasal breathing, most resistance in nose, don’t cope with nasal obstruction. 40% of
term babies can convert to oral breathing if nasal obstruction
Underdeveloped mandible with little space in mouth for tongue
Larynx higher in neck with fewer vertebral joints above larynx that can flex
Long, floppy, U-shaped epiglottis
Larynx appears to be more anterior at laryngoscopy
Vocal cords angled forward (more likely to catch ETT on anterior commissure)
Short trachea makes right endobronchial intubation more likely
14.3 The Neonatal Airway
Differences in the airway (Table 14.4) (see also Chap. 4) make the larynx appear
anterior at laryngoscopy and have the potential to make intubation more difficult.
However, intubation is readily achieved in most neonates with a straight Miller
blade laryngoscope and laryngeal pressure. The routine use of a videolaryngoscope
for intubation of neonates is also a reasonable approach nowadays.
Note
Positioning for intubation is different in neonates compared to adults: A head
ring to stabilize the relatively large head; a small roll under the shoulders if
the head is particularly large; mild head extension (too much and the epiglot-
tis may be pushed against the tongue base); no neck flexion needed because
of their high larynx.
14.4 The Neonatal Respiratory System
Neonates have several differences that place them at risk of respiratory and ventila-
tory failure.
14.4.1 Lung Development
The lung is underdeveloped at birth—alveoli develop late in gestation and lung

development continues after birth. A preterm baby has only terminal sacs with
underdeveloped alveolar ducts. Term babies have 20–50 million alveoli and the
number increases to the adult number of 300 million by 8 years. Surfactant produc-
tion begins around 23 weeks gestation and sufficient levels are present from early in
the third trimester through to birth. Surfactant deficiency is a problem in preterm
neonates, resulting in reduced compliance, atelectasis and respiratory distress
syndrome (RDS). Surfactant is so important for lung function in neonates that ante-
natal steroids are given to mothers to stimulate surfactant production if delivering at
34 weeks or less. Preterm neonates born at less than 30 weeks gestation are given
surfactant via an ETT. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) refers to lung damage
caused by mechanical ventilation and subsequent inflammatory reaction.
14.4.2 Airway and Respiratory Mechanics
Respiration is less efficient and the work of breathing higher because of the charac-
teristics of the chest wall, diaphragm and tracheobronchial tree (Table 14.5). The
neonatal larynx is high in the neck and the posterior oral airway is potentially
obstructed by the high and long epiglottis in proximity to the soft palate and tongue.
This allows simultaneous feeding and breathing, but in combination with immature
coordination between respiratory and pharyngeal muscles, neonates and young
infants preferentially breathe through their nose. Only about 40% of term babies can
convert to oral breathing if the nose is obstructed, but nearly all can convert by the
age of 5 months.
Note
Neonates and infants younger than 3 months are termed ‘obligate nasal
breathers’ because less than half can quickly convert to breathing through
their mouth if their nose is obstructed.
14.4.3 Control of Respiration
The respiratory center in the brain stem of the neonate is immature, and respiratory
control is not fully developed. Neonates have periodic breathing- the respiratory
rate varies and includes periods of self-correcting apnea lasting 5 or 10 s. Neonates
also have a biphasic response to hypoxia—they increase ventilation initially, but
then become apneic. After about 3 weeks of age the response to hypoxia is sustained
hyperventilation as in children and adults. Neonates also have a reduced response to
Table 14.5 List of the major differences in respiratory physiology in neonates compared to chil-
dren and adults
Respiratory physiology in neonate
Horizontal ribs rather than ‘bucket handle’
Piston-like, diaphragmatic breathing which is compromised by gastric or abdominal distension
Diaphragm has less type I muscle fibers (25% vs adult 60%; adult levels by 9 months) and
copes with increased work of breathing poorly. Diaphragm is flatter and develops less pressure
for any given muscle tension
Compliant rib cage which in-draws if upper airway obstruction
Small diameter, poorly supported airways
Immature respiratory control
hypercarbia compared with children and adults. Finally, neonates have increased
sensitivity to stimulation in the superior laryngeal nerve territory and respond with
hypoventilation, apnea or bradycardia.
14.4.4 Apnea and Anesthesia in Neonates
As a further indication of their immature respiratory control, neonates, and espe-

cially preterm neonates, are prone to apnea after anesthesia. An apnea is considered
significant if it lasts longer than 15 s, or is associated with oxygen desaturation
<90% or bradycardia (<100 bpm). They usually occur in the first 2 h after anesthe-
sia, but may occur anytime during the first 12 h. The incidence of apnea after anes-
thesia increases with increasing prematurity—7% of neonates born at 34–35 weeks
will have apneas, but 80% born at less than 30 weeks will have apneas. Anesthesia
or sedation may cause apnea even if the infant wasn’t having them before. These
apneas are not self-correcting and are a life-threatening risk of anesthesia in preterm
infants. It is the reason for overnight admission even after minor surgery (Table 14.6).
Apneas are often seen in these infants immediately after anesthesia while still in the
OR (sometimes while still intubated and awaiting extubation). They sometimes
respond to stimulation, and sometimes need IPPV briefly. Apnea in the PACU indi-
cates a higher risk of apnea later on the ward. Overall, 6–10% of preterm neonates
aged 44 weeks PMA or less will have apnea after anesthesia.
14.4.4.1 Risk Factors for Apnea After Anesthesia

Preterm infants aged less than 52 weeks PMA are at risk of apnea after anesthesia
or sedation. The risk declines with age, is very low after 46 weeks PMA and is
Table 14.6 Summary of apnea in infants after anesthesia and sedation

Key features Notes
‘Apnea’ Longer then 15 s, or 10 s if associated desaturation or
bradycardia
Usually within first few hours after anesthesia
Risk period extends to 12 h post op
Usually responds to stimulation; some require IPPV
Risk groups Other preterm baby (less than 35 weeks) until 52 weeks
PMA
Mildly preterm baby (35–37 weeks) until 48 weeks PMA
Term baby until 44 weeks PMA
Other risk factors in preterm Co-morbidities (especially neurological, respiratory)
infants Intraoperative opioids or sedatives
Anesthesia technique and agents
Anemia?
Prevention Analgesia without opioids
Light GA with low-solubility volatile and regional analgesia
Caffeine base 10 mg/kg
Spinal anesthesia
PMA post menstrual age
negligible after 52 weeks PMA. Preterm infants under 44 weeks PMA are most at
risk. The degree of prematurity at birth also affects the risk—infants born mildly
preterm at 35–37 weeks have a lower risk of apnea than neonates born before 35
weeks. Term neonates (born at 37 weeks gestation or more) are at a lower risk of
apnea than preterm neonates, but a risk exists until 44 weeks PMA. Co-morbidities
including anemia (Hb <100 g/L), lung disease, neurological problems and pre-exist-
ing apnea increase the risk of postop apnea.
Keypoint
Term neonates require admission and monitoring for postoperative apnea
until a postmenstrual age of 44 weeks, and preterm infants until 52 weeks
(some centers still use 60 weeks).
14.4.4.2 Prevention Strategies to Reduce Apnea

The risk of postoperative apnea can be reduced by postponing elective surgery until
the infant is older. Term infants should not have day-stay surgery until they are
44 weeks PMA (that is, 4 weeks old if born at 40 weeks gestation, 7 weeks old if
born at 37 weeks). Preterm infants should not have day-stay surgery until they are
52 weeks PMA (some centers use 60 weeks). The risk in infants born mildly pre-
term (35–37 weeks) is lower and some centers allow day-stay surgery after 48
weeks PMA in these infants if there are no other risk factors. This last group still
needs to be monitored for 6–8 apnea-free hours before discharge. Although anemia
increases apnea risk, many centers accept mild anemia unless there are other rea-
sons for transfusion.
General anesthesia can be modified to reduce the risk. Regional or local anesthe-
sia should be used in place of opioids, allowing a light plane of anesthesia with rela-
tively insoluble agents such as sevoflurane. Longer acting drugs of all classes should
be avoided.
Spinal anesthesia was thought to greatly reduce the risk of postop apnea.
More recent work suggests spinal anesthesia does not reduce the overall inci-
dence of apnea compared to general anesthesia. However, it does reduce the
number of infants needing any intervention greater than stimulation to resolve
their apnea, and the number of apneas in the PACU. Spinal anesthesia is dis-
cussed in Chap. 10, Sect. 10.5.4. In summary, its disadvantages are technical
difficulties with lumbar puncture in small infants, and the short duration of spi-
nal anesthesia in infants.
IV caffeine during anesthesia reduces the incidence of postop apnea. Preterm
infants at high risk (44 weeks PMA or less) are given caffeine base 10 mg/kg IV
(equivalent to caffeine citrate 20 mg/kg) during anesthesia to prevent apnea. Caffeine
is also used in the neonatal nursery to prevent apnea in premature neonates, so it is
important to check the baby has not already been given caffeine. Aminophylline can
be used if IV caffeine is not available, although it has more cardiovascular side
effects.
Keypoint
Spinal anesthesia was thought to greatly reduce the risk of postop apnea. It is
now realized it does not affect the overall incidence of postop apnea, but does
reduce the severity of apneas and incidence of early apneas.
14.4.4.3 Monitoring for Apnea

Detection of apnea prevents hypoxia or hypoxic cardiac arrest. An ‘apnea monitor’
is used, usually in combination with pulse oximetry. The monitor uses ECG leads
on the chest and detects respiratory movement via the impedance between the leads
and measures heart rate via the ECG. It will not detect obstructive apnea (chest
moving but no air flow) until bradycardia develops. Most apnea begins in the first
few of hours after anesthesia. The risk diminishes with time and monitoring is
ceased when there has been no apnea for 12 h.
Apneas nearly always respond to stimulation alone and rarely require bag-mask
ventilation. Groups of infants that require monitoring are those in the ‘risk group’ of
Table 14.6.
14.5 Fluid and Glucose Requirements
Neonates have a greater proportion of their bodies as water, a larger blood volume
and higher fluid, glucose and sodium requirements than older children and adults
(Table 14.7). Body water makes up 80% of weight at birth, falling to 60% at age 1
year. The extracellular fluid volume is larger than the intracellular fluid volume (the
opposite of children) until about 3 months of age. Fluid requirements are low for the
first few days after birth while lung water is reabsorbed, and then high in keeping
with the neonate’s high metabolic rate.
Table 14.7 Differences in Fluid compartment Neonate Adult

body fluid compartments and Total body water 70–75% 65%
fluid requirements between Extracellular fluid volume 50% 25%
neonate and adult Blood volume 90 mL/kg 70 mL/kg
Sodium requirement 3 mmol/kg/day
Glucose requirement 6–8 mg/kg/min
Fluid requirements
Day 1 60 mL/kg/24/h
Day 2 75
Day 3 90
Day 4 105
Day 5 120
Day 7 onwards 150
Fluid requirements are low initially because fluid is being
absorbed from the lungs after birth. Based on data from
Newborn clinical guidelines, Starship Children’s
Fig. 14.1 Glomerular 100

filtration rate (GFR) at
birth is roughly one quarter
of the adult, but reaches 80
the adult level at 2 years of
GFR (% adult level)

age. Modified from
Anderson BJ, Holford 60
NHG. Negligible impact of
birth on renal function and
40
drug metabolism. Pediatr
Anesth 2018;28: 1015–21
20
Birth 6mo 1y 2y
Age
Glucose requirements are high in neonates to match their metabolic rate and lim-
ited gluconeogenesis. A commonly used maintenance fluid is 10% glucose with 0.2%
saline. Hypoglycemia is defined as <2.6 mmol/L in neonates (4.0 mmol/L in chil-
dren). In the neonatal unit, hypoglycemia is corrected gradually by increasing feeds or
the rate of glucose administration. Boluses of glucose are avoided and very rarely
used. Renal function is immature at birth with reduced glomerular filtration rate
(GFR) and poor concentrating ability. GFR reaches 50% of the adult level by 48 weeks
PMA, 90% of the adult rate by 1 year, and reaches the adult rate by 2 years (Fig. 14.1).
14.5.1 Neonatal Blood
The neonate has predominantly fetal hemoglobin (HbF) which has an oxygen dis-
sociation curve shifted to the left—oxygen extraction at the tissue level is impaired
due to the higher venous oxygen levels after birth. The hemoglobin level at birth is
variable, but commonly about 16 g/dL. Adult hemoglobin (HbA) is produced from
birth, but red cell production is inadequate and the hemoglobin falls, reaching a low
point of 8–11 g/dL at 2–3 months (called the ‘physiological anemia’). Nearly all of
the hemoglobin at this stage is HbA, and so tissue oxygen delivery is actually
improved compared to earlier with HbF.
Note
The presence of HbF in neonates is a key reason for a higher transfusion-
trigger hemoglobin in neonates than children.
The coagulation system of the neonate is immature and does not reach adult levels
until about 6 months of age. The coagulation changes are due to reduced levels of the
vitamin K dependent factors and reduced levels of coagulation inhibitors
(Antithrombin III, Protein C and S). Vitamin K is often given to neonates because of
this coagulopathy. Platelet numbers are normal, but they do not reach adult activity
until the neonate is 2 weeks old. Neonates do not have blood group antibodies in their
plasma apart from some transferred through the placenta from the mother. Cross
match of blood is performed on maternal serum.
14.6 Temperature
Neonates can only control body temperature over narrow range of environmental tem-
peratures compared to children and adults. Their thermoneutral temperature depends
on the age and weight of the baby, but for a naked term baby it is 32–35 °C. Methods
to maintain body temperature are during surgery are described in Sect. 14.9.2.
14.6.1 Heat Loss and Production
Neonates have large heat losses and a decreased ability to generate heat, so are at
great risk of hypothermia during transport and while in theatre. Losses are through
the skin, particularly by convection and radiation. Evaporation is also an important
source of heat loss in preterm infants because of their thin skin. Heat losses are high
because of the neonate’s large surface area to weight ratio and poor insulation from
subcutaneous fat. The head (20% of surface area) is a significant site of heat loss and
should be kept covered.
Heat production is limited—neonates do not shiver, or at least not enough to
generate any heat. They do however have brown fat that is rich in mitochondria
located around the great vessels in the neck and thorax, and also in the axilla and
between the scapulae. This fat is used for non-shivering thermogenesis, which can
double heat production in neonates and infants until 2 years of age. Non-shivering
thermogenesis is inhibited by anesthesia, as is shivering in older children and adults.
Tip
Think of heat loss when you uncover an infant to insert an IV.
Consider underbody or overhead warming, covering patient with a clear
plastic sheet, insulating cap for the head.
14.7 Pharmacology of Anesthetic Agents in Neonates
In general, neonates have an increased volume of distribution but reduced metabolism

and clearance. Initial doses however, are still often lower than in older children because
of pharmacodynamic differences arising from immature end organs (Table 14.8).
Immaturity of the blood brain barrier was thought to be responsible for apparent
Table 14.8 Factors affecting drug action in neonates

Factors affecting drug action in
neonates Example
Increased volume of distribution due to Prolonged action of vecuronium; less respiratory
increased body water depression from bolus dose of fentanyl
Microsomal enzyme activity reduced Reduced infusion doses
by about 50%
Reduced glomerular filtration and Reduced excretion of morphine and metabolites
tubular secretion
Reduced protein binding Reduced dose of thiopentone
Increased cardiac output and Fast onset of NMBD’s
distribution to VRG
Low proportion of fat and muscle Less redistribution of induction agents, slow to wake
Immaturity of end organ function Reduced MAC, sensitivity to NMBD’s
Table 14.9 Drug doses in neonates

Agent Effect/dose Comment
Propofol 2–3 mg/kg May cause significant hypotension for up
to 1 h after bolus
Volatile agents
Reduced MAC compared to Immature CNS; high cardiac output &
infants; high rate of uptake/ minute ventilation
washout
Muscle Fast onset; first dose same as High cardiac output; increased volume of
relaxants children, second dose will have distribution offset by reduced
longer duration acetylcholine release
Suxamethonium 2 mg/kg High dose to overcome very short
duration of action in neonate
Vecuronium 0.1 mg/kg—Long duration of Large volume of distribution
action in neonates
Rocuronium 0.3–0.45 mg/kg to allow for Prolonged duration of action
sensitivity and long duration of
action
Atracurium 0.5 mg/kg Very fast onset, shorter duration
Morphine Reduced dose needed Reduced clearance morphine and
metabolites; caution with infusions
Fentanyl Similar/reduced dose Reduced clearance
Remifentanil No dose change required Increased volume of distribution offset
by increased clearance
Local Reduced initial dose; avoid Markedly reduced metabolism of
anesthetics infusions bupivacaine, reduced protein binding,
high risk of toxicity
sensitivity of the neonate to some drugs such as morphine, but it is now realized that
pharmacokinetic differences are responsible. Doses have a fast onset due to the high
cardiac output in neonates that predominantly goes to the vessel rich group of tissues.
Non-depolarizing relaxants for example, work very quickly in neonates. Neonates are
slow to wake after propofol—they have low fat and muscle content, and as a result the
induction agents have less mass to redistribute into and the brain concentration remains
higher for longer. Also, propofol causes prolonged hypotension in a proportion of neo-
nates. Table 14.9 lists some common agents and differences in their use in neonates.
Note
Remifentanil is unique among the opioids for neonates. The enzyme which
metabolizes remifentanil is fully active at birth. The dose of remifentanil is
unchanged or slightly higher in neonates than children because of a larger
relative volume of distribution, offset by increased clearance.
Practice Point
Five anesthetic drugs different in neonates compared to children:
• Sevoflurane—reduced MAC
• Propofol—reduced dose, may cause prolonged hypotension after single
bolus dose
• Vecuronium—long acting in neonates
• Remifentanil—fully active enzyme system, increased dose
• Local anesthetics—reduced metabolism, reduced dose
14.8 The Effects of Prematurity
A preterm infant is defined as being born at less than 37 weeks gestation. Extreme
preterm neonates are born before 28 weeks gestation. All of the organ systems are
immature in the preterm infant and the problems they face depend on both the ges-
tational age and weight of the baby (Table 14.10). A short overview of these prob-
lems is listed in Table 14.11.
14.8.1 Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)
RDS or hyaline membrane disease (HMD) is a common lung disease in preterm

infants. It is caused by surfactant deficiency in alveoli that are not completely devel-
oped. There is an influx of inflammatory cells and edema of airways, and a protein-
aceous exudate forms a hyaline membrane in the distal alveolar sacs. RDS begins
within 4 h of birth and causes the signs of respiratory distress listed in Table 14.12.
Lung compliance is reduced and there is atelectasis and ventilation- perfusion
Table 14.10 50th percentile Gestational age (weeks) 50th centile birth weight (g)
birth weight of babies born at 40 3500
different gestational ages 34 2300
30 1450
28 1140
26 890
Table 14.11 Some of the changes in different organ systems associated with prematurity
System Changes associated with prematurity
CVS Increased incidence of PDA
Increased blood volume (100 mL/kg)
More pronounced physiological anemia later
Respiratory Only terminal sacs rather than alveoli
Reduced surfactant
Increased risk of RDS
Increased risk of apnea with or without anesthesia
More likely to need respiratory support after birth or anesthesia
Gastrointestinal Increased risk of hypoglycemia
Unable to suck-feed if less than 34 weeks (need NGT)
Increased risk of necrotizing enterocolitis
CNS Increased risk of intraventricular hemorrhage and neurodevelopmental defects
Risk of retinopathy of prematurity
Table 14.12 Signs of neonatal respiratory Signs of neonatal respiratory distress

distress Tachypnea (respiratory rate more than 60)
Nasal flaring
Expiratory grunting
Chest retractions
Desaturation
mismatch. The CXR classically shows a diffuse, ‘ground glass’ appearance in both
lung fields with air bronchograms and loss of the heart borders. Treatment includes
respiratory support, oxygen and surfactant. There is a trend towards CPAP rather
than intubation and ventilation.
14.8.2 Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)
ROP is an eye disease of prematurity, particularly infants less than 32 weeks gesta-
tion or of extreme low birth weight (<1500 g). Excessively high arterial oxygen
concentration is a major cause, but other factors are involved as it can occur in very
small preterm infants despite maintaining normal oxygen levels. ROP is a two phase
disease, the first phase being a hyperoxic state after exposure to high oxygen con-
centrations. Hyperoxia causes retinal vasoconstriction, resulting in vaso-obliteration
of some existing peripheral retinal vessels. In the second phase, increased metabo-
lism in the developing eye results in the non-perfused peripheral retina becoming
hypoxic, which then triggers the release of vascular endothelial growth factor. This
leads to retinal neovascularization. In some cases, the neovascularization eventually
results in the development of retinal detachment and visual loss. The inspired oxy-
gen concentration should be reduced during anesthesia and transport to keep the
oxygen saturation in the low to mid 90s in neonates younger than 32 weeks or
weighing less than 2.5 kg.
14.9 An Overview of Anesthesia for Neonates
Neonatal anesthesia is a specialized area and is generally performed by fellowship-

trained pediatric anesthetists in tertiary centers. This section gives a brief overview
of neonatal anesthesia techniques for trainees involved in neonatal cases
(Table 14.13).
Most neonatal surgery is performed under general anesthesia. Awake spinal
anesthesia can be used for abdominal and lower limb procedures, and some centers
have extensive experience in this technique. Spinal anesthesia (see Chap. 10, Sect.
10.5.4) reduces the risk of airway and respiratory problems and avoids the concern
of potential neurotoxicity from volatile agents. The lumbar puncture however can
be difficult, and the block only lasts 45 min.
14.9.1 Assessment
Pre-anesthetic evaluation determines the consequences of the surgical condition

and any coexisting conditions. The parents may still be at the birthing place and
away from their baby, which may make preop discussions more difficult. Weight
and postmenstrual age are important as these determine the degree of physiologi-
cal changes present, including apnea risk. Current management of the baby’s air-
way, breathing and circulation are noted. Fluid and glucose management in NICU
Table 14.13 List of main considerations in neonatal anesthesia

Aspect of
anesthesia Important considerations in neonate
Temperature Vulnerable to hypothermia
BSL Ensure glucose supply and monitor BSL
Airway Use a 3 mm ID cuffed or uncuffed ETT (3.5 uncuffed if term infant),
straight blade laryngoscope or videoscope
Rapid desaturation and hypercarbia with apnea
Ventilation Fast rates, short inspiratory time
Small tidal volumes, care with equipment dead space
Apnea after anesthesia
Adverse effects of high FiO2 for lungs and retina
CVS Sick neonates vulnerable to hypotension from propofol and volatile agents
Fentanyl-based anesthesia
Careful use of volatile agents (reduced MAC)
Fluid load—consider 4% Albumin
Small blood volume—consider group & hold or cross match
Ensure vitamin K has been given
Umbilical catheters may need to be removed for some abdominal operations
2Fr long lines are not suitable for large or rapid fluid boluses
Drugs Metabolism and elimination of most drugs reduced. At risk of prolonged
effect
forms a basis for ongoing treatment in theatre. Investigations vary according to the
baby’s condition, but most surgical cases have had the hemoglobin and electrolytes
measured. A newborn’s hemoglobin is often higher than other pediatric patients
at 160 g/L, but the value depends on the time of cord clamping and how much
blood was left in the placenta. Several conditions requiring surgery are associ-
ated with a higher incidence of cardiovascular abnormalities, and a pre-operative
echocardiogram may be required. These conditions include tracheo-esophageal fis-
tula, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, VACTERL & CHARGE associations, and
exomphalos.
14.9.2 Temperature
The body temperature of neonates and infants is maintained during anesthesia by

warming the operating room, using a forced air warmer, warming IV fluid boluses
and using passive humidification of anesthetic gases. Although a theater tempera-
ture of over 25 °C for neonatal cases is traditional, it is a very uncomfortable tem-
perature for staff (who may already be stressed caring for a sick neonate). A
contemporary approach is to keep the OR cooler and create a microclimate around
the baby with a forced air warmer.
Note
Some neonates have a fine, 2FG PICC line in situ. This line is very thin and
even anesthetic drugs need to be given slowly and gently. The PICC line is not
suitable for fluid bolus or blood. Another IV line needs to be established for
surgery.
14.9.3 Induction
Some anesthetists give IV atropine before induction in view of the parasympathetic

predominance in neonates, but its routine use is probably not necessary with current
agents and techniques. Inhalational induction has the advantage of more gradual
loss of consciousness with more time to assess airway and take over breathing. IV
induction is rapid, but preoxygenation is difficult and usually inadequate, so reli-
ance is placed on the rapid establishment of mask ventilation after induction. Rapid
sequence induction in neonates is modified from the adult technique. The majority
of anesthetists do not use cricoid pressure because it compresses the trachea (pre-
venting mask ventilation before intubation) and distorts the airway for laryngos-
copy. Instead, reliance is placed on the fast onset of induction agents and relaxants
in neonates. Mask ventilation after induction and before intubation is crucial to
avoid hypoxia.
Tip
During intubation of the neonate, insert miller blade into mouth and laryngo-
pharynx under direct vision—don’t blindly insert the blade.
Keep the tongue swept to left side of blade (not bulging over right side of
blade) and keep blade out of corner of mouth
Lift the epiglottis directly or indirectly and use laryngeal pressure to
improve view if needed
14.9.4 Intubation
Neonates are intubated and ventilated for most procedures for several reasons: their
airway may be technically difficult to manage and difficult to access after surgery
starts, and hypoxia occurs very quickly if airway obstruction develops. Furthermore,
they are susceptible to respiratory depression from anesthetic drugs and do not tol-
erate increases in the work of breathing. Assisted ventilation via an LMA may be a
suitable technique for simple cases when access to the airway during the case is
possible.
Note
If intubation of the neonate is not successful at the first attempt, it is vital to
concentrate on bag mask ventilation to restore lung volume before the next
intubation attempt. Apneic periods during intubation cause loss of lung vol-
ume and relatively high pressures are usually required to recruit lung volume.
Hypoxia is inevitable by the second or third attempt at intubation if recruit-
ment is not performed. Following intubation, the requirement for high pres-
sures diminishes as further recruitment occurs. NB: Empty gas from stomach.
Gentle cricoid pressure may be handy during recruitment to prevent stomach
distension.
In practice, neonates are usually easy to intubate despite all their airway differ-
ences. A small head ring stabilizes the head during intubation and the head is tilted
back slightly as during an adult intubation. Sometimes, the large head flexes the
neck when they are supine, and either removing the head ring or placing a small pad
under the shoulders overcomes this. The larynx is not actually located anteriorly, but
appears anterior at laryngoscopy. A straight blade laryngoscope and external pres-
sure to bring the larynx into view are key points. A videoscope is an alternative. A
size 1 Miller blade and 3.0 mmID cuffed ETT can be used in babies from 3 kg or if
there is a large leak using an uncuffed ETT. For smaller babies a 3.0 uncuffed ETT
is first choice. The largest uncuffed ETT that still has a leak at 20 cm H2O is best to
facilitate suctioning & reduce risk of occlusion postop. Very small preterm neonates
weighing less than about 1 kg are best intubated using the size 0 Miller blade and a
2.5 mm ID uncuffed ETT. Small curved Macintosh blades are anatomically unsuit-
able for neonates and it is illogical to use a scaled-down adult blade for neonatal
intubation.
Tip
A term neonate weighing more than 3 kg will most likely accept a 3.5 mm
uncuffed or 3.0 mm cuffed ETT. Intubation of smaller neonates should ini-
tially be with a 3.0 uncuffed ETT.
14.9.5 Maintenance
Maintenance techniques vary according to the medical condition of the baby.

Healthy, term neonates will tolerate volatile agents if doses are adjusted (allowing
for reduced MAC) and fluid boluses given if required. Most neonatal surgery is
abdominal, and nitrous oxide is avoided to minimize bowel distension. Sick neo-
nates undergoing emergency procedures may only tolerate low doses of volatile
agents without hypotension. As this group is usually ventilated postop, a common
technique is to rely on remifentanil or fentanyl, relaxant, fluid boluses, and then add
a volatile agent as required and tolerated. Depth is assessed on the basis of hemody-
namic changes in response to surgical stimulation. A dose of fentanyl in the order of
10–50 μg/kg would be considered an adequate anesthetic in a sick, preterm
neonate.
Tip
A starting point for anesthesia for major neonatal surgery when postop venti-
lation is planned:
• Inhalational induction with Sevoflurane and oxygen/air

• Muscle relaxation, pressure controlled ventilation with air/oxygen, mini-
mize FiO2 if preterm
• Fluid load with 10 mL/kg warm saline or 4% Albumin
• Fentanyl incrementally to 10 μg/kg
• Additional fentanyl or low dose volatile as tolerated.
14.9.5.1 Ventilation
Initial ventilator settings for neonates with normal lungs are rate 25–30 breaths/
min, inspiratory pressure 15–20 cmH2O, inspiratory time < 1 s and PEEP
5 cmH2O. Neonates have short alveolar time constants and do not need long inspi-
ratory times. Neonatal intensive care units ventilate at rates of 50–60 breaths/min
and inspiratory times of only 0.3–0.5 s to facilitate synchronization with the
ventilator when awake, and to reduce volutrauma. A large proportion of carbon

dioxide production is from the work of breathing in the neonate and this work is
eliminated with muscle paralysis. Distal sampling of ETCO2 is important (see
Chap. 6 Sect. 6.5.2).
14.9.5.2 Blood Pressure

Blood pressure and fluid management aim to maintain adequate cerebral perfusion
pressure. It is not really known what the blood pressure of a neonate should be dur-
ing anesthesia, nor is there and a well-defined lower limit for blood pressure.
Cerebral oximetry studies suggest blood pressure under anesthesia does not need to
be as high as in the awake state to maintain cerebral perfusion.
Observational studies have documented the values in Table 14.14. These values
were recorded during anesthesia, but there is no information on outcomes to help
decide if they are safe and acceptable as limits. These are often lower than blood
pressures suggested in pediatric life support documents. Another rule used for guid-
ance is that the mean blood pressure (in mmHg) should be no lower than the neo-
nate’s gestational age. This rule is not evidence-based. NIBP devices also vary in
the accuracy of diastolic measurement in small babies and the resulting calculated
mean pressure.
There is a great deal of interest in blood pressure during neonatal anesthesia,
because of concerns that hypotension may contribute to neurodevelopmental
changes. However, a causative relation between low BP and outcome has not been
established. There are concerns also that excessive fluid administration may cause
pulmonary or peripheral edema. In general, neonates usually need a fluid bolus
initially to prevent hypotension, and then to replace losses. The balance between
continuing fluid or giving vasopressors or inotropes varies between centers based on
experience and preference. Vasopressors must be used carefully, as they carry a risk
of causing intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) in neonates.
14.9.5.3 Fluid Management

Maintenance fluids containing glucose are continued during anesthesia and surgery,
usually via a volumetric pump. Blood glucose levels are measured during all but the
shortest procedures, aiming to keep BSL above 3.0 mmol/L. Fluid losses are treated
with boluses of crystalloid or albumin. As these fluid volumes are small (10 mL/kg
Table 14.14 Observed mean BP values in infants during anesthesia

Mean BP values one standard deviation below
Weight (kg) average under anesthesia (mmHg)
2 29
3 31
4 34
5 36
Values given are 1 SD below the average BP observed. They give an indication of lower blood
pressures commonly present during neonatal anesthesia, but it is not known if they are safe or
desirable blood pressures. Adapted from de Graaff et al. Anesthesiology 2016; 125:904–13
is 30 mL in a neonate!), syringes of fluid are often used. The fluid is warmed either
by placing the syringe under a warming blanket or by drawing fluid from a reservoir
via a blood warmer. Blood transfusion is uncommon during neonatal surgery. The
transfusion trigger is around 120 g/L—higher than children because of the neo-
nate’s high level of HbF and limited cardiovascular reserve. Transfusion blood is
drawn into a syringe via a macrofilter and warmed before administration.
14.9.5.4 Postoperative Care

Extubation is possible only if the baby is warm, well perfused, has no significant
pulmonary problems, and is medically stable. Local policies also play a role, as
some NICU prefer to ventilate neonates after a laparotomy while receiving mor-
phine, whereas other units are comfortable managing such a patient awake and
breathing spontaneously. All neonates, including term babies, are considered at risk
of postoperative apnea.
Note
A blood transfusion cannot be given in the same line as 10% Dextrose. They
are not compatible, and the blood will clot and block the IV line and
cannula.
14.10 Some Neonatal Surgical Conditions
14.10.1 Malrotation and Subsequent Volvulus
Intestinal malrotation occurs when the embryological midgut does not rotate nor-
mally in the fetus. As a result, the small intestine is mostly on the right side and has
a narrow mesenteric attachment making it prone to volvulus (Fig. 14.2). Neonatal
Fig. 14.2 Schematic Normal Malrotation

representation of
Narrow
anatomical changes in
mesenteric
malrotation of intestine Caecum
attachment
usually on
prone to volvulus
Duodenum wrong side
Mesenteric
attachment
to posterior
abdominal
wall
Appendix Appendix
volvulus causes intestinal obstruction and intestinal ischemia, and is a ‘true’ surgi-
cal emergency. Some of these infants have hypovolemia and sepsis. A pragmatic
approach is required, balancing the need for volume resuscitation against the desir-
ability of immediate surgery. Anesthesia should only be delayed until reasonable
hemodynamic stability is achieved. The Ladd procedure surgically corrects the mal-
rotation. Anesthesia usually consists of low-dose opioid, volatile anesthesia and
muscle relaxation. Invasive monitoring is not always required, and extubation at the
end of procedure is often possible, followed by low-dose opioid infusion for
analgesia.
14.10.2 Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
NEC is a condition of preterm neonates in which there is inflammation of the bowel

wall causing intramural gas, wall necrosis, perforation and shock.
14.10.2.1 Background
NEC is mostly a condition of preterm neonates, and the more preterm, the more
likely it becomes. It most commonly begins within the first 2 weeks of age. It pres-
ents with abdominal distension, bilious NGT aspirates, bloody stools and intramu-
ral and intrahepatic gas on abdominal X-ray. The neonate becomes septic and
unwell with the systemic consequences listed in Table 14.15. Mortality in the acute
phase is up to 40% in infants <1 kg. Conservative management includes antibiotics,
ventilation and cardiovascular support, ceasing oral intake and starting TPN. Babies
with NEC requiring surgery are usually very small—less than 1–1.5 kg. Surgical
management is either by insertion of a peritoneal drain (often performed in NICU),
or laparotomy with bowel resection and ostomy formation.
14.10.2.2 Assessment
The baby’s general condition is assessed, paying particular attention to circulating
volume status, level of cardio-respiratory support, and presence of changes in
Table 14.15. Blood should be cross matched.
14.10.2.3 Management
Anesthetic issues are listed in Table 14.16. These babies are often very small, very
sick, and very challenging for the anesthetist. The neonate will already be intu-
bated and ventilated in NICU and have IV access with or without inotropic sup-
port. Alternative IV access is useful if it can be obtained, because bleeding can
Table 14.15 Systemic effects in neonate of Changes during NEC

necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) Thrombocytopenia
Anaemia
Metabolic acidosis
Electrolyte changes
Coagulation changes
Table 14.16 Concerns and Anesthesia issues in NEC

problems for anesthesia of Usually very small, preterm neonate weighing less than 1.5 kg
neonate with necrotizing Septic shock, thrombocytopenia, coagulopathy
enterocolitis for laparotomy Large fluid requirement
Potential for significant blood loss from inflamed, friable tissue
Blood not compatible with maintenance IV 10% glucose
occur during surgery from the inflamed, friable tissues. If blood is transfused
through the same IV line as maintenance 10% glucose or TPN, the blood will clot
and block the IV cannula and line. Even if there is minimal blood loss, fluid
requirements are high and several boluses of 10 mL/kg of saline or albumin are
usually required. An opioid-based anesthetic technique is used and volatile agents
added only if hemodynamically tolerated. The baby is returned to NICU venti-
lated postop. Long-term problems include loss of intestinal length from bowel
resection.
14.10.3 Gastroschisis and Exomphalos
These are abdominal wall defects in which the intestines and sometimes other
organs protrude from the abdominal cavity and expose the newborn to the risks of
infection, fluid loss and gut ischemia.
Both conditions are often associated with prematurity. Gastroschisis is more com-
mon and is possibly due to an early vascular incident. The defect is located to the
right of the umbilicus and the herniated intestines are not within any type of mem-
branous sac. The intestines are exposed to the amniotic fluid in utero and are
inflamed and thick-walled. Associated anomalies are present in 10–15%, but they
usually involve the GI tract and are of little consequence to anesthesia. Exomphalos
is rarer, and consists of a large central herniation into a membranous sac that was
part of the umbilical cord. Associated anomalies are present in 70%, with cardiac
and chromosomal defects most common. Lung development and function are also
affected. It is associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (macroglossia, vis-
ceromegaly and hypoglycemia). The blood sugar level is checked in case the baby
has this syndrome and is hypoglycemic.
Immediately after delivery, babies with abdominal wall defects have a plastic
sheet or bowel bag placed over the herniated intestines or over the entire lower body.
The bag reduces infection and also fluid and heat loss. The bowel is observed for
vascular compromise, as kinking of the mesentery can occur. Surgery aims to return
the protruding organs into the abdominal cavity and close the abdominal wall. It is
usually done within several hours of birth, or urgently if there is bowel ischemia.
Non-operative management is often used: the herniated intestines are placed within
a tubular plastic silo while the baby is in neonatal intensive care. The silo is reduced
in size over several days to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity. Anesthesia
may be required for final closure of the abdominal wound.
14.10.3.2 Assessment
Preoperative assessment determines the baby’s size and gestational age, assesses the
lungs, and detects any associated anomalies. Fluid status is also assessed. An echo-
cardiogram is performed in all neonates with exomphalos, but usually only in gas-
troschisis if there is cyanosis or a heart murmur that might indicate a cardiac defect.
14.10.3.3 Induction and Maintenance

These neonates might be considered at risk of regurgitation and aspiration, but a
classic rapid sequence induction is not usually performed because of the reasons
discussed previously. Maintenance of anesthesia usually includes muscle relaxation
and controlled ventilation. There are two major intraoperative issues apart from the
usual neonatal anesthesia concerns. The first is fluid loss and the second is intra-
abdominal pressure after the herniated organs are returned to the abdominal cavity.
Fluid is lost by evaporation from the bowel surface and into the lumen of the
intestine. Intravascular depletion follows and large amounts of fluid are often
required during surgery. This fluid can be either salt-rich crystalloid or a colloid
such as albumin. Volumes up to 70–100 mL/kg may be needed according to the
hemodynamic state of the child and length of surgery. This fluid is in addition to the
maintenance glucose/saline that is continuously infused during surgery. Replacement
fluid is given as 10 mL/kg boluses, usually warmed in syringes. Concerns about
postoperative pulmonary problems from excessive fluid administration have resulted
in a reappraisal of fluid management of these babies and there is an argument to use
smaller volumes and add inotropic support early.
Intra-abdominal pressure rises after the herniated organs are returned to the abdom-
inal cavity. This pressure may compromise ventilation as well as the vascular supply
to the mesentery, kidneys and lower limbs. The ability to safely close the abdominal
cavity is often a matter of surgical judgement. An assessment of lung compliance and
ease of ventilation is often requested. Closure is too tight if airway pressures over
30 cmH2O are needed to maintain adequate ventilation. Intra-abdominal pressure can
be measured if closure has been completed. An alternative to closure is to construct a
tubular ‘silo’ with plastic to hold and protect the intestines outside of the abdomen,
with gradual reduction of bowel into the peritoneal cavity over several days.
14.10.3.4 Postop Management

If the abdominal wall hernia was very small and there are no concerns about raised
Intra-abdominal pressure or coexisting anomalies, extubation at the end of surgery
can be considered after planning for post op analgesia. Usually, the neonate is
sedated and ventilated postop while the adequacy of ventilation and analgesia are
assessed. If a silo was created, it is gradually made smaller over several days while
the neonate is sedated and ventilated.
14.10.4 Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Neonates with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) have a defect in the dia-
phragm with abdominal viscera in the chest and abnormally developed lungs. The
primary defect in CDH is probably pulmonary hypoplasia, which in turn causes a

defect in the diaphragm during development. The pulmonary hypoplasia is also the
main problem for the baby rather than the hernia itself.
The pathological features of pulmonary hypoplasia affect both lungs, although the
lung on the opposite side to the hernia is well formed and expanded. The lung is
hypoplastic with abnormal airways, alveoli, and vasculature. There is reduced bron-
chial budding and inhibited development of alveolar sacs, & pulmonary arterioles
have increased muscularity. These changes cause pulmonary hypertension and per-
sistent fetal circulation with right-to-left shunting through the ductus arteriosus. The
degree of pulmonary hypoplasia affects outcome. Fetal surgery and other interven-
tions have been tried to improve lung development, but are not beneficial. Cardiac
and other anomalies are commonly present.
Eighty-five percent of the hernias are on the left side through the foramen of
Bochdalek. The liver usually herniates in a right-sided defect, perhaps limiting
intestinal herniation and lung compression (however, there is no difference in out-
come between right and left hernias). Diaphragm eventration is where the dia-
phragm is still intact but thin and ineffective.
After birth, mechanical ventilation is begun with the aims to oxygenate and
reverse pulmonary hypertension while avoiding barotrauma to the hypoplastic lung.
This ‘gentle ventilation’ strategy includes keeping airway pressure below 25 cmH2O,
keeping preductal saturation >85% and allowing permissive hypercapnia. High fre-
quency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) can be used either as a rescue mode or pri-
mary mode of ventilation, but its exact role in management is not clear. Inhaled
nitric oxide and ECMO are also occasionally used when pulmonary hypertension
and right heart failure are problematic. However, their effectiveness is controversial
and their role in treatment is not clear. ECMO improves short but not long-term
outcome.
Surgery may be performed several days after birth when the degree of pulmonary
hypoplasia and its effect on the circulation have been assessed and the baby’s condi-
tion stabilized. The sickest babies who are difficult to ventilate and have poorly
controlled pulmonary hypertension do not usually go to theatre. Some babies require
HFOV, nitric oxide and sildenafil therapy to maintain oxygenation. If they have
been stable for a couple of days and there is some reserve to deal with any post-op
deterioration, then surgery may go ahead while still on HFOV. These babies are
often operated on in NICU to reduce the risks of transfer to theatre.
Surgery is via an abdominal incision; the abdominal viscera are removed from
the thorax and the diaphragm closed. A patch is used if needed to close either the
diaphragm or abdomen. Thoracoscopic repair is being increasingly used. One-lung
ventilation is not required as intraoperative inflation of the hypoplastic lung is not a
problem. After the diaphragm is repaired, the hypoplastic lung only partly fills the
thoracic cavity, leaving a pneumothorax. This is not drained, but the cavity fills with
fluid and the lung expands over several weeks. Surgical repair of the hernia does not
improve ventilation.
14.10.4.2 Anesthetic Management

The neonate is transferred from NICU intubated, ventilated and with invasive moni-
toring in situ. Anesthesia is usually reasonably straightforward, as only those babies
with stable ventilation and pulmonary pressures go to surgery. The major concerns
are to avoid pulmonary hypertension and barotrauma. A high-dose opioid technique
is frequently used to blunt changes in pulmonary vascular resistance in response to
surgical stress. Inhaled nitric oxide can be used if pulmonary hypertension occurs,
but is not commonly required. Ventilation is usually straightforward during anesthe-
sia. The baby is returned to NICU ventilated postop.
Keypoint
The main problem in congenital diaphragmatic hernia is pulmonary rather
than diaphragmatic.
14.10.4.3 Postop Management

A ‘honeymoon period’ after surgery lasts for hours to days, but the neonate can then
deteriorate with worsening thoracic compliance, ventilation and pulmonary hyper-
tension. There is a significant post op mortality. Long term problems are common,
including reduced pulmonary function, gastro-esophageal reflux and neurodevelop-
mental delay.
14.10.5 Tracheo-esophageal Fistula
Tracheo-esophageal fistula is an uncommon neonatal surgical condition that presents

several unique challenges for anesthesia. It refers to several combinations of esopha-
geal atresia and fistula formation between the esophagus and trachea (Fig. 14.3).
Fig. 14.3 The three most

common variants of
tracheo-esophageal fistula.
Only the first, most
common variant is
associated with the
problem of gastric inflation
that is difficult to reverse.
The third variant,
tracheo-esophageal fistula
without esophageal atresia,
is also called ‘H-type’
Esophageal Isolated Tracheo-

atresia with esophageal esophageal fistula
distal fistula atresia without atresia
80-90% 7-9% 4%
In most variants, a fistula between the trachea and esophagus allows gas to enter the
stomach which inflates and pushes the diaphragm upwards, restricting ventilation.
In the most common variant, there is no access to the stomach other than through
the fistula, and no simple way to decompress the stomach if it inflates. The second
most common variant has no fistula but only esophageal atresia, making anesthetic
management much more straightforward. The ‘H-type’ variant has a patent esopha-
gus which allows passage of a NGT to decompress the stomach if it inflates.
However, connecting the stomach to the atmosphere with a NGT or gastrostomy
may create a passage between the trachea and stomach of such low resistance that
gases follow this path rather than ventilating the lungs. Decompression of the stom-
ach is a temporizing measure allowing some time for the surgeon to clamp the fis-
tula, but it is not a complete solution.
Inadvertent inflation of the stomach during ventilation of the lungs is a serious
problem, but it is often overstated. In practice, the stomach does not often signifi-
cantly inflate with gentle ventilation of normal lungs. Neonates with abnormal,
poorly compliant lungs are more at risk, although often they are ventilated in NICU
before surgery.
The commonest variant has a blind upper esophageal pouch with the lower
esophagus joining the posterior wall of the trachea just above the carina. Neonates
with this variant of TOF have trouble clearing saliva and may cough, choke or have
desaturation episodes from saliva or attempted feeds irritating the larynx. Diagnosis
is confirmed by trying to pass a NGT that then curls in the esophageal pouch on
X-ray. The H-type variant usually presents later—at a few weeks of age with cough-
ing during feeds. The fistula is often in the neck, and a neck approach used for
surgery.
About 50% of neonates with tracheo-esophageal fistula have with other congeni-
tal anomalies. These anomalies include cardiac defects (27%), VACTERL (19%)
and urogenital defects (18%). Prematurity and cardiac problems both increase the
mortality from TOF—the mortality is very high in preterm neonates <1500 g with
cardiac problems.
A Repogle tube (Fig. 14.4) is inserted orally into the upper esophageal pouch to
remove saliva, and the baby may be nursed head up to reduce lung soiling. Surgery
is usually performed within 24 h of birth to prevent lung damage from either saliva
through the larynx, or stomach acid through the fistula. Some small, preterm babies
have surgery sooner (even in the middle of the night) if there is concern that their
lung function will worsen and require ventilation—surgery is brought forward to
close the fistula while lung function is good. Surgery is usually via a right
Fig. 14.4 A Repogle tube 60 cm

Air in Air out
To Air and saliva

suction aspirated
thoracotomy, but if the aortic arch is abnormally located on the right, a left thora-
cotomy may be used. An extrapleural approach is most commonly used, providing
some protection if an anastomotic leak occurs, and avoiding the need for an inter-
costal drain postop. Very preterm babies or those with a large gap may undergo a
staged procedure in which initial surgery closes the fistula and a later procedure
anastomoses or replaces the esophagus.
14.10.5.2 Anesthetic Management

There are several specific concerns during anesthesia and surgery for tracheo-
esophageal fistula (Table 14.17). Although a thoracotomy is performed, one-lung
ventilation is not used and instead the lung is retracted out of the way. TOF repair
can also be carried out thoracoscopically, during which one-lung ventilation helps
greatly with surgical access but is technically difficult to provide. Blood loss is not
usually a problem and transfusion is not required unless there is a major surgical
complication.
Many strategies have been described to reduce the risk of gastric inflation via the
fistula. However, this is most likely to be a problem if the lungs are poorly compliant
and require high airway pressures for ventilation.
14.10.5.3 Induction
The Repogle tube is removed just before induction as it prevents mask seal and
takes up room in the mouth during laryngoscopy. Some centers routinely perform a
rigid bronchoscopy before thoracotomy to determine the location of the fistula. This
generally requires a spontaneous ventilation technique during bronchoscopy. A bal-
loon catheter can be passed during bronchoscopy to occlude the fistula, but this is
technically difficult, uses equipment not specifically designed for the purpose and
adds the risk of the balloon shifting and occluding the tracheal lumen.
A rapid sequence induction is used in some centers because of concern about
aspiration of saliva. However, the Repogle tube (removed immediately before
induction) reduces the volume of saliva present, and aspiration of saliva into the
lungs is not as dangerous as acid aspiration. Inhalational induction is more con-
trolled than a rapid sequence induction, and allows time to assess the airway and
ability to gently assist ventilation.
Table 14.17 Summary of Anesthesia concerns in TOF repair

anesthesia concerns and Coexisting anomalies, particularly cardiac
problems (in addition to the Potential for lung problems and difficult ventilation
usual neonatal anesthesia Rigid bronchoscopy commonly performed to determine fistula
concerns) in neonates with location
trachea-esophageal fistula Inflation of stomach, compression of diaphragm, difficult
ventilation
Compression of trachea and great vessels during surgery
Blood in trachea with possible occlusion of ETT
Tension on anastomosis between the two ends of esophagus
postop
14.10.5.4 Intubation
Some intubation strategies have been described to reduce the risk of gastric inflation
via the fistula. The first is to position the ETT below the level of the fistula by deliber-
ately performing an endobronchial intubation and then withdrawing the ETT to just
above the carina. This is a reasonable approach in theory, but in practice the neonatal
trachea is so short that nearly all intubations end up quite distal in the trachea anyway.
In addition, the fistula is often very close to the carina. The second is to turn the ETT
bevel away from the fistula hoping that this will increase resistance for gas entering the
fistula. However, there is a gap around the ETT within the tracheal lumen, and gas will
flow in the gap to enter the fistula no matter which way the bevel faces. In practice,
keeping airway pressure low seems to be the most important strategy rather than any
tweaking of ETT position. If gastric insufflation occurs and ventilation is inadequate,
deliberate endobronchial intubation can be used to temporize the situation. Deliberate
left sided intubation is best, as the right lung will be retracted during thoracotomy to
ligate the fistula. Deliberate left endobronchial intubation can be achieved by turning
the baby’s head to the right, and facing the ETT bevel to left while advancing the ETT.
14.10.5.5 Maintenance
Maintenance of anesthesia usually includes muscle relaxation and controlled venti-
lation, avoiding high PEEP and accepting hypercapnia until the fistula is ligated.
This technique maintains oxygenation and allows an opioid based anesthetic tech-
nique to be used.
A spontaneous ventilation technique aims to avoid positive pressure within the
trachea and fistula. However, it is difficult to achieve satisfactory operating condi-
tions and adequate oxygenation during spontaneous ventilation because of cardio-
vascular and respiratory depression. This is especially true once the chest has been
opened. The upper lung is then at atmospheric pressure and makes no contribution
to ventilation and ventilation of the lower lung is impaired by mediastinal flap. It is
a difficult technique to make work in practice.
An arterial line is commonly inserted and occasionally also a CVC, although neither
is mandatory. Their insertion may significantly lengthen the duration of anesthesia
before the fistula is occluded. The major problem during surgery is rapid changes to
ventilation because of compression of the trachea and bronchi. Vascular compression
with changes in cardiac output is also a problem, but less common. Close attention
needs to be paid to compliance and tidal volume, which can be done by either hand
ventilation, (especially with the T-piece), or measurement of respiratory parameters on
modern ventilators. The anesthetist needs to liaise with the surgeon about issues such as
tracheal compression or occlusion, and work with the surgeon to facilitate surgery.
There may be brief periods when ventilation needs to be stopped while the trachea is
occluded to enable a surgical manoeuver. Almost all of these infants have some degree
of tracheomalacia, but this does not usually cause any troubles during repair.
Tip
In practice, the major problem during TOF surgery is intermittent compres-
sion of the trachea and its effect on ventilation and oxygenation.
It is a difficult situation if the stomach inflates and compromises ventilation dur-

ing surgery. One approach is to quickly tie off the fistula, although in practice this
takes considerable time. Another is to perform a gastrostomy, either percutaneously
with a needle or by a mini-laparotomy. However, a gastrostomy creates a tracheo-
cutaneous fistula and ventilation will go out through this path if it offers the least
resistance. A needle gastrostomy offers a higher resistance to ventilation and may be
better. If ventilation is compromised, the quickest and simplest option is to push the
ETT in for a deliberate left-sided endobronchial intubation. Any of these techniques
should be seen only as a way to temporize until surgery occludes the fistula.
After the fistula is controlled, the two ends of the esophagus are anastomosed.
This usually involves passing a NGT through the proximal esophagus and into the
surgical field for the surgeon to thread though the distal esophagus before complet-
ing the anastomosis. The NGT is left in for several days post op while it is used for
feeds and then removed and oral feeds begun.
Postop Management
Sedation and ventilation are usually continued after surgery because of concerns
about tension on the anastomosis. The duration varies from 1or 2 days to several
days, depending on the degree of tension and institutional preferences. Longer term
problems in these babies include tracheomalacia which leads to a weak cough
(‘TOF-cough”) and esophageal strictures that require dilatation.
Review Questions
1. Why are neonates usually intubated and ventilated during anesthesia?

2. What are the problems that occur as a result of pulmonary hypoplasia in a neo-
nate with congenital diaphragmatic hernia?
3. What are the anesthetic issues surrounding prematurity and the very young?
(organize your answer by systems, and apply the physiological changes to anes-
thetic management)
Further Reading
American Academy of Pediatrics. Age terminology during the perinatal period. Pediatrics.
2004;114:1362–4.
Davidson AJ. Apnea after awake regional and general anesthesia in infants. Anesthesiology.
2015;123:38–54.
de Graff JC. Intraoperative blood pressure levels in young and anaesthetised children: are we get-
ting any closer to the truth? Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:313–9.
Frawley G, Ingelmo P. Spinal anaesthesia in the neonate. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol.
2010;24:337–51.
Glass HC, et al. Outcomes for extremely premature infants. Anesthesiology. 2015;120:1337–51.
An interesting article about what happens to the 10% of babies born preterm in the longer term.
Jones LJ, et al. Regional (spinal, epidural, caudal) versus general anaesthesia in preterm infants
undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy in early infancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;6.
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003669.pub2.
Kair LR, et al. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Rev. 2012;33:255–61.
Kurth CD, Cote CJ. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants. Anesthesiology. 2015;123:15–
7. This editorial nicely summarizes the postop apnea findings from the GAS study that com-
pared the effect on neurodevelopment of general and spinal anesthesia.
Lissauer T, et al. Neonatology at a glance. 3rd ed. Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015.
Lonnqvist P. A different perspective: anesthesia for extreme premature infants: is there an age
limitation or how low should we go? Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2018;31:308–12. An interesting
discussion about ethics of caring for extremely sick infants, and some advance tips about anes-
thesia of neonates with NEC.
Sale SM. Neonatal apnoea. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2010;24:323–36.
Vutskits L, Skowno J. Perioperative hypotension in infants: insights from the GAS study. Anesth
Analg. 2017;125:719–20. An editorial discussing links between BP and cerebral oximetry.
Wolf AR, Humphry AT. Limitations and vulnerabilities of the neonatal cardiovascular system:
considerations for anesthetic management. Pediatr Anesth. 2014;24:5–9. A detailed discussion
of the cardiovascular system and physiology in neonates.
Surgical Conditions
King H, Booker PD. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia in the neonate. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit
Care Pain. 2005;5:171–4.
Poddar R, Hartley L. Exomphalos and gastroschisis. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain.
2009;9:48–51.
Rich BS, Dolgin SE. Necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Rev. 2017;38:552–7. A good review article
of medical aspects of NEC.
Anesthesia for Pediatric General Surgery
15
Claudia Rebmann
Children having general surgery present an enormous diversity of ages, conditions

and procedures. The majority of procedures involve simple, superficial surgery and
are performed on healthy children managed as day cases who require little or no
pre-operative investigations. Local anesthetic techniques are useful for these surger-
ies, and some suitable techniques are summarized in Table 15.1. Children also
undergo major surgery that may require special considerations, and these are dis-
cussed later.
15.1 Herniotomy
Inguinal hernias are common in children. They occur in three percent of term infants
and are more common in preterm infants, who are also more likely to have bilateral
hernias. In adults, hernias are due to a defect in the abdominal wall, but in children
they are due to a patent processus vaginalis. This leaves a peritoneal diverticulum
Table 15.1 Summary of local anesthetic techniques common to several general surgical
procedures
Procedure Local anesthetic technique
Herniotomy Caudal or ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric
Orchidopexy Caudal or ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric
Umbilical hernia repair Rectus sheath block or local infiltration
Circumcision Caudal or dorsal nerve block or ring block
Exploration scrotal contents Local infiltration
Laparoscopic appendicectomy Infiltration of port sites
C. Rebmann (*)
e-mail: Claudia.Rebmann@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_15
316 C. Rebmann
that intestine can herniate into, or for fluid to accumulate and cause a scrotal hydro-
cele. An inguinal hernia usually presents as a groin lump that can be reduced. An
irreducible or obstructed hernia is more common in infants and causes bowel obstruc-
tion and compression of the testicular or ovarian vessels. Infants and children with an
obstructed hernia undergoing emergency surgery are at risk of regurgitation and aspi-
ration and are intubated after a modified rapid sequence induction. Preterm neonates
are more prone to obstructed hernias and their hernias are electively repaired at an
early age, often before they are discharged home from the neonatal nursery.
Note
Hernia repair in children—herniotomy, during which the patent processus
vaginalis is tied off. Hernia repair in adults—herniorrhaphy during which the
abdominal wall defect is repaired. Different cause and different procedure.
15.1.1 Anesthesia for Herniotomy in Children
Beyond infancy, general anesthesia is given using a laryngeal mask airway (LMA),
and either an ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric block or local infiltration is used to sup-
plement postoperative analgesia. Surgery takes 30–60 min.
15.1.2 Anesthesia for Herniotomy in Neonates and Infants
There are four issues related to anesthesia in this age group: general or regional
anesthesia, management of the airway, analgesia and the risk of apnea after anesthe-
sia. Although neurotoxicity from general anesthesia has been raised as a concern in
these infants, the surgery cannot be delayed until an older age because of the risk of
the hernia causing obstruction, and there is no evidence of a neurotoxic effect in
humans from a single brief anesthetic.
15.1.2.1 General or Regional Anesthesia

General anesthesia is most commonly used for herniotomy. Awake spinal anesthesia
can be used for neonates if surgery is shorter than 30–40 min. It doesn’t reliably
give adequate surgical conditions in older infants. Regional anesthesia avoids the
risk of airway management in the neonate, avoids respiratory problems in some
very small preterm neonates with chronic lung disease, and avoids the possibility of
neurotoxicity from anesthesia. It also reduces early apnea after anesthesia (see
below). The disadvantages are the high technical failure rate performing the spinal
block (more than 10%), and its short duration (see Chap. 10, Sect. 10.5.4). Awake
caudal anesthesia can be used, but the block is slower in onset and not as dense, and
leg movement during surgery can be a problem. If a spinal block is used for surgery,
wound infiltration or an iliohypogastric block is done for analgesia after surgery.
15 Anesthesia for Pediatric General Surgery 317
15.1.2.2 Airway Management

Most neonates and young infants are intubated for herniotomy. There are advan-
tages and disadvantages of intubation compared to the LMA in this age group
(Table 15.2). Intubation is common because access to the airway is limited due to its
proximity to the surgical site, and hypoxia develops rapidly if the airway is lost.
Beyond about 3 months of age, the LMA may be associated with less adverse respi-
ratory events than intubation.
15.1.2.3 Analgesia
There are three options for analgesia.
1. Caudal analgesia is safe and reliable, and is a good choice for neonates and
infants, particularly for bilateral repair. Caudal analgesia has the advantage of
providing good quality analgesia during surgery, allowing a light plane of anes-
thesia to potentially reduce the risk of postoperative apnea in former preterm
neonates. A block to T10 is required, achieved by a dose of 1 mL/kg of ropiva-
caine 2 mg/mL.
2. The second option is an ilioinguinal-iliohypogastric nerve block (see Chap. 10,
Sect. 10.7.1). This is a good choice in older children who may be upset by leg
weakness and numbness resulting from caudal epidural analgesia. A suitable
volume is about 0.2 mL/kg of ropivacaine 2 mg/mL per side as required.
3. The final option is wound infiltration with local anesthesia by the surgeon. This
option does not provide intraoperative analgesia, and supplementation with opi-
oids is needed.
Preschool-aged children may still benefit from a small dose of fentanyl during
surgery, even if a regional block has been given. Emergence delirium is common in
this group, and fentanyl reduces its incidence (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.8.1). After dis-
charge, pain is not severe and is managed with paracetamol, and ibuprofen if the
patient is older than 3 months.
Table 15.2 Options for managing the airway of neonates and infants during general anesthesia
Technique Comments
LMA
Pros May reduce respiratory events associated with extubation
Laryngospasm and obstruction possible during surgery
Cons Necessitates deeper plane of anesthesia
Low leak pressure may prevent IPPV
Size 1 classic LMA unreliable
Intubation
Pros Secures airway
Avoids airway obstruction during anesthesia
Facilitates IPPV and PEEP
Facilitates light plane of anesthesia without risk of
laryngospasm
Cons Awake extubation may be associated with coughing and
desaturation
318 C. Rebmann
15.1.2.4 Postoperative Apnea

Neonates, and especially former preterm neonates, are at risk of apnea after anes-
thesia. This occurs in 6–10% of former preterm infants age 44 weeks postmenstrual
age (PMA) or younger. Awake spinal anesthesia does not reduce the overall inci-
dence but reduces the number of early apneas in PACU and the level of intervention
needed to treat apnea. Intravenous caffeine base 10 mg/kg (equivalent to 20 mg/kg
caffeine citrate) reduces the incidence of post-operative apnea after general anesthe-
sia and is given to former preterm infants with a postmenstrual age of less than
44 weeks at the time of surgery. Former preterm infants who are younger than
52 weeks PMA (60 weeks in some centers) and term neonates younger than
44 weeks PMA must be admitted overnight for apnea monitoring (see Chap. 14,
Sect. 14.4.4).
Keypoints
Children with obstructed hernia are at risk of aspiration.
Former preterm infants are at risk of apnea after anesthesia.
15.2 Undescended Testis and Orchidopexy
About 3% of term boys are born with an undescended testis. Most undescended
testes can be palpated in the inguinal canal and the majority will descend into the
scrotum during the first year. They are associated with infertility, testicular tumors
and psychological problems. They are also more susceptible to testicular torsion
and infarction and are often associated with inguinal hernias. If the testis has not
descended by 6–9 months of age it is unlikely to ever descend and is surgically
brought into the scrotum (orchidopexy).
Orchidopexy surgery uses the same groin incision as herniotomy, as well as a
scrotal incision. An ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block provides good analge-
sia but does not cover the scrotum. Subcutaneous infiltration over the symphysis
pubis blocks the genitofemoral nerve, or the surgeon can infiltrate the scrotal inci-
sion during surgery. Opioid analgesia is usually required. A caudal block with of
1 mL/kg of local anesthetic to block to about T10 is a good choice for young chil-
dren. Antiemetics are routinely given to children older than 2–3 years. Orchidopexy
pain tends to be more severe and longer lasting than the pain after herniotomy and
many other day stay procedures in children. Despite this, analgesia on discharge is
usually successfully managed with paracetamol and ibuprofen. Older boys (pre-
teens) may need oral opioids for the first 24 h after surgery.
If the testis is not even palpable in the inguinal canal, the 2-stage Fowler Stevens
procedure is performed. Firstly, laparoscopy is performed and if the testis is present,
the testicular vessels are clipped. In the second stage several months later, laparos-
copy is performed again, and the testis is pushed into the scrotum and fixed there
through a scrotal incision.
15.3 orsion of the Testis and Surgery to Explore Scrotal

T
Contents
Acute scrotal pain may be due to torsion of the testis or the appendix of the testis
(Hydatid of Morgagni). The majority of cases occur around puberty and are due to
torsion of the appendix of the testis. Surgery to explore the scrotal contents is per-
formed urgently because of concern of testicular ischemia. Pain is not usually severe
enough to delay gastric emptying, and face mask or LMA anesthesia is reasonable
unless the child is not fasted or is vomiting beforehand. The procedure is not par-
ticularly painful afterwards. These children are usually too old for caudal analgesia,
and instead wound infiltration is used with opioid analgesia and antiemetics.
15.4 Circumcision
Male circumcision is commonly performed for recurrent balanitis or balanitis xerot-

ica obliterans (BXO) that results in phimosis (inability to retract the foreskin). Some
children undergo circumcision during infancy for social or religious reasons. On the
one hand, during infancy the risk of anesthesia is higher and there is the possibility
of neurotoxicity from anesthesia. On the other hand, the risk of anesthesia is reduced
if the anesthetist cares for large numbers of children each year, and a single, short
anesthetic does not affect neurodevelopment in humans.
15.4.1 Analgesia for Circumcision
The procedure is very stimulating, and laryngospasm is a concern early in surgery

when anesthetic depth might not have been optimized. Caudal analgesia, dorsal
nerve block and ring block are suitable alternatives for analgesia after circumcision
(Table 15.3). A caudal block to the level of only S2–4 is needed for circumcision.
Table 15.3 Comparison of local analgesia techniques for circumcision in children

Block Duration Comments
Caudal 2–4 h More reliable block in younger children
Major central block
May delay walking
Penile 4–6 h May be technically difficult (ultrasound may
improve success rate)
Rare penile ischemia
May not cover ventral surface of penis
Ring block 2–4 h May cause local swelling and interfere with
surgery
May cause local hematoma
Less reliable in younger children
Antiseptic/local anesthetic Can be Variably effective, good supplement after
creams reapplied discharge
No intraoperative analgesic effect
320 C. Rebmann
This requires a dose of 0.5 mL/kg ropivacaine 2 mg/mL or L-bupivacaine 0.25%,

maximum of 10–15 mL. An alternative caudal technique is to aim for a saddle block
using a small volume of more concentrated solution (L-bupivacaine 0.5% 0.2–
0.3 mL/kg), but in practice motor block is difficult to avoid. Caudal block is prob-
ably best used for children younger than 6–8 years. It often causes paresthesia of the
legs in older children, which is annoying to them. A ring block of the penile shaft is
simple to perform, but local swelling or hematoma from the local anesthetic may
affect surgery, and its duration is shorter than other techniques. A Cochrane review
of the three alternatives for analgesia found no difference in the need for rescue or
other analgesia between the three. In day-case surgery, penile block may be prefer-
able to caudal block in children old enough to walk due to the possibility of tempo-
rary leg weakness after caudal block. After discharge, analgesia is provided with a
local anesthetic cream and simple oral analgesics.
15.5 Hypospadias Repair
Hypospadias is a condition in which the urethral opening is not at the tip of the
penis, located instead at some point further down the ventral side of the glans penis
or shaft of the penis. More proximal urethral defects are more likely to have an
associated ventral shortening and curvature, called a chordee. Several surgical
repairs are used (Magpi, Wackmans), but all involve laying open the upper urethra
and then closing it over a catheter to create a new, distal urinary opening. The initial
repairs are usually carried out in infancy, although some mild cases are not detected
until later in childhood when the boy begins to stand to urinate. Caudal analgesia is
ideal for this procedure as it reliably blocks the sacral segments. Major hypospadias
repairs require strong analgesia for 24–48 h. Either a caudal catheter and local anes-
thetic infusion can be used, or if a single-shot caudal was used, an intravenous
morphine infusion is started in recovery in preparation for the caudal wearing off.
Ring blocks of the penis cause local swelling and may interfere with surgery, and
penile blocks may be used, but they do not cover the ventral surface well.
Retrospective studies comparing penile block and caudal block for hypospadias sur-
gery have found an association between caudal block and the occurrence of urethral
fistula after surgery. However, the overall incidence of this complication is low and
it is unclear if caudal analgesia causes the complication, or if it occurs because a
caudal block is more likely to be performed in more difficult, proximal hypospadias
cases.
15.6 Division of Tongue Tie
Although a short and simple surgical procedure, anesthesia for division of tongue tie
is challenging. The frenulum tethers the tongue (tongue tie) and affects feeding in
infants and speech in children. A scalpel or diathermy is used to divide the frenu-
lum, usually with minimal bleeding. A shoulder roll helps to open the infant’s mouth
and improves access for the surgeon. Anesthesia is challenging for several reasons.
The procedure is commonly performed in infants and their small airway is shared
with the surgeon. The procedure is brief, but very stimulating and may trigger laryn-
gospasm. An LMA is commonly used to manage the airway. The risk is loss of the
airway, either due to displacement of the LMA or laryngospasm. A key point is to
ensure adequate depth of anesthesia before incision—a bolus of propofol 1–3 mg/
kg is wise if there is any doubt. Fentanyl is given so the baby is not in pain after
awakening, and paracetamol is adequate for analgesia after surgery.
15.7 Umbilical Hernia Repair
Umbilical hernia repair is performed under general anesthesia, most often with an
LMA. There are three points of note about this procedure. Firstly, the peritoneal
cavity is entered, and omentum or bowel can protrude into the wound during sur-
gery. Although this could be prevented with muscle relaxation, acceptable operating
conditions are provided by maintaining a deep plane of anesthesia with apnea and
positive pressure ventilation—if the child breathes spontaneously, the tone in the
abdominal wall may push the omentum into the wound. Secondly, the procedure is
more painful than inguinal hernias, and a multimodal approach is needed, including
a rectus sheath block or wound infiltration. Simple oral analgesics are adequate after
discharge. Finally, it is associated with a high incidence of nausea and vomiting, and
dual antiemetic therapy is indicated.
15.8 Laparoscopic Surgery
Laparoscopic surgery is performed for a widening range of procedures in children

of all ages, including neonates. It is considered to improve outcome by minimizing
tissue trauma and pain, speeding recovery and shortening hospital stay.
15.8.1 Physiological Effects of Laparoscopy
Young children absorb proportionally more carbon dioxide through the peritoneum
than older children and adults. This is due to a proportionally large peritoneal sur-
face area and a lack of intraperitoneal fat that reduces the distance between capillar-
ies and peritoneum and would otherwise buffer carbon dioxide. Children appear to
handle this increased carbon dioxide load without significant acidosis.
As in adults, carbon dioxide insufflation in children increases intra-abdominal
pressure, decreases total lung compliance and functional residual capacity (FRC),
and causes atelectasis and ventilation-perfusion mismatch. Infants and neonates are
particularly at risk of respiratory compromise—their closing lung capacity is
already close to FRC and their oxygen consumption is high. The severity of these
pulmonary effects depends on the abdominal pressure, and for these reasons a lower
322 C. Rebmann
pressure is used in neonates and infants than in children and adults. Fortunately, the
infant abdominal wall is very pliable and the abdominal contents can be visualized
at lower pressures.
The cardiovascular effects of the pneumoperitoneum depend on the intra-
abdominal pressure and age. They are the result of four factors—mechanical com-
pression of splanchnic vessels, postural changes, increased sympathetic tone and
the release of vasoconstrictors including renin and vasopressin. At low abdominal
pressures, venous return and cardiac output increase, and the systemic and pulmo-
nary vascular resistance increases. Blood pressure and heart rate commonly increase.
Cardiac output falls at pressures above 15–20 mmHg. Neonates and infants are
more sensitive to the cardiovascular effects from pneumoperitoneum. Bradycardia
may occur with peritoneal stretching from rapid carbon dioxide insufflation,
although tachycardia more commonly occurs. Children with cyanotic heart disease
are at risk of paradoxical gas embolism and may not be suitable for laparoscopic
surgery.
Note
Typical pneumoperitoneum pressure to reduce respiratory and cardiovascular
effects during laparoscopy
Neonates and infants younger than 4 months: 5–6 mmHg
Small children: 8–10 mmHg
Older children and adults: 10–15 mmHg
15.8.2 Anesthesia Management
Intubation and ventilation is usual practice. Endobronchial intubation may occur in

infants because of cephalad displacement of the diaphragm and shift of the carina
during the pneumoperitoneum and reverse Trendelenburg position. Venous access
ideally should be in the upper limbs to avoid problems from inferior vena cava
(IVC) compression, although in practice the pneumoperitoneum should be stopped
if there are any problems. Invasive monitoring may be warranted in some neonates
or unwell children having prolonged procedures. The pneumoperitoneum reduces
lung compliance, and the inspiratory pressure must be increased if pressure-
controlled ventilation is used.
Nitrous oxide is probably best avoided, although 50% inspired nitrous oxide is
used by many anesthetists without problems. Carbon dioxide is insufflated in chil-
dren using an open cut-down technique rather than a Verres needle or trocar to
reduce the risk of intravascular injection of gas. The flow rate is limited to 0.5–1 L/
min in neonates and small infants, and only increased to adult values of 4 L/min in
larger, healthy children. The gas is warmed to prevent hypothermia. Neuromuscular
blockade usually facilitates lower intra-abdominal pressures. Observation of the
flow rate and pressure helps predict and prevent physiological changes and potential
crisis situations. If carbon dioxide is inadvertently given subcutaneously, it is rap-
idly absorbed and the ETCO2 may abruptly rise to high levels.
After surgery, non-parenteral analgesia is often adequate for many procedures.

However many children benefit from either an opioid infusion or oral opioids for the first
24 h. Children may also develop referred shoulder-tip pain from sub-diaphragmatic gas.
15.9 Appendicectomy
Appendicitis presents late in young children, nearly always after the appendix has
perforated. Anesthetic management is broadly similar to adults—a modified rapid
sequence induction after fluid replacement with Ringer’s lactate or saline. Morphine
0.15–0.2 mg/kg, paracetamol and NSAIDs are often given during surgery. Children
recovery quickly after straightforward appendicectomy. If the appendix was not
perforated, they are able to begin oral fluids immediately after surgery and given
oral analgesia with oxycodone or morphine, paracetamol and ibuprofen. Children
who have a perforated appendix recover slowly after surgery and usually need IV
opioids for analgesia. This group of children are often old enough to use patient-
controlled analgesia (PCA). Some children with perforated appendicitis require
total parenteral nutrition until gut function returns.
15.10 Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
Hypertrophy of the muscular layers of the pyloric causes gastric outlet obstruction,
leading to projectile vomiting. Pyloric stenosis is a common reason for intra-
abdominal surgery during the first 12 weeks of life. Although surgery is required to
relieve the obstruction, pyloric stenosis is a medical rather than a surgical emer-
gency. Early rehydration and correction of electrolyte and acid base abnormalities
contribute to a perioperative mortality of less than 0.3%.
Pyloric stenosis usually occurs in term infant boys aged between 2 and 8 weeks.
Infants of this age weigh roughly 4 kg. Most babies are usually otherwise well. There is
a short history of non-bilious projectile vomiting after feeds, and the hypertrophied
pyloric muscle may be felt in the upper abdomen during a test feed. Clinical examina-
tion will show varying degrees of dehydration and possible muscle wasting. An abdomi-
nal ultrasound may assist in the diagnosis. Blood tests classically reveal a hypochloremic,
hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. Early recognition and treatment is important to avoid
severe dehydration, metabolic derangements and eventual hypovolemic shock.
15.10.1 Pathophysiology
There are three stages in the pathophysiology of pyloric stenosis:
1. Hypochloremic, hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis with dehydration and alkaline

urine
2. Potassium depletion with paradoxical acidic urine
3. Shock, lactic acidosis and starvation ketosis.
324 C. Rebmann
Gastric outlet obstruction from pyloric stenosis causes the loss of hydrogen chlo-
ride, water and small amounts of sodium and potassium. Bicarbonate formed during
the production of hydrogen chloride enters the plasma, causing metabolic alkalosis
(Fig. 15.1). This causes the characteristic hypochloremic, hypokalemic metabolic
alkalosis, with varying degrees of dehydration. (In contrast, vomiting without gas-
tric outlet obstruction causes loss of hydrogen from the stomach and bicarbonate
from the duodenum, with a neutral effect on acid-base balance).
In the kidney, bicarbonate, chloride and sodium are filtered in the renal glomeru-
lus. Sodium is reabsorbed in the tubule to maintain the extracellular fluid (ECF)
volume. Some sodium also accompanies the bicarbonate in the urine, and so the
urine contains small amounts of sodium, which is different to other clinical situa-
tions with low ECF volumes. Reabsorption of chloride in the renal tubule is maxi-
mal because of hypochloremia, but there is insufficient chloride to reabsorb
alongside sodium (to maintain electroneutrality), and some bicarbonate is also reab-
sorbed. While there is insufficient chloride ion, the kidney cannot excrete all the
bicarbonate needed to correct the metabolic alkalosis. This is the reason resuscita-
tion fluid must contain chloride.
Dehydration and reduced ECF volume stimulate aldosterone secretion, and
sodium reabsorption in the tubule in exchange for potassium (Fig. 15.2). This causes
kaliuresis and depletion of total body potassium—most potassium loss in infants
with pyloric stenosis occurs in the urine. The plasma potassium concentration is a
poor guide of this depletion and is often normal because potassium is an intracel-
lular ion.
If untreated, pyloric stenosis causes severe dehydration, forcing the kidney to
maintain the ECF volume rather than the pH, and sodium reabsorption in the renal
Fig. 15.1 Pathophysiology H+ Cl–

of pyloric stenosis. Gastric
outlet obstruction causes
vomiting and loss of
hydrogen and chloride
ions. Bicarbonate produced
during formation of gastric
acid enters blood stream
(‘alkaline tide’), raising
plasma-bicarbonate H2CO3–
concentration
H+ HCO3–
Fig. 15.2 In the kidney, sodium and chloride are Glomerular

reabsorbed in the renal tubule and excess filtrate
bicarbonate excreted. Potassium is lost in exchange
for sodium reabsorption
HCO3–
Cl–
Na+
Na+
Cl–
HCO3–
Renal Tubule
Na+
K+
K+ Low Na+
minimal Cl–
HCO3– in urine
tubule is maximized by exchanging for H+ ions. Hydrogen ions are then secreted in
the urine, causing paradoxical aciduria that makes the metabolic alkalosis even
worse (Fig. 15.3). Later, hypovolemic shock and lactic acidosis develop and are
superimposed on the metabolic alkalosis.
Note
Pyloric stenosis causes a hypochloremic, hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis.
The key to reversing the metabolic alkalosis is chloride and volume. Only
when chloride is given (usually as sodium chloride) can the kidney excrete
enough bicarbonate to correct the alkalosis.
15.10.2 Assessment and Preparation for Surgery
Hypovolemia and electrolyte and acid/base abnormalities must be corrected before

surgery. Most cases now are mild, and the metabolic disturbance can be corrected in
326 C. Rebmann
Fig. 15.3 Severe dehydration causes the kidney to Glomerular

maintain ECF volume rather than maintain correct filtrate
pH. Sodium is absorbed in exchange for hydrogen,
causing a paradoxical aciduria
HCO3–
Cl–
Na+
HCO3–
Cl–
Renal Tubule
Na+
H+
H+
Paradoxical
aciduria
Table 15.4 Classification of severity of electrolyte disturbance in pyloric stenosis before

resuscitation
Severity Serum chloride concentration Serum bicarbonate concentration
Mild 90 mmol/L or more 35 mmol/L or less
Severe 85 mmol/L or less 42 mmol/L or more
12–24 h. Infants with more severe disturbance have a chloride level of 85 mmol/L
or less, are more likely to be very dehydrated or shocked, and may take 36–72 h to
correct (Table 15.4).
Preparation before surgery includes fasting, inserting a 8–10F nasogastric tube,
and rehydrating with IV fluids. Fluid therapy for the commonest, mild cases is typi-
cally a bolus of normal saline 20 mL/kg followed by 5% dextrose in normal saline
with added potassium (KCl 20 mmol/L) at 1–1.5 times maintenance rate. Nasogastric
losses are replaced with additional normal saline. More severe cases may need extra
boluses of saline for initial resuscitation.
Table 15.5 Electrolyte and Measured parameter Target level

acid/base targets for Serum Cl− 100 mmol/L or higher
resuscitation Serum Na+ 132 mmol/L or higher
Serum K+ 3.2 mmol/L or higher
Serum HCO3− Below 30 mmol/L
pH 7.35–7.45
Urine Cl− 20 mmol/L or higher (if measured)
Surgery can proceed when the baby is rehydrated, the plasma chloride is more than
100 mmol/L, and bicarbonate levels less than 30 mmol/L (Table 15.5). Urine output
should also be adequate, usually judged on the number of wet nappies (because these
babies don’t usually have a urinary catheter inserted). The urinary chloride concentra-
tion is also a good marker of assessing metabolic resuscitation, but is seldom mea-
sured. Correction of the metabolic disturbance is important—uncorrected alkalosis
may delay recovery from anesthesia and will increase the risk of postoperative apnea.
15.10.3 Surgery
The Ramstedt pyloromyotomy splits the serosa and underlying muscular layers of
the pylorus through to the mucosal layer. The procedure is usually performed lapa-
roscopically, although it is not certain if this has benefits compared to an open
approach through a right upper quadrant or umbilical incision. Surgery is associated
with minimal blood or extravascular space losses.
15.10.4 Anesthesia
Infants with pyloric stenosis usually arrive in theatre with an IV cannula in situ. It is
vital that the stomach is emptied before induction as these infants often still have
milk in their stomach. The fine-bore nasogastric tube used in the baby’s medical
management does not reliably empty the stomach, and is best replaced with a larger
orogastric tube (10F or 12F). Aspiration of the stomach is done with the baby supine
and then in the lateral (both sides) and prone positions. The nasogastric or orogastric
tube is then often removed before induction because it may affect the mask-seal for
ventilation or obscure the view at laryngoscopy. It does, however, usually need to be
reinserted during surgery to deflate the stomach. Some surgeons will ask for air to
be injected into the stomach so they can push it into the duodenum to test for muco-
sal perforation and the adequacy of the myotomy.
An intravenous, modified rapid sequence induction or an inhalational induction
can be used. Both have advantages and disadvantages.
15.10.4.1 Modified Rapid Sequence Induction

This technique is particularly popular in North America. It includes IV induction,
with or without cricoid pressure and either suxamethonium or a non-depolarizing
328 C. Rebmann
muscle relaxant. Gentle ventilation after induction and before intubation is vital, as
preoxygenation is difficult to perform and an apneic baby will desaturate very
quickly. Many anesthetists do not use cricoid pressure in infants because it may
compress the trachea and distort the larynx at laryngoscopy. This technique priori-
tizes the risk of regurgitation and aspiration above other risks. The disadvantage of
this technique is its rapidity—mask ventilation must be established within seconds
of induction. There is little time to adjust hand or mask position, or to correct a mask
leak affecting ventilation. It is a technique that relies on excellent airway skills to
avoid hypoxia or a hurried, traumatic intubation.
15.10.4.2 Inhalational Induction

Many anesthetists favor inhalational induction because of concerns of loss of air-
way control after an IV induction. The safety of the inhalational induction relies on
emptying the stomach as above before induction. Induction is slower, and allows
more time to assess the airway and potential issues as the baby loses consciousness.
Cricoid pressure can be applied if desired after loss of consciousness, and a small
dose of non-depolarizing relaxant is given to facilitate intubation.
15.10.4.3 Maintenance
These babies are usually intubated with a size 3.0 cuffed or 3.5 uncuffed ETT. Surgery
is stimulating, and tachycardia usual. Nitrous oxide is useful for intraoperative anal-
gesia. Opioids are avoided to minimize postoperative apnea, which is a risk in these
infants due to persisting CSF alkalosis, even after plasma electrolytes have returned to
normal. Some suggest a small dose of alfentanil or remifentanil to reduce intraopera-
tive tachycardia. Hypocarbia should be avoided during lung ventilation as it increases
the risk of postoperative respiratory depression. Analgesia is provided by intravenous
paracetamol and infiltration of wound and port sites with local anesthesia.
Intraoperative fluids are reduced to maintenance rate as there are minimal blood
or extravascular fluid losses. After completion of surgery, neuromuscular blockade
is reversed, the orogastric tube aspirated and removed, and the infant is extubated
awake in the lateral position.
15.10.4.4 Postoperative Care

Infants must be monitored for apnea in the post-operative period. Opioids may
potentiate the risk and are not usually needed after surgery. Analgesia is with oral or
IV paracetamol (these infants are usually too young for ibuprofen). Postoperative
vomiting is common (15–35%) after pyloromyotomy, although usually self-limiting.
Persistent vomiting suggests incomplete myotomy or mucosal perforation.
Intravenous fluids are continued at maintenance rate until oral feeding is estab-
lished. The speed at which feeds are restarted may be slow, fast or on-demand,
depending on institutional preferences. Most feeding regimens have babies on full
feeds by 16–24 h. Otherwise healthy infants may be discharged once they have
tolerated two to three full feeds. Infants with significant pre-operative vomiting,
severe electrolyte imbalance or malnutrition may need a longer period of recovery.
The key points of anesthesia for a baby with pyloric stenosis are listed in Table 15.6.
Table 15.6 Anesthesia considerations for pyloromyotomy

Key points about pyloric stenosis
Pyloric stenosis is a medical but not a surgical emergency
Correction of volume deficit, electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities with chloride-containing
IV fluid. Endpoint: adequate urine output and normal Cl− and HCO3− levels
Functional gastric outlet obstruction with an increased risk of pulmonary aspiration. Careful
suctioning of large bore gastric tube with infant supine, lateral and prone
Neonatal anesthesia with consideration of respiratory and cardiovascular physiology and
temperature control. Intubation with 3.0 mmID cuffed ETT
Avoid opioids if possible
Postoperative analgesia with paracetamol. Monitor for apnea and hypoglycemia
Table 15.7 Important Intussusception keypoints

considerations for anesthesia Hypovolemia from vomiting, bowel losses and rectal bleeding
for laparotomy for intussus- May have sepsis from ischemic bowel
ception. General principles of High risk of pulmonary aspiration of stomach contents
anesthesia for an infant are May require large volumes of fluid
also relevant
15.11 Intussusception
Intussusception is the telescoping of a length of bowel into the lumen of more

distal bowel. In classical infant intussusception (ileocolic intussusception) the
ileum invaginates through the ileo-cecal junction into distal bowel. Occasionally
the lead point is a polyp or Meckel’s diverticulum, but more commonly there is
no apparent cause. It usually occurs in infants between 4 and 10 months of age.
Intussusception often follows a viral gastroenteritis or upper respiratory tract
infection and presents with abdominal pain, vomiting and blood-stained mucous
stools. If not treated promptly, the trapped bowel becomes ischemic and may
perforate. The infant can be hypovolemic, and initial therapy may involve stom-
ach decompression with a gastric tube and fluid resuscitation. Initial diagnosis is
made with ultrasound. This is followed by a barium or air enema, which will
confirm the diagnosis and reduce the intussusception in 80% of cases. If reduc-
tion is unsuccessful or if there are signs of peritonitis, urgent laparotomy is per-
formed. If the intussusception cannot be reduced at laparotomy, bowel resection
is performed.
Infants with intussusception vary in the severity of illness, but are often hypovo-
lemic, look unwell and at risk of vomiting and aspiration (Table 15.7). Resuscitation
with isotonic crystalloid or colloid must be aggressive and may need to take place
whilst initiating and maintaining anesthesia. Large volumes of fluid may be needed,
and hypotension and shock may worsen with reperfusion of the ischemic bowel.
The aim is to make sure the baby has received at least 20–30 mL/kg of fluid before
induction and then more depending on the infant’s condition and test results.
Induction aims to minimize cardiovascular depression. Depending on how unwell
and shocked the infant is, doses may be as low as fentanyl 1–2 μg/kg followed by
330 C. Rebmann
propofol 2 mg/kg or ketamine 1–2 mg/kg followed by a relaxant. These infants may
need a period of stabilization postoperatively before extubation.
Postoperative analgesia includes intravenous paracetamol, wound infiltration,
and morphine infusion. Although a lower abdominal incision is used for surgery,
caudal analgesia is not usually used because of concerns about sepsis.
15.12 Abdominal Tumors
The commonest solid abdominal tumors in childhood are Wilms tumor (nephroblas-
toma) and neuroblastoma. Both present similar anesthetic problems (Table 15.8).
Children have anesthesia for tumor removal and for procedures connected with che-
motherapy including bone marrow biopsy (to exclude metastases), IV access and
imaging procedures.
15.12.1 Wilms Tumor
Wilms tumor (nephroblastoma) is a malignant tumor of the kidney. It is bilateral in

5–10% of cases, and mostly occurs in young children aged 6 months to 5 years. It
presents late, usually as an asymptomatic abdominal mass, or sometimes causing
fever, hematuria, malaise, anemia or weight loss. Abdominal pain usually indicates
an acute complication such as hemorrhage into the tumor. About 10% of children
are hypertensive due to increased renin secretion that can be managed with ACE-
inhibitors. The tumors can become very large, predisposing the child to regurgita-
tion and aspiration under anesthesia. Some invade the inferior vena cava, and can
even extend into the atrium, placing the child at risk of the tumor embolizing into
the pulmonary circulation before or during surgery.
Treatment is with nephrectomy or with chemotherapy before and after surgery
for advanced tumors. The timing of chemotherapy may vary with different oncolo-
gists. Surgery involves a large transverse transperitoneal incision and may range
from nephrectomy with lymph node sampling to a very extensive dissection of
intra- and retroperitoneal structures. Overall cure rates exceed 85% with modern
multimodal treatment strategies.
Table 15.8 Anesthetic considerations for surgical resection of Wilms tumor and neuroblastoma
Wilms tumor and neuroblastoma keypoints
Lengthy, major abdominal surgery in infants or small children with high postop analgesia
requirements
Often large tumor with significant mass effect
Significant fluid shifts and the potential for rapid and major hemorrhage
Intermittent IVC compression during tumor resection
Thermoregulation
Consequences of paraneoplastic phenomena, such as hypertension and acquired von
Willebrand’s disease
Vascular tumor thrombus extension into the proximal IVC or right atrium
Preoperative or previous treatment with chemotherapeutic drugs
15.12.2 Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is a tumor of ganglion cells, the same stem cell of the neural crest caus-
ing pheochromocytoma. It makes up about 7% of all childhood cancers. Most are
located in the abdomen (40% of all neuroblastomas are in the adrenal glands, 25%
parasympathetic chain), but can also be within the thorax, pelvis and elsewhere. It is a
cancer of young children—40% of children are less than 1 year old, and it is rare after
10 years of age. Metastases are present in more than 50% of children at presentation,
more in infants. Survival, however, is higher in infants than older children. Urinary
catecholamines (HMMA and HVA) are present in the urine of most children with neu-
roblastoma. Only about a fifth of children, however, have hypertension. The proportion
is lower than in pheochromocytoma because neuroblastoma tissue has fewer norepi-
nephrine storage vesicles. The release of catecholamines may also produce fever,
sweating, flushing and diarrhea. Paroxysmal or sustained preoperative hypertension
requires perioperative anti-hypertensive therapy. Even with adequate preparation, sig-
nificant hemodynamic changes may occur during surgery. The related tumor, ganglio-
neuroma, is benign and does not secrete catecholamines.
Treatment of localized tumors is by resection, and children with advanced tumors
are given chemotherapy before and after surgery. Hypertension only occurs during
tumor removal, and especially if the tumor has not been shrunk with chemotherapy
preoperatively. Hypertension and tachycardia during tumor manipulation is gener-
ally controlled by increasing the depth of anesthesia.
15.13 Ureteric Reimplantation
Ureteric reflux, or vesicoureteric reflux, is retrograde flow of urine from the bladder into
the ureters. It can cause recurrent urinary tract infections, ureteric dilatation, hydrone-
phrosis, and eventually scarred, poorly functioning kidneys. It is a common childhood
urological anomaly, affecting 0.5–1% of children. Treatment for reflux includes either
an injection of bulking agents such as Deflux® or Vantris® at the insertion point of the
ureter into the bladder to create a valve, or surgically re-implanting the ureters into the
bladder. Ureteric reimplantation is performed through a lower abdominal incision and
the main concern for anesthesia is postoperative analgesia. Wound pain is moderate but
bladder spasm related to the surgery and ureteric/suprapubic catheters can be difficult to
manage. Strategies include caudal or lumbar epidural analgesia, and antispasmodics
such as oxybutinin, NSAIDs and intravesical pethidine. Infants and babies tend to toler-
ate bladder spasms better than older children and have lower analgesic requirements.
15.14 Pyeloplasty
Pyeloplasty is a surgical reconstruction of the renal pelvis to relieve pelvi-ureteric

junction (PUJ) obstruction. It is performed in infants and children as an open or
laparoscopic procedure. Infants are sometimes diagnosed by ultrasound in utero.
332 C. Rebmann
The incision for open pyeloplasty is painful, though less so in infants. A caudal
block can be performed for analgesia, but a large volume of dilute local anesthetic
is needed to raise the block high enough to cover the wound. The high point of the
block is also the first part not covered when the block recedes. Paracetamol and
ibuprofen are routinely used, and an opioid infusion is usually required in children.
An alternative is a local anesthetic wound infusion combined with opioid infusion.
After laparoscopic pyeloplasty, local anesthetic infiltration of the port sites and sim-
ple analgesics are usually adequate, though some children will benefit from an opi-
oid infusion for 24 h after surgery.
Review Questions
1. An 8 week old baby has pyloric stenosis. Fluid resuscitation has been performed
and the baby is fit for anesthesia.
(a) What induction technique will you use and why?
(b) What size ETT would you use for intubation?
(c) What postop analgesia would you use, and what is the rationale for your
treatment?
2. A 7 month old has a short history of vomiting and blood stained stools. You sus-
pect intussusception. The infants pulse is 140 bpm, the peripheries are cool and
blood pressure is 78/50 mmHg.
(a) Describe your immediate management
(b) What are the possible options if you are unable to insert a peripheral IV?
3. A 6 week old infant (born at 36 weeks gestation) presents for herniotomy. Can
the infant be discharged home on the day of surgery? Justify your answer.
4. An otherwise well 7 year old boy who weighs 25 kg requires laparoscopic appen-
dicectomy. List the drugs and doses you would use for induction. Discuss the
steps during your induction up to intubation of the trachea.
5. Describe the anesthesia and analgesia considerations in an 18 month old boy for
elective day case orchidopexy.
Further Reading
Infant Herniotomy
Davidson A. Risk factors for apnea after infant inguinal hernia repair. Pediatr Anesth.
2009;19:402–23.
Davidson A, et al. Apnea after awake regional and general anesthesia in infants. Anesthesiology.
2015;123:38–54.
Kurth CD, Cote C. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants. General anesthesia or spinal
anesthesia—do we have an answer? Anesthesiology. 2015;123:15–7.
Laparoscopy
Bannister CF. The effect of insufflation pressure on pulmonary mechanics in infants during lapa-
roscopic surgical procedures. Pediatr Anesth. 2003;13:785–9.
Bhavani-Shanker K. Negative arterial to end-tidal CO2 gradients in children. Can J Anaesth.
1994;41:1125–6.
De Waal E. Hemodynamic changes during low-pressure carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum in
young children. Pediatr Anesth. 2003;13:18–25.
Truchon R. Anesthetic considerations for laparoscopic surgery in neonates and infants: a practical
review. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2004;18:343–55.
Circumcision and Hypospadius
Cyna AM, Middleton P. Caudal epidural block versus other methods of postoperative pain relief
for circumcision in boys. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(4):CD003005.
Gandhi M, Vashisht R. Anaesthesia for paediatric urology. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain.
2010;10:152–7.
Taicher BM, et al. The association between caudal anesthesia and increased risk of postoperative
surgical complications in boys undergoing hypospadias repair. Pediatr Anesth. 2017;27:688–94.
Teunkens A, et al. Dorsal penile nerve bock for circumcision in pediatric patients: a prospective,
observer-blinded, randomized controlled clinical trial for the comparison of ultrasound-guided
vs landmark technique. Pediatr Anesth. 2018;28:703–9.
Pyloric Stenosis
Kamata M, Cartabuke RS, Tobias JD. Perioperative care of infants with pyloric stenosis. Pediatr
Anesth. 2015;25:1193–206.
Scrimgeour GE, et al. Gas induction for pyloromyotomy. Pediatr Anesth. 2015;25:677–80. A sur-
vey of induction techniques in pyloric stenosis babies in the UK. Only 2 of 269 had classic RSI,
while 94% had gas induction.
Wang JT, Mancuso TJ. How to best induce anesthesia in infants with pyloric stenosis? Pediatr
Anesth. 2015;25:652–3. An editorial advocating the use of RSI.
Wilms/Neuroblastoma
Freiedman AD. Wilms tumor. Pediatr Rev. 2013;34:328–30. A medical review of Wilms tumor.
Whyte SD. Anesthetic considerations in the management of Wilms’ tumor. Pediatr Anesth.
2006;16:504–13.
Anesthesia for Ear, Nose and Throat
Surgery in Children 16
Ian Forsyth and Rohan Mahendran
Ear, nose and throat (ENT) surgery is the most common reason for anesthesia in
children—1.5% of all children in Western Australia have an anesthetic for an ENT
procedure each year. It involves the challenges of managing a shared and potentially
soiled airway as well as the possibility of airway obstruction in the postoperative
period. Safe anesthesia requires vigilance, good communication with the surgical
team and flexibility of anesthetic technique. This chapter outlines the principles of
anesthesia for common ENT procedures in children. Bronchoscopy of the airway is
discussed in the next chapter.
16.1 Anesthesia for Ear Surgery
16.1.1 Myringotomy and Tubes (M&T)
Abnormal function of the eustachian tubes is common in children and may lead to
otitis media with effusion (OME), or ‘glue-ear’. Small ventilation tubes, or grom-
mets, are placed through the tympanic membrane to ventilate the middle ear and pre-
vent hearing loss and speech delay. It is uncomplicated surgery lasting 10–15 min,
with anesthesia using a LMA or facemask. Nitrous oxide is safe to use. The ears
may be sore for a short time after surgery, and analgesia is required or the child may
wake up distressed. Paracetamol with or without a small dose of opioid is usually
sufficient for analgesia. Some anesthetists do not obtain intravenous (IV) access
during anesthesia for M&T insertion. Proponents argue this saves time and avoids
‘handing over’ the airway while the IV is inserted. Analgesia is either omitted, given
I. Forsyth · R. Mahendran (*)

e-mail: Ian.Forsyth@health.wa.gov.au; Rohan.Mahendran@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_16
336 I. Forsyth and R. Mahendran
orally preoperatively, or with intranasal fentanyl intraoperatively. The obvious risk

of this approach is the inability to administer IV drugs in an emergency, and preven-
tion of emergence delirium is limited to fentanyl. It seems difficult to justify this
risk when IV insertion only takes a matter of seconds in skilled hands.
16.1.2 Myringoplasty and Tympanoplasty
Myringoplasty is the repair of a chronic perforation of the tympanic membrane.

Tympanoplasty is a more extensive repair that may include surgery to the middle
ear bones. The surgical approach for both procedures is either transcanal or via an
incision behind the ear. Anesthetic considerations include minimizing bleeding that
may obscure the operative field and prevention of nausea and vomiting. Nitrous
oxide may lift the graft off the tympanic membrane and should be discussed with
the surgeon.
16.1.3 Cochlear Implant
Cochlear implant surgery can be life changing for children with severe sensorineural
deafness by restoring hearing, speech development and communication. Electrodes
run from a receiver under the soft tissue behind the ear through the mastoid and into
the cochlea. These patients may have an underlying syndrome associated with their
sensorineural deafness (such as Treacher Collins syndrome and Klippel-Feil anom-
aly), which may be associated with airway difficulties. Facial nerve monitoring is
used during surgery, and the child is either intubated without a muscle relaxant or
using a short-acting relaxant. TIVA is commonly used to help maintain tight blood
pressure control and to reduce bleeding, and nausea and vomiting (PONV). Small
doses of opioid and local infiltration by the surgeon achieve analgesia.
16.2 Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy
Tonsillectomy is a common procedure usually performed for obstructive sleep apnea

(OSA) in preschool-aged children, and for recurrent tonsillitis in older children.
Three percent of all children undergo tonsillectomy, and 80% of tonsillectomies
are performed for OSA. Pre-operatively, children require assessment of co-existing
conditions that affect upper airway size, such as Trisomy 21 or craniofacial abnor-
malities, and for bleeding disorders such as Von Willebrands disease. Most tonsil-
lectomies are extracapsular, and the tonsil is removed by dissecting between the
capsule and muscular wall. For intracapsular tonsillectomy, the capsule is left intact
making the procedure less painful, but the tonsil may regrow later.
16 Anesthesia for Ear, Nose and Throat Surgery in Children 337
16.2.1 Obstructive Sleep Apnea
OSA is characterized by severely reduced or obstructed airflow during sleep caused

by abnormal upper airway anatomy. The symptoms of OSA in children are different
to adults. OSA is discussed further in Chap. 11, Sect. 11.8. In summary however,
there are three broad causes of OSA in children. The first is soft tissue occupying
the limited space in the upper airway, most commonly adenotonsillar hypertrophy,
but also a large tongue in Trisomy 21. Secondly it is caused by hypotonia or disco-
ordination of the pharyngeal muscles, and finally by bony abnormalities in cranio-
facial syndromes. The cause is frequently a combination of these three factors, for
example a child with Robin sequence has a reduced airway size from micrognathia,
but also has tonsillar hypertrophy of a degree that might not be a problem in a
normal-sized airway.
OSA is common in preschool-aged children because their tonsils and adenoids
are large relative to the size of their airway. Adenotonsillectomy is the initial treat-
ment for OSA in children, and improves sleep study parameters, behavior and qual-
ity of life in both obese and non-obese children. Non-surgical treatment for OSA
includes noninvasive ventilation during sleep, and nasal steroid sprays to reduce
inflammation of the adenoids. The ENT surgeon usually diagnoses OSA clinically,
and not all children require a sleep study to confirm the diagnosis before tonsillec-
tomy. There is no consensus however, on which sub-group of children need a pre-
operative sleep study. Typical criteria include suspicion of severe OSA, presence
of a craniofacial syndrome, morbid obesity, neuromuscular disorders and young
age. In addition, children who are a high anesthetic risk (such as those with cardiac
or pulmonary disease) should have a pre-operative sleep study, as a normal result
might avoid surgery.
Very rarely, children with severe OSA and co-morbidities (such as morbid obe-
sity or a craniofacial syndrome) may have chronic hypoxia and hypercarbia with a
reduced ventilatory response to both. This is rare in modern practice, and screen-
ing with ECG or CXR is not warranted unless there are clinical signs of cardiac
dysfunction or unusually long-standing and untreated severe OSA. These children
may be polycythemic with pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular hypertro-
phy. The presence of polycythemia and a right ventricular strain pattern on ECG
(increased P wave lead 2 and large R wave V1) would suggest a sleep study and
echocardiogram should be performed. In very severely affected children with pul-
monary hypertension secondary to OSA, a brief period of non-invasive ventilation
(BIPAP) may optimize them preoperatively.
Keypoint
OSA significantly increases anesthetic risk for tonsillectomy, particularly in
children younger than 3 years.
Table 16.1 Factors that Risk factors for postoperative problems in children with
increase the risk of airway OSA
obstruction after tonsillec- Young age, especially less than 3 years
tomy in children with OSA Obesity
Craniofacial abnormality with reduced oropharyngeal size
(e.g. Trisomy 21)
Severe OSA on polysomnography (10 or more
obstruction/h, or SaO2 below 80%; RDI > 20)
Co-morbidities such as cardiac disease
Postoperative monitoring in HDU or ICU might be required in
these children
RDI respiratory disturbance index
Children with OSA have an increased risk of respiratory depression from opi-
oids and anesthetic agents, and of upper airway obstruction and apnea after tonsil-
lectomy. The first few hours and first night after surgery are the times of maximal
risk due to airway edema, bleeding, splinting of pharyngeal muscles and effects
of opioids. Methods to reduce this risk include the cautious use of opioids during
anesthesia, and continuous pulse oximetry and observation after surgery. Some chil-
dren with OSA are at particularly high risk of upper airway obstruction and are best
monitored in HDU or ICU (Table 16.1).
16.2.2 Anesthesia Technique
Experienced anesthetists successfully use many different techniques to ensure

safe and smooth anesthesia for tonsillectomy. Tonsillectomy is a short, highly
stimulating procedure involving a shared and potentially bloody airway.
Respiratory incidents occur in between 1 and 20% of children after adenoton-
sillectomy (depending on the population studied), and are twice as common in
children younger than 3 years. Children are at risk of laryngospasm and post-
operative airway obstruction, and it can be challenging to achieve adequate
analgesia while avoiding over-sedation and airway obstruction. To maximize
safety, the anesthetic technique may need to vary depending on the indication
for surgery, local procedures and the postoperative monitoring available. Airway
obstruction can occur in PACU, and a person with adequate skills must be read-
ily available. It is important the anesthetic technique ensures airway issues are
avoided in recovery, particularly if the anesthetist is alone and possibly has
started the next case when problems in PACU occur. One approach is listed in
Table 16.2, but is likely to vary depending in different centers. Sedative premed-
ication may cause airway obstruction in young children with severe OSA. Small
doses of clonidine and midazolam may be used if required and the child is moni-
tored after the premed is given.
Table 16.2 There are many different techniques for anesthesia for tonsillectomy
Anesthetic component Reason
IV or inhalational induction
Flexible LMA, oral RAE ETT in young children More secure airway than LMA in young
children
Pressure support ventilation or IPPV Control CO2, maintain lung volume &
reduce atelectasis
Paracetamol 15 mg preop or IV intraop Multimodal analgesia
Fentanyl 1–2 μg/kg plus morphine 0.05 mg/kg IV Comfortable once awake, but not obstructed
Parecoxib 0.6–0.9 mg/kg (max 40 mg) Multimodal analgesia
Dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg (max 8 mg) Antiemetic, improves analgesia
Ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg (max 4 mg) Antiemetic
Hartmanns 10–20 mL/kg, continue maintenance Maintain hydration despite reduced oral
rate postoperatively intake postop
Extubate awake Safe airway for recovery
Opioid boluses once awake in recovery if Use small dose opioid intraoperatively,
required titrate further doses once child awake
Paracetamol 15 mg/kg, 6 hourly postop oral or IV Analgesia required after discharge.
Oxycodone 0.05–0.1 mg/kg, 6 hourly prn Conservative paracetamol dose as likely to
require for 7 days or more
Monitor oxygen saturation, observe for upper Risk of OSA persists or may even be higher
airway obstruction, excessive sedation, immediately postop
respiratory depression
Above is one technique, given as a suggestion to form a backbone or starting point for an individ-
ual’s own technique and depending on the surgical preferences, child’s age and medical
conditions
16.2.2.1 Airway Management

In many centers, endotracheal intubation is the routine airway of choice, but else-
where the LMA is routinely used with endotracheal intubation reserved for small
children and others at higher risk of airway obstruction during surgery.
Endotracheal Intubation
A south-facing oral RAE tube is used for intubation in tonsillectomy. In small
children, intubation can be achieved without the use of muscle relaxants (using
a bolus of propofol after inhalational induction instead), although in larger chil-
dren a small dose of relaxant (such as 0.25 mg/kg of atracurium) may be required
to optimize intubating conditions. The ETT sits in the midline between the blade
of the mouth gag and the tongue and gives a secure airway unlikely to be dis-
placed and does not impede the operative field. Throat packs are not used as
they obscure the surgical view, although the surgeon may place a gauze swab
above the vocal cords to limit air leak if an uncuffed ETT is used. One must con-
sider if the advantages of intubation (better surgical access in a shared airway,
more definitive airway securement) outweigh some of the disadvantages (risks
of intubation, time taken for airway instrumentation for an often high-turnover

list). Occasionally a malpositioned or incorrectly sized surgical gag can obstruct
the ETT after insertion, and it is best to test ventilate following the gag insertion
and before commencing surgery.
Laryngeal Mask Airway

Flexible, reinforced LMAs are often used instead of ETTs. Their advantages and
disadvantages are listed in Table 16.3. Their main advantage is they are fast to insert
and can be left in situ for awake removal in recovery. Their biggest disadvantage is
they may dislodge or kink and become obstructed when the gag is inserted or
opened. As a general rule, children less than 15 kg are more difficult to manage
using an LMA, as tightening of the surgical gag tends to obstruct or dislodge the
LMA. LMAs also reduce the ability for recruitment maneuvers, which may be par-
ticularly important in small children who are more at risk of atelectasis due to their
small airways and often baseline chronic respiratory tract infections.
Keypoint
The ETT and LMA are both suitable for anesthesia in larger children. The
ETT is better for small children as it improves surgical access, secures the
airway with less likelihood of obstruction, and assists in maintaining end-
expiratory lung volume. Whichever technique is used, airway patency must
be checked when the surgical gag is inserted and opened.
Tip
To improve the likelihood of obtaining an adequate airway with a LMA dur-
ing tonsillectomy, choose a size that errs on the small size for the child’s
weight, do not tape the LMA shaft until the gag is inserted, and use lubricant
on the gag so it does not grip the LMA and push it inwards.
Table 16.3 Advantages and disadvantages of airway management using the LMA during tonsil-
lectomy in children
Advantages of LMA Disadvantages of LMA
Simple insertion Does not prevent laryngospasm during surgery
Maintain airway until child awake Airway may obstruct when gag inserted, particularly in
young children
Protect lower airway from soiling May obstruct surgical field
with blood Not all surgeons comfortable with their use
Not as easy to give positive pressure recruitment
maneuvers
16.2.2.2 Anesthesia Maintenance

Positive pressure ventilation has some advantages over spontaneous ventilation
during tonsillectomy, particularly in smaller children (Table 16.4). The choice
between spontaneous and controlled ventilation is also made based on experience
and familiarity with the technique. Spontaneous ventilation is commonly used if
the airway is managed with a LMA, but gentle positive pressure ventilation is also
a reasonable approach.
IV fluids are routinely given to tonsillectomy patients to compensate for fasting,
bleeding and reluctance of the child to drink post operatively. A volume 10–20 mL/
kg of an isotonic fluid such as normal saline or Hartmann’s with is usually given,
and the IV is left in place postoperatively in case of bleeding within the first 24 h
(primary bleeding).
16.2.2.3 irway Obstruction and Desaturation During

A
Tonsillectomy
Ventilation can become difficult at any stage during tonsillectomy. The gag may
cause airway obstruction and this is usually detected soon after the gag is inserted.
Nevertheless, if there is obstruction without apparent cause, the gag should be
released as soon as possible. Desaturation during tonsillectomy has several com-
mon causes (Table 16.5). One cause is the child coughing and straining, with chest
Table 16.4 Advantages of spontaneous and controlled ventilation during tonsillectomy in

children
Spontaneous ventilation with LMA IPPV with ETT
May allow titration of opioid against Permits lighter GA with lower inhalational agent dose
respiratory rate
May simplify conclusion of May facilitate awake extubation
anesthesia and extubation Avoids hypoventilation and atelectasis by maintaining
end-expiratory lung volume
Table 16.5 A list of Common problems during tonsillectomy

common reasons for airway Obstructed mask ventilation at induction due to large tonsils
obstruction or desaturation (CPAP or oral airway may help)
during tonsillectomy Obstruction or kinking of ETT or LMA due to the mouth gag
Circuit disconnections
Endobronchial intubation
Occlusion of ETT or breathing filter with blood or mucus
Coughing or straining
Atelectasis due to hypoventilation, presence of URTI,
aspiration of blood
Bronchospasm
Laryngospasm
wall rigidity preventing ventilation except between coughing ‘spasms’. This is com-
mon as anesthesia is lightened in preparation for extubation, and in children with
reactive airways from recent URTIs. Treatment is to synchronize manual ventila-
tion with gaps between the child’s coughing and to consider deepening anesthesia
with propofol 1–2 mg/kg. If anesthesia is maintained with an LMA, malposition or
laryngospasm are other common causes to consider (see Chap. 8, Sect. 8.3).
16.2.2.4 Extubation
At the end of surgery, the posterior pharynx is inspected for clots and bleeding
points. Clots may form in the posterior pharyngeal space behind the uvula and need
to be looked for carefully—‘the coroners clot’. There is debate about awake or deep
extubation or removal of the LMA. There is no correct answer as it depends on a
number of factors including the presence of OSA, experience of the recovery staff
and immediate availability of an anesthetist if another case is being started.
Experienced and competent anesthetists do both. The safest method is probably to
have the patient extubated in the left lateral position when fully awake. This is par-
ticularly important in children with OSA. The ‘tonsil position’ (left lateral, slightly
head-down to minimize bleeding onto the vocal cords) is commonly used.
Note
Choosing to extubate a deeply anesthetized child comes with a responsibility
to ensure someone is available to manage the child’s airway in recovery if
laryngospasm or other problems develop.
16.2.3 Analgesia
Tonsillectomy is painful, and children will wake very unhappily if analgesia is

inadequate. Furthermore, crying and screaming causes venous congestion and
may contribute to bleeding early after surgery. There are many successful intra-
operative analgesic regimens used. The principles are to minimize sedation and
respiratory obstruction. Most analgesic regimens for tonsillectomies will involve
the use of an opioid and paracetamol. It is important to remember that all chil-
dren with OSA, and particularly younger children, have an increased sensitivity
to respiratory depression and obstruction and require judicious dosing of opioids.
There are no conclusive studies comparing different opioids for tonsillectomy,
and how opioids are used is probably more important than the choice of opioid.
In spontaneous ventilation, titration against respiratory rate is an option used by
some, although the intense stimulation during surgery likely counteracts the respi-
ratory effects of opioids at that time. Children with severe OSA (as determined
by lowest saturation level during sleep study of <85%) require half the morphine
dose to achieve the same analgesia as children with milder or no OSA (Fig. 16.1).
Tramadol causes less sedation and respiratory depression, which is useful in the
Fig. 16.1 Severe OSA
Morphine dose required

(low SaO2 during sleep
0.12
study) is associated with
postop (mg/kg)
less opioid to achieve
adequate analgesia. 0.08
Adapted from Brown
KA. Anesthesiol 2004;
0.04
100: 806
60 70 80 90 100
Lowest SaO2 on sleep study (%)
setting of OSA. Teenagers and older children experience more pain after tonsillec-
tomy than younger children, because the tonsil is more integrated into surrounding
tissue and more difficult to dissect.
Keypoint
Children with OSA are sensitive to opioids and require smaller doses for anal-
gesia and are at higher risk of respiratory depression or obstruction.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduce pain, opioid require-

ment and nausea and vomiting after tonsillectomy. There is controversy about the
safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) after tonsillectomy, and
some surgeons avoid their use.
The Cochrane review found there is insufficient evidence to exclude an increased
risk of bleeding when NSAIDs are used in pediatric tonsillectomy. Ketorolac
increases bleeding after tonsillectomy and should not be used. Diclofenac is widely
used with a safe history. Of the non-selective NSAIDs, diclofenac affects platelet
function the least, but is not available commercially in a liquid form for oral use.
Ibuprofen is also widely used. There is limited data on its safety, and some stud-
ies show an increased incidence of bleeding in older children or increased severity
of bleeding. Although ibuprofen was included in the Cochrane Review, it did not
constitute a large proportion of the sample size studied. A small study showed the
off-label use of parecoxib during surgery reduced pain, although previous pharma-
cokinetic work has suggested a dose of parecoxib lower than that studied. There
are no liquid preparations of COX-2 selective NSAIDs available for oral use in
children, although some centers prepare their own.
Local anesthesia of the tonsil bed for post op analgesia has been well studied
in recent years and provides a modest reduction in pain relief in recovery, but may
extend into the longer-term postoperative period. Topical application and injection
of local anesthetics appear to provide the same benefit. There have also been small
studies using adjuvants to local anesthetic including dexamethasone, magnesium,
pethidine, ketamine and tramadol with some suggestion of reduced postoperative

pain and vomiting. Infiltration of the tonsillar bed with local anesthesia has risks—
the carotid arteries run superior to the tonsil bed and there are case reports of death
from intra-arterial injection. Drug-spread in the lateral pharyngeal space can also
rarely block the vagus nerve causing recurrent laryngeal nerve and vocal cord paral-
ysis. It is also theoretically possible to disrupt the nerve supply to the carotid body,
affecting the ventilatory response to hypoxia.
16.2.4 Antiemetics and Dexamethasone
About 40% of children will vomit after tonsillectomy if an antiemetic is not given,
and although avoided in the past, multi-agent antiemetic prophylaxis is now stan-
dard. Ondansetron (0.15 mg/kg, max 4 mg) is given both during and after tonsil-
lectomy if required. Dexamethasone (0.15 mg/kg maximum 8 mg) is also given as
an anti-emetic and to reduce post-operative swelling and morbidity. It shortens the
time to eating post-tonsillectomy and reduces pain by 1 on a scale of 0–10. The
minimum effective dose required is not known, although one study suggests a dose
of 0.0625 mg/kg is effective as an antiemetic. Some studies show an association
between dexamethasone and bleeding after tonsillectomy, but the evidence is not
strong and dexamethasone is still routinely given.
Tip
Ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg plus dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg IV is commonly
given during anesthesia for tonsillectomy as PONV prophylaxis.
16.2.5 Postoperative Care After Tonsillectomy
Tonsillectomy is a big operation for a child. They mount a stress response, and are
weak and washed out for a week or 2 after. Nearly half visit a general practitioner,
most often because of pain. It takes 7 days until they return to a normal sleep pat-
tern. The predominant post-operative issue is adequate analgesia balanced against
the risk of airway obstruction or apnea. Fatal respiratory complications after tonsil-
lectomy are two times more likely in children than adults. This risk is greatest on
the first operative night. Vigilance and well-trained recovery staff are essential, as is
the availability of an anesthetist to immediately deal with any airway obstruction.
Removal of tonsils may not improve obstruction immediately. There is the potential
for edema, bleeding, and residual anesthetic agents or opioids may make these chil-
dren even more prone to obstruction during the first night after surgery. Pre-existing
syndromes or craniofacial abnormalities further increase the risk of obstruction, and
are likely to need HDU or ICU monitoring after surgery.
Overnight monitoring and observation in an appropriate environment is impor-
tant. All patients with OSA should be monitored with pulse oximetry overnight,
and those with severe OSA may require admission to HDU or ICU. Some centers
allow older children who do not have OSA to be discharged home several hours
after tonsillectomy (‘day-stay tonsillectomy’). This is becoming more common and
relies on an anesthetic technique that ensures the child is comfortable, not vomiting
and not at risk of sedation or airway obstruction. It is also important that the child
has responsible parents who have ready access to transport to return to the hospital
if necessary. Children with OSA and all young children need overnight hospital
admission after tonsillectomy for monitoring.
Post-operative pain varies significantly, but is often difficult for the parents
to manage after discharge. While some children are seemingly comfortable on
paracetamol alone, others have significant pain and become reluctant to swallow
and take fluids or medicines. The temporary use of 2% viscous lidocaine gargle,
rectal paracetamol and NSAIDs, such as diclofenac, can be useful in this situa-
tion to get pain under control and initiate eating, drinking and taking oral medi-
cines. Care needs to be taken, however, that the child is adequately hydrated before
administering NSAIDs. The pain after tonsillectomy is more severe than many other
types of surgery, and often worsens again between days 4 and 7 after surgery, when
the tonsillar bed scab sloughs away. By day 10 most children are recovering well
(Fig. 16.2). Although most children have their sleep disordered breathing improved
by tonsillectomy, this may take several weeks to occur, and there is no improvement
in one third.
A multimodal approach to analgesia after tonsillectomy is individually tailored
to the child depending on their age, co-morbidities and severity of OSA. Parents
are given clear instruction and education of the expected pain requirements to opti-
mize analgesia and anticipate the pain requirements with pre-emptive dosing. As
discussed earlier, children with OSA are sensitive to opioids and are at risk of respi-
ratory depression and obstruction after tonsillectomy. It would be ideal to avoid
opioids in these children, and some surgical groups have reported success with
paracetamol and NSAIDs alone. More commonly however the pain at rest and with
swallowing will require stronger analgesia.
Fig. 16.2 Average pain 12

scores assessed by parents
at home after surgery. Pain Tonsillectomy
after tonsillectomy remains
Pain score
significant (score > 6) for 1

week, including a period of 6
increased pain towards the
end of the first week. In
comparison, pain after M & T’s
myringotomy and tubes is
minor. Based on Stewart 1 2 4 6 8 10
DW. Pediatr Anesth
Days after surgery
2012;22: 136–43 and
Wilson CA. Pediatr Anesth
2016;26: 992–1001
Table 16.6 Problems with the different oral opioids used for analgesia after tonsillectomy
Agent Problems other than respiratory depression
Morphine elixir Low and variable bioavailability (30–40%)
Perhaps more sedating than oxycodone
Limited evidence of safety in OSA
Oxycodone elixir Not licensed for children
No studies in children with OSA
Few studies of efficacy of oral administration in children
Tramadol drops Some children are ultra-rapid metabolizers and at risk of respiratory
depression (although lower risk than codeine)
Not licensed for young children
Concentrated oral formulation with risk of overdose
All opioids cause respiratory depression in children with OSA
Table 16.7 Doses of oral Agent Oral dose

opioids for analgesia after Morphine 0.1–0.2 mg/kg 4–6 hourly as required
tonsillectomy Oxycodone 0.05–0.1 mg/kg 6 hourly as required
Tramadol 1–2 mg/kg 6 hourly as required
All opioids cause respiratory depression in children with OSA,
and the dose should be at the lower end of the range for young
children with OSA
Oxycodone and morphine are commonly used as strong analgesics after ton-
sillectomy because they are available in liquid preparations. A series of deaths in
children with OSA after tonsillectomy were thought to be due to the ultra-rapid
metabolism of codeine to morphine, causing respiratory depression. Codeine is now
contraindicated after tonsillectomy in children in most countries. Tramadol may
cause less respiratory depression, but is not available in a suitable preparation for
children (liquid drops marketed for palliative care of adults are extremely concen-
trated and risk accidental overdose in children). Some children are also ultra-rapid
metabolizers of tramadol placing them at risk of respiratory depression. The FDA
in the United States has issued a warning against the use of tramadol in children,
but this has been rejected by professional bodies in Europe and Australasia, and tra-
madol is still used in many centers. Nevertheless, all of the opioids have the risk of
causing life-threatening respiratory depression. The risk is highest in small, young
children with severe OSA. Doses should always be conservative. The risks and
problems of opioids are listed in Table 16.6, and their typical doses in Table 16.7.
Opioid side effects such as constipation, nausea and dysphoria are common.
16.3 Adenoidectomy Without Tonsillectomy
Adenoidectomy is performed to correct nasal obstruction and dysfunction of the

eustachian tube affecting hearing. The airway can often be managed with an LMA,
as it does not obscure the surgical field. Children younger than 12–18 months are
better intubated to give a more secure airway that is less prone to obstruction. Small
children having an adenoidectomy alone often still have large tonsils and are vulner-
able to obstruction in PACU. Postoperative analgesia requirements are far less than
tonsillectomy, and paracetamol and ibuprofen alone or in combination with a small
dose of opioid is usually adequate. Most children are discharged home on the same
day of surgery.
16.4 Lingual Tonsillectomy
The vast majority of tonsillectomies are palatine. A lingual tonsillectomy is an

uncommon procedure to remove tonsillar tissue from the posterior tongue. Nasal
intubation may be required. There is a small risk of post-operative bleeding and
swelling of the tongue, and careful postoperative monitoring is required.
16.5 Bleeding After Tonsillectomy
About 1% of children bleed from the tonsillar bed after tonsillectomy. Adenoidal
bleeding is rare. Primary hemorrhage occurs in the first 24 h after surgery, whereas
secondary hemorrhage may be related to infection and occurs up to 14 days after
surgery. It occurs after discharge from hospital. The hemorrhage varies from mild
ooze to arterial bleeding with anemia and hemodynamic instability or even death.
The child may swallow large amounts of blood before presentation, making assess-
ment of the amount of bleeding difficult. Before anesthesia, information about the
duration of bleeding, previous anesthetic (including intubation grade), and any pre-
disposing reasons for the bleeding (infection, NSAIDs, or family history of bleed-
ing disorder) is collected. The child is carefully examined to assess blood loss,
paying attention to pallor, pulse rate, and capillary refill. Beware of the pale, listless
and somnolent child who may be shocked. Resuscitation with isotonic crystalloid
or colloid is begun, and a group and hold or cross match are often appropriate. The
hemoglobin and clotting screen should be checked but should not delay surgery to
stop the bleeding.
Ultimately the anesthetic technique used will depend on the airway and hemo-
dynamic status of the child as well as the experience of the anesthetist. A bleeding
tonsil is an emergency with the potential problems of a difficult, soiled and shared
airway in a child with a full stomach and hypovolemia. Most cases have only minor
bleeding that needs brief cauterization to control and are straightforward to manage.
Others, however, have arterial bleeding with edematous vocal cords that are com-
pletely obscured by blood that rapidly fills the mouth during intubation and may
block the sucker during removal. If intubation proves to be very difficult, inserting
an LMA may retrieve the airway and permit control of the bleeding.
The commonest approach to induction is a rapid sequence induction in the supine
position taking care with drug doses in a child who is hypovolemic. An alternative
is induction with the child in the lateral, head down position to reduce aspiration of
Table 16.8 List of important Bleeding tonsil checklist

details of anesthesia for Adequate fluid resuscitation
bleeding after tonsillectomy Low threshold for cross match and coagulation screen
Check previous intubation grade
Two anesthetic suction units
Difficult intubation trolley immediately available
Two bright laryngoscopes
Surgeon and assistant scrubbed in theatre
Orogastic tube to empty stomach after intubation
Extubate awake
blood and using an inhalational technique to avoid paralysis in the presence of a dif-
ficult airway. Although this approach has some advantages, it tends to be used less
as this position for intubation is unfamiliar and may contribute to difficulty. An ETT
that is 0.5 mm smaller than the size used for the original surgery is often selected to
allow for upper airway edema.
In addition to the standard anesthetic equipment, it is important to ensure that
there are two anesthetic suction units at induction in case one blocks with blood clots
(Table 16.8). The difficult-intubation trolley should be in theatre and the brightest
available laryngoscope should be available as blood readily absorbs light and a dim
laryngoscope can give a surprisingly poor view. A videolaryngoscope is likely to
have its image obscured by blood. The surgeon and assistant should be scrubbed
and ready in theatre. An orogastric tube should be inserted to empty the stomach at
the end of the surgery and the patient should be extubated in the left lateral position,
wide-awake. See also Chap. 8, Sect. 8.2.
Tip
Most children with bleeding tonsils have a small bleeding point and the main
anesthetic issue is blood in their stomach. Others have a serious bleeding
point, and their mouth fills with blood between induction and laryngoscopy.
The severity of bleeding is usually apparent before anesthesia.
16.6 Neck Abscesses
Neck abscesses are fairly common in children. Most are superficial abscesses caused
by infected lymph nodes in the parapharyngeal region. The infection is superficial
to the deep fascia of the neck and the airway is not affected. An LMA is most often
used for their brief, surgical drainage.
Deeper neck abscesses are rare. Peritonsillar abscess, or quinsy tonsillitis, is
an abscess in the connective tissues between the tonsillar capsule and pharyngeal
muscles. It usually occurs in one tonsil of older children and adolescents and is
treated with antibiotics if small, or surgical drainage if large. In co-operative, older
children, the abscess can be at least partly drained using a syringe and needle while
awake. A neck ultrasound or CT may be useful to quantify the severity and extent
of large abscesses. Mouth opening is limited by pain (trismus) but will usually
relax after induction. The vocal cords can usually be seen easily, but the airway
must be instrumented without rupturing the abscess. Rarely, the abscess extends
to cause supralaryngeal edema, indicated by signs of airway obstruction. Airway
edema is still a risk after drainage and children are monitored in an area where signs
of obstruction can be immediately recognized and acted on. If the airway is very
edematous at intubation, consider ventilation and extubation in ICU after the infec-
tion and swelling have resolved.
Abscesses of the submandibular space (Ludwig’s angina) originate from an
abscess of the molar teeth. They occur in teenagers or adults, and are uncommon in
children because their deciduous teeth are rooted high in the mandible (see Chap.
18, Sect. 18.2). Submandibular abscesses cause airway obstruction and make intu-
bation difficult—a tense floor of the mouth and inability to protrude the tongue
indicate significant swelling and risk.
Retropharyngeal abscesses originate from infected lymph nodes and usually
occur in young children. Pus may track along deep fascial planes to the upper medi-
astinum. These deeper abscesses are more concerning for airway management.
Signs of airway obstruction, including stridor, drooling, muffled voice or hoarse cry
indicate significant swelling and airway involvement.
Review Questions
1. A 3 year old child has been intubated and ventilated for tonsillectomy. Part-way
through surgery, the ETCO2 trace becomes irregular and the oxygen saturation
falls. What will you do?
2. A 6-year-old boy with Trisomy 21 syndrome presents with a day 6 post tonsil-
lectomy bleed pale and lethargic. He was previously a grade 3 intubation. What
is your anesthetic plan?
3. You have just induced a child for ear grommet insertion. Just before you are
about to place the LMA you get an urgent call from recovery telling you that the
previous tonsillectomy patient is blue and not breathing. You are the sole anes-
thetist in the hospital at this time. What is your approach?
4. A child with Von Willebrand’s disease presents for elective tonsillectomy.
Describe your management
5. You are asked to see a 16-year-old boy with a large tonsillar abscess.
(a) What are the treatment options?
(b) What clinical signs and symptoms would particularly concern you?
(c) How would you anesthetize this patient?
6. A 10 year old girl with Trisomy 21 presents for adenotonsillectomy. She has
recurrent respiratory infections and tires easily when playing. On examination
SaO2 is 93% in air, temperature 37.2 °C and she has a non-radiating grade 3/6
systolic murmur.
7. Why might it be best not to proceed with anesthesia
Further Reading
OSA
Gipson K, Lu M. Sleep-disordered breathing in children. Pediatr Rev. 2019;40:3–13. An excellent

review of the causes, diagnosis and management of OSA in children.
McGrath B, Lerman J. Pediatric sleep-disordered breathing: an update on diagnostic testing. Curr
Opin Anaesthesiol. 2017;30:357–61.
Analgesia
Bellis JR, et al. Dexamethasone and haemorrhage risk in paediatric tonsillectomy: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2014;113:23–42.
Grainger J, Saravanappa N. Local anesthetic for post-tonsillectomy pain: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Clin Otolaryngol. 2008;33(5):411–9.
Lewis SR, et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in pae-
diatric tonsillectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(7):CD003591. https://doi.
org/10.1002/14651858.CD003591.pub3.
Li X, et al. Parecoxib sodium reduces the need for opioids after tonsillectomy in children: a double-
blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Can J Anesth. 2016;63:268–74.
Tan L, et al. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effectiveness of intravenous parecoxib for tonsillec-
tomy and adenoidectomy. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:1126–35.
Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children with sleep related breathing disorders. Consensus
statement of a UK multidisciplinary working party. 2010. https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/document-
store/tonsillectomy-and-adenoidectomy-children-sleep-related-breathing-disorders. Accessed
July 2019.
Neck Abscesses
Davies I, Jenkins I. Paediatric airway infections. BJA Educ. 2017;17:341–5.
Morosan M, Parbhoo A, Curry N. Anaesthesia and common oral and maxilla-facial emergencies.
Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2012;12:257–62.
Bronchoscopy and Removal of Foreign
Bodies from the Trachea 17
Marlene Johnson and Craig Sims
Bronchoscopy is performed to assess the airway in a child who has suspected laryn-
geal or tracheal anomalies, for investigation of stridor and obstruction, and for the
removal of foreign bodies. Anesthesia is challenging as the airway is shared with the
surgeon and unprotected.
17.1 Types of Bronchoscopes
There are many types of bronchoscopes used for assessment and management of
airway conditions. Commonly used scopes include:
• Ventilating bronchoscope (rigid)

• Rod telescope (rigid)
• Optical grasper (rigid)
• Fiberoptic bronchoscope (flexible)
Each scope has distinct advantages and uses in specific scenarios, which are
outlined below.
M. Johnson (*) · C. Sims

e-mail: Marlene.Johnson@health.wa.gov.au; craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_17
352 M. Johnson and C. Sims
17.1.1 Storz Ventilating Bronchoscope
The most commonly used rigid bronchoscope is the Storz ventilating bronchoscope
(Fig. 17.1). This is a hollow tube with a removable flat glass eyepiece at the proxi-
mal end. Next to the eyepiece are connectors for the fiberoptic light source and
anesthetic gases, and a rarely-used port for suction or biopsy. The distal end is open
and has fenestrations that allow for gases to pass if the distal scope is partly occluded.
An anesthetic circuit can be connected to the side arm of the bronchoscope. A
T-piece circuit is often preferred as it is lightweight and in close reach of the anes-
thetist. The circle circuit can be used, but there is uncertainty about how much gas
passes through the filter into the patient rather than back down the expiratory limb
of the circle. In addition, the APL valve is located at a distance on the anesthetic
machine and needs to be frequently adjusted during ventilation because of the vari-
able leak around the bronchoscope. When the eyepiece and instrument ports are
occluded, manual ventilation through the side arm of the bronchoscope is possible.
The bronchoscope is available in a range of sizes. Careful attention must be paid
to the size of the bronchoscope selected. Too large, and it will cause damage to the
tracheal mucosa and mucosal edema; too small, and manual ventilation will be dif-
ficult. The correct size is one in which there is an air leak at 20 cmH2O. Instruments,
such as a rod telescope (see below), graspers or suction may be passed through the
lumen of the Storz scope.
This scope is particularly useful for removing airway foreign bodies in the tra-
chea and proximal bronchial tree. To retrieve a foreign body, the glass eyepiece is
removed and a long forceps is passed down the lumen of the scope to grasp the
foreign body. The view of the foreign body down the scope can be poor, as it is
Fig. 17.1 The Storz 15 mm

ventilating bronchoscope connector
and accompanying rod gas inlet
telescope Suction
port
Eye piece
(removable)
Storz rigid ventilating

Light source
bronchoscope
Attachment into
Storz ventilating Fiberoptic
bronchoscope rod
Eye
Piece
Hopkins optical rod

Light source telescope
17 Bronchoscopy and Removal of Foreign Bodies from the Trachea 353
viewed down the length of the bore of the scope and the view is partly obscured
when the forceps are inserted. The optical grasper (see below) gives a much better
view and is growing in popularity among surgeons.
17.1.2 Hopkins Rod Telescope
The Hopkins rod telescope may be used alone or passed through the lumen of the
ventilating bronchoscope to examine the larynx and trachea. The rod telescope is
rigid, has its own light source and magnifies the view for the surgeon. It is much
narrower than the Storz ventilating bronchoscope. Subsequently, it is likely to cause
less damage to the mucosa and may be inserted further down the bronchial tree.
There is no gas channel on the rod telescope, so alternative methods to provide
oxygen or anesthetic gases are required. Supplemental oxygen may be provided
using nasal prongs. Alternatively, anesthetic gases and oxygen may be delivered
through an ETT in the oropharynx or the nasopharynx.
When used in conjunction with the ventilating bronchoscope, it greatly narrows
the lumen of the bronchoscope and increases the resistance to breathing. This is
particularly a problem with the small bronchoscopes that are used in infants.
17.1.3 The Optical Grasper
The optical grasper is a rod telescope with distally placed forceps operated by a
lever near the eyepiece (Fig. 17.2). Surgeons are using the optical grasper more
frequently because it gives a clear, magnified view of the foreign body. However, it
has no channel for anesthetic gases and ventilation through it is not possible. If the
surgeon uses these forceps, a spontaneous ventilation technique must be used. This
technique is described later in the section ‘Assessment of stridor’.
Keypoint
Foreign body removal with a ventilating bronchoscope—spontaneous or con-
trolled ventilation are possible. Foreign body removal with optical grasping
forceps—spontaneous ventilation is the only option.
Fig. 17.2 Optical grasper, To light Rigid Lens and

which is similar to a rod source fiberoptic forcep
telescope with grasping rod jaws
forceps attached. It is not
possible to ventilate or
insufflate gas with this Eye
instrument Piece
17.1.4 Fiberoptic Bronchoscope
A flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope is often used by respiratory physicians to per-

form diagnostic procedures. This is discussed further at the end of this chapter.
17.2 Inhaled Foreign Bodies
Inhalation of a foreign body is a potentially life-threatening event. A small reduc-

tion in airway radius will result in a large increase in resistance to airflow. Organic
foreign bodies may result in airway hyper-reactivity as well as mucosal edema,
which will cause further airway narrowing. These factors coupled with the high
oxygen consumption of infants and small children cause hypoxia to occur rapidly.
Inhaled peanuts are one of the most challenging foreign bodies to manage, as they
cause local granulation and generalized tracheobronchitis within hours of aspira-
tion. They may also fragment and be extremely difficult to remove.
The typical patient is a toddler or preschool-aged child. Children of this age are
at higher risk because they display oral exploration behavior and lack molars for
grinding food. The onset of symptoms is usually sudden. Following aspiration,
there is great variation in the severity of airway obstruction ranging from asymp-
tomatic to severe distress or asphyxia. Specific symptoms and signs will depend on
the site, size and type of foreign body:
• Signs of laryngeal or tracheal obstruction: coughing, choking, respiratory dis-

tress, cyanosis, stridor, tachypnea
• Signs of obstruction of a main bronchus: respiratory distress, tachypnea, wheeze
or absent breath sounds on the affected side
The larger the foreign body, the higher up in the airway it will have lodged and
the more severe or life threatening the symptoms. However, there may also be no
symptoms or signs if the item is small or not significantly occluding the airway. In
these cases, it can be challenging to differentiate from other common pediatric
respiratory conditions, such as croup, asthma and pneumonia. A thorough history
from the caregiver is key.
Inspiratory and expiratory chest X-rays (CXR) and a lateral X-ray of the neck are
performed as part of the diagnostic work up. However their diagnostic value is low.
The CXR is often normal, and most foreign bodies aspirated by children are radio-
lucent. Air trapping with hyperinflation might be seen on the expiratory film due to
a ‘ball valve effect’, but while this is the classical X-ray finding, it is not common
and usually the chest X-ray is normal. The presentation may also be more chronic
with a cough or chest infection, or with atelectasis or consolidation on the CXR. CT
can also be considered, but may require sedation, and there are concerns about radi-
ation exposure. Diagnosis from history and radiology can be challenging, and bron-
choscopy is often required for both diagnosis and management (Fig. 17.3).
Fig. 17.3 Classical CXR Foreign body in L bronchus Hyperinflation

of an inhaled foreign body acting as a one-way and mediastinal
(FB) in the left main ball-valve shift
bronchus. The inspiratory
film is normal, but on
expiration there is
obstructive emphysema
with diaphragmatic, tracheal
and mediastinal shift. The
FB itself is usually
radiolucent. It is more
common however to find a
normal CXR
Inspiration Expiration
Table 17.1 Anesthetic technique for rigid bronchoscopy and removal of foreign body—differ-
ences between adult and pediatric patients
Child Adult
Gas induction fast, simple, safe (though slowed Gas induction slow
if tracheal or main bronchus obstruction)
Usually able to ventilate via bronchoscope Large leak around bronchoscope may
mandate spontaneous or jet ventilation
techniques
Usually able to obtain satisfactory operating Usually require muscle relaxants or
conditions with local anesthetic spray & volatile remifentanil to obtain satisfactory operating
agents conditions
It is preferable that the child is fasted before anesthesia as the airway cannot be
fully protected during the procedure. Clearly however, the risk of waiting needs to
be balanced against the fasting duration. Anesthesia of a small child for bronchos-
copy and removal of a foreign body is difficult. It is preferable to have two anesthe-
tists, one of whom should be well trained in pediatric anesthesia.
17.3 nesthetic Techniques for the Removal of Foreign

A
Bodies in Children
Although children are at greater risk of developing laryngospasm or hypoxia during

bronchoscopy compared to adults, they are easier to keep motionless under anesthe-
sia without muscle relaxants and there is usually an adequate seal to allow ventila-
tion with a ventilating bronchoscope (Table 17.1). Sedative premedication should
only be used if the benefits outweigh the risk of its effects on respiratory function.
This depends on the degree of respiratory distress and the anxiety of the child.
Anticholinergic agents can be used to dry the airway but are not routinely necessary
with current agents and techniques. The anesthetic issues specific to bronchoscopy
Table 17.2 Anesthetic Anesthetic issues

issues for removal of foreign Short, stimulating procedure, the duration of which is
body from trachea or difficult to predict
bronchus Massive air leak when eyepiece removed
Often co-existing diseases or airway problems
Fig. 17.4 The flexible,

plastic MAD device to
spray local anesthetic onto
the vocal cords and
trachea
are listed in Table 17.2. One hundred percent oxygen is used throughout the proce-
dure to avoid hypoxia caused by obstruction, hypoventilation and one lung ventila-
tion during endobronchial scope placement.
Either intravenous or inhalational induction is a reasonable approach. Inhalational
induction is usually fast in children, but will be slowed if there is total occlusion of
a main stem bronchus causing ventilation-perfusion mismatch. Inhalational induc-
tion is often preferred, as there is a more gradual loss of airway tone and more time
for the anesthetist to assess the child’s airway and respiratory efforts during induc-
tion. If an IV line is in situ, many would give a small dose of propofol, maintaining
spontaneous ventilation, and then deepen anesthesia with volatile agents.
After induction, the vocal cords and trachea are sprayed with local anesthetic,
which reduces coughing and laryngospasm during bronchoscopy. To spray the lar-
ynx, the child is preoxygenated, deepened and the cords and trachea sprayed with
lidocaine (lignocaine) 3–4 mg/kg under direct laryngoscopy. Use the 2% IV prepa-
ration to give a suitable volume to spray through a MAD (mucosal atomizer device)
sprayer (Fig. 17.4). Laryngospasm may occur from the stimulation of the local
anesthetic spray but will usually settle rapidly as the local anesthetic takes effect.
Intubation is not usually performed at this stage as it may cause trauma to the larynx
and cause diagnostic confusion, or it may push any foreign body distally. Topical
lignocaine has a duration of effect of 20–25 min. Repeat administration of ligno-
caine may be required for prolonged procedures, but the total dose should not
exceed 4 mg/kg.
After induction of anesthesia, there are two options for anesthesia maintenance—
controlled or spontaneous ventilation (Table 17.3). There is debate over the superior
method of ventilation, and technique differs between pediatric centers. Current evi-
dence suggests there is little difference in complications, operative time and recov-
ery time between the two techniques.
Note
A foreign body that shifts proximally or is dropped within the trachea during
removal causing total obstruction of the trachea can be pushed distally to
allow at least one lung to ventilate.
Table 17.3 Advantages and disadvantages of spontaneous and controlled ventilation during
bronchoscopy
Controlled ventilation Spontaneous ventilation
Always- Spray vocal cords and trachea with lidocaine 3–4 mg/kg
Better oxygenation and depth control Unlikely to dislodge a foreign body
Better surgical conditions (less coughing, Allows prolonged instrumentation down scope
laryngospasm)
Limited time for surgical instrumentation
May need to use IV anesthesia or supplement May be difficult to keep motionless and avoid
volatile technique with IV agents hypoventilation and hypoxemia
Risk of ball valve hyperinflation and
pneumothorax
17.3.1 Controlled Ventilation
While the eyepiece of the bronchoscope is in place, the Storz bronchoscope gives a
closed circuit that makes ventilation possible. When the eyepiece is removed for
instrumentation, there is a huge leak and ventilation is not possible. Gentle, positive-
pressure ventilation while the eyepiece is in place avoids hypoxemia and atelectasis.
There is a concern that a foreign body might be ‘blown’ distally during inspiration,
but this does not seem to be a problem in practice. Indeed, the peak inspiratory flow
rates in the trachea would be higher when the child is awake and crying! However,
controlled ventilation does mean that the child is left apneic when the eyepiece is
removed, limiting the time the surgeon has to pass instruments through the broncho-
scope before desaturation occurs and the eyepiece must be replaced and ventilation
restarted. In most cases, quite a lengthy time of apnea is possible as ventilation
permits the child to be well oxygenated beforehand.
17.3.2 Spontaneous Ventilation
For removal of a foreign body, spontaneous ventilation has the advantage of not dis-
lodging the foreign body distally into the bronchial tree, which might make it harder
to retrieve or create a ‘ball-valve’ obstruction. The other advantage is the lack of a
disruption of ventilation when there is a massive leak in the circuit while the surgeon
is retrieving the foreign body with the bronchoscope’s eye-piece removed. However,
it can be difficult to maintain the correct depth of anesthesia—adequate to prevent
movement and coughing, which in turn may result in desaturation that is difficult to
resolve, but also avoiding a depth that results in hypoventilation and desaturation. A
bolus of propofol helps resolve the first problem, while intermittently assisting with
respiration with the eyepiece in place may resolve the latter problem.
Keypoint
Spontaneous ventilation must be used if the bronchoscopy is to look for air-
way collapse or obstruction, as in the investigation of stridor.
17.3.3 Maintenance of Anesthesia
Anesthesia during rigid bronchoscopy can be maintained with volatile or intrave-

nous agents. The simplest approach is to use sevoflurane supplemented with 1–2 mg/
kg boluses of propofol to quickly deepen anesthesia if required. Sevoflurane anes-
thesia is simple to perform and maintain spontaneous ventilation, but air entrain-
ment diluting the sevoflurane and pollution are problems.
An intravenous technique removes the link between ventilation and depth of
anesthesia, and avoids pollution. Propofol with remifentanil is a common technique.
Preschool children and infants tolerate higher doses of remifentanil than adults
while still maintaining spontaneous ventilation, and require roughly twice the main-
tenance dose of propofol compared to adults. This IV technique requires experience
to achieve an adequate depth with maintenance of spontaneous ventilation, making
a volatile-based technique simpler for many anesthetists.
Propofol and dexmedetomidine is becoming a popular technique for rigid bron-
choscopy. Compared to propofol and remifentanil, it causes less respiratory depres-
sion and is more hemodynamically stable. A loading dose followed by an infusion
of dexmedetomidine is usually required to gain satisfactory surgical conditions.
Dexmedetomidine should be used cautiously in neonates as they have reduced drug
clearance.
Tip
Often the most straightforward anesthetic technique for rigid bronchoscopy is
to gently control ventilation with volatile agents through a T-piece circuit on
the side arm of the bronchoscope, supplemented with small boluses of propo-
fol as required.
During bronchoscopy, a gentle hand on the upper abdomen provides useful infor-
mation on respiratory rate, adequacy of ventilation and depth of anesthesia, whilst
simultaneously permitting the anesthetist to watch the procedure. Watching the
bronchoscopy allows the anesthetist to know whether the scope is in the trachea
ventilating both lungs, or endobronchial with consequently reduced compliance,
reduced leak around the scope, and reduced oxygenation. About one third of chil-
dren cough and desaturate during bronchoscopy, with little difference between IV
and inhalational techniques. Dexamethasone is often given IV to reduce edema at
the level of the cricoid ring. The dose is 0.5–0.6 mg/kg (up to 12 mg).
After the bronchoscopy is finished and the scope removed, the child can either be
intubated and allowed to wake up, or more commonly an anesthetic facemask is
used to administer oxygen and monitor respiration before transfer to recovery.
Children who have had occlusion of a bronchus and lung collapse from the foreign
body, or a prolonged procedure, may benefit from intubation and a brief period of
ventilation with PEEP to re-expand the lung after the foreign body is removed.
Postoperatively, the child should be monitored for signs of stridor and airway
obstruction due to edema. Stridor is not common, but children who have had
multiple insertions of the bronchoscope during foreign body removal are at high
risk. If worsening stridor occurs, nebulized adrenaline (epinephrine) 1:1000 may be
useful (0.5 mL/kg, maximum 5 mL) (See Chap. 1, Sect. 1.9.2).
Note
A child with lung or lobar collapse will benefit from a short period of ventila-
tion to restore lung volume after the foreign body is removed.
17.4 nesthetic Techniques for Assessment of Stridor

A
in Children
Inspiratory stridor is caused by extrathoracic airway obstruction, and laryngomala-

cia is the commonest cause in infants (Table 17.4). In laryngomalacia the supraglot-
tic structures collapse during inspiration, resulting in stridor and impedance to the
flow of air. It is thought to be due to the immature development of neuromuscular
pathways required to maintain airway patency. Most children will have resolution of
symptoms by 24 months of age and can be managed conservatively. Children with
severe or persisting symptoms may require surgical intervention, most commonly in
the form of a supraglottoplasty.
Expiratory stridor is caused by intrathoracic obstruction, most commonly tra-
cheomalacia. In tracheomalacia, there is increased compliance of the central air-
ways, so when there is positive intrathoracic pressure relative to the tracheal lumen,
the airway has a tendency to collapse. Congenital causes may present in isolation,
or with conditions such as tracheo-esophageal fistula, craniofacial anomalies and
chromosomal defects. Acquired cases may occur after trauma, positive pressure
ventilation (especially in premature neonates), infection or compression by external
structures. Resolution of symptoms often depends on the underlying cause.
Biphasic stridor is caused by obstruction at the glottis or subglottis, most com-
monly subglottic stenosis.
Children with stridor have their larynx and trachea examined for dynamic airway
collapse and anatomical anomalies while under anesthesia. A flexible bronchoscope
via an LMA (see below) or a rigid Hopkins rod telescope is used for the procedure.
To use the rod telescope, the surgeon performs a laryngoscopy with either the
suspension laryngoscope attached onto the operating table, or a hand-held
Table 17.4 List of common Cause of stridor

causes of stridor in children Laryngomalacia
Vocal cord dysfunction
Tracheomalacia, tracheal stenosis
Croup (viral laryngotracheitis)
Foreign body
The list is not exhaustive, and many other diagnoses are pos-
sible depending on the age of the child, duration of symptoms
and clinical features
anesthetic laryngoscope. With one of these laryngoscopes in place, the vocal cords
and trachea are examined with the telescope. Spontaneous ventilation is always
required so that dynamic collapse of the airway during respiration can be assessed.
17.4.1 Anesthetic Technique
The same spontaneous ventilation technique for removal of foreign body with the
Storz bronchoscope and optical grasper may be used for assessment of stridor. After
induction, the vocal cords and trachea are sprayed with local anesthetic to reduce
coughing and laryngospasm (Table 17.5). There are concerns that local anesthetic
may worsen laryngomalacia because of its sensorimotor effects on the laryngeal
muscles. However, topicalization of the airway is still usually performed, as it is
very difficult to perform bronchoscopy without this.
Before the bronchoscope is inserted by the surgeon, the vocal cords must be
brought into view. The surgeon either holds an anesthetic laryngoscope in one hand,
or inserts a suspension laryngoscope. As the telescope has no gas channel, oxygen
and anesthetic gases must be given into the mouth and laryngopharynx. Two meth-
ods are commonly used. The first is to connect gases onto the side port of the sus-
pension laryngoscope. The second is to insufflate gas into the mouth either through
a nasopharyngeal airway, nasal prongs or by having the surgeon hold an ETT along
the blade of the laryngoscope. The method and exact details depend on the tech-
nique being used by the surgeon to perform the laryngoscopy and bronchoscopy,
and discussion with the surgeon beforehand is vital to decide on a plan to manage
the airway. With either of these methods, gas is being insufflated into the mouth, to
be inhaled by the child. There is also entrainment of room air diluting the anesthetic
gases and oxygen concentration and pollution from excess gas. Both of these factors
are considered when choosing between volatile or intravenous anesthesia tech-
niques. Most importantly however, the airway is not sealed and there is no way of
Table 17.5 Steps in anesthesia for diagnostic bronchoscopy

Step Reason
Spontaneous ventilation Assess dynamic airway compliance
Spray cords with lidocaine (lignocaine) Reduce coughing and laryngospasm
Surgeon inserts laryngoscope Holds upper airway open, lines up
mouth and trachea for rigid
bronchoscope
Gasses insufflated into oral/laryngopharynx Maintains anesthesia and inspired
oxygen; entrainment of room air and
pollution though
If ventilation needed, remove laryngoscope and Airway is open, with no seal that would
bag-mask ventilate, or surgeon temporarily intubates permit positive pressure ventilation
via laryngoscope
ventilating or assisting ventilation if apnea or hypoventilation occurs. There is also

growing interest in a possible role for high flow nasal oxygen during this
procedure.
Although spontaneous ventilation is required and aimed for, apnea or hypoventi-
lation can occur. Positive pressure ventilation is then given either by intubating the
trachea, or by removing the bronchoscope and laryngoscope and using a facemask
or LMA. At the end of the procedure, the laryngoscope is removed and the child
placed in the lateral position and allowed to wake. Some surgeons ask for the child
to wake up with the laryngoscope is in place so that the respiratory effort will be
greater, inspiratory and expiratory flow rates greater, and any airway collapse
maximal.
Note
By paying attention to the chest movement and position of the vocal cords
during the bronchoscopy, it can be immediately determined if apnea is from
respiratory depression or from breath holding or laryngospasm as a result of
light anesthesia. Immediately starting correct management avoids desatura-
tion episodes.
17.5 Flexible Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy
Fiberoptic bronchoscopy is usually performed in children as a diagnostic procedure

by respiratory physicians. Spontaneous ventilation is required to allow dynamic
assessment of the airway. After induction, the cords and trachea are often sprayed
with local anesthetic followed by insertion of an LMA. The fiberscope is passed
through a Bodai connector (Fig. 17.5), into the LMA and trachea. The connector
maintains an airtight seal around the scope. The scope narrows the lumen of the
LMA shaft and increases resistance to breathing, depending on the relative sizes of
the scope and LMA. Broncho-alveolar lavage is performed during bronchoscopy in
children with cystic fibrosis or other respiratory diseases. Saline is injected through
the bronchoscope into the lung and then suctioned into a collecting chamber to be
examined for cells and inflammatory markers. Only a small proportion of the
injected fluid is retrieved, and although the procedure is usually fairly well toler-
ated, oxygen therapy is often needed for a few hours after anesthesia.
Rather than passing the bronchoscope through an LMA, it can be passed through
a bronchoscopy mask. This mask has an extra opening that the bronchoscope is
passed through. Its advantage over the LMA is that the bronchoscope can be passed
through the nostril rather than mouth and there is no distortion of the laryngophar-
ynx from the LMA.
Fig. 17.5 Bodai swivel Insert fiberscope

connector for use of through septum
fiberscope through an LMA
Breathing
circuit
attachment
To LMA
connector
Review Questions
1. How would you assess a 3 year old child who may have inhaled a small bead and
is booked for bronchoscopy?
2. What are the differences in anesthesia for rigid bronchoscopy in adults in
children?
3. Why are peanuts particularly dangerous as inhaled foreign bodies in children?
4. What are some causes of stridor in infants?
5. What are the possible causes if a child coughs and then desaturates during a rigid
bronchoscopy for removal of a bronchial foreign body? How would you manage
this situation?
Further Reading
Chen K-Z, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs remifentanil intravenous anaesthesia and spontaneous
ventilation for airway foreign body removal in children. Br J Anaesth. 2014;112:892–7.
Fidkowski CW, Zheng H, Firth PG. The Anesthetic considerations of tracheobronchial foreign
bodies in children: a literature review of 12,979 cases. Anesth Analg. 2010;111:1016–25.
Green S. Ingested and aspirated foreign bodies. Pediatr Rev. 2015;36:430–7. A medical review of
different types of foreign bodies and their diagnosis.
Oshan V, Walker R. Anaesthesia for complex airway surgery in children. BJA Contin Educ Anaesth
Roberts MH, Gildersleeve CD. Lignocaine topicalization of the pediatric airway. Pediatr Anesth.
2016;26:337–44.
Salih AM, Alfaki M, Alam-Elhuda M. Airway foreign bodies: a critical review for a common
pediatric emergency. World J Emerg Med. 2016;7:5–12.
Thorne MC, Garetz SL. Laryngomalacia: review and summary of current clinical practice in 2015.
Paediatr Respir Rev. 2016;17:3–8.
Virbalas J, Smith L. Upper airway obstruction. Pediatr Rev. 2015;36:62–73.
Zur KB, Litman RS. Pediatric airway foreign body retrieval: surgical and anesthetic perspectives.
Anesthesia for Dental Procedures
in Children 18
Lisa Khoo
Dental procedures are the third commonest reason for general anesthesia in chil-
dren. These procedures vary in duration from a few minutes for removal of a tooth,
to a few hours for dental restoration procedures. Anesthesia for pediatric dental
procedures can be challenging because it involves sharing the airway with the den-
tist, care of a pediatric patient and management of an uncooperative child who was
unable to have their treatment while awake in the dental chair.
Dentists gain the cooperation of children during dental procedures in the dental
chair with a combination of behavioral techniques, local anesthesia, and inhala-
tional sedation with nitrous oxide through a nose (Wesson) mask. A proportion of
children do not tolerate treatment despite these techniques, and deeper sedation or
general anesthesia is required. If a sedated child is not alert enough to hold open their
mouth, then they are more sedated than ‘conscious sedation’. Office-based sedation
of children that is deeper than conscious sedation is fraught with hazard and is not
recommended. In the United Kingdom, there were deaths in children being sedated
in the dental chair, and now sedation of children younger than 16 years with any-
thing other than nitrous oxide can only be performed in a hospital. In Australia and
New Zealand, there are ANZCA Guidelines regarding sedation. These guidelines
mandate broadly the same staffing, monitoring and facilities as would be present
for general anesthesia in a hospital. Apart from reasons of safety, dentists may opt
to treat a child requiring extensive treatment under general anesthesia in a hospital
to avoid several separate treatments in the dental chair and possible psychological
trauma to the child.
L. Khoo (*)
e-mail: Lisa.Khoo@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_18
366 L. Khoo
18.1 Nasal Endotracheal Intubation
Nasal intubation is performed in children for two groups of reasons. The first is for
ventilation in intensive care or for transport—a nasal ETT is more secure than an oral
ETT. For example, when postoperative ventilation is planned for a child, a nasal tube
is inserted. The second is for some procedures requiring access to mouth (not tonsil-
lectomy however). Nasal intubation is often used during dental procedures to allow
unrestricted access to the child’s mouth and teeth. ETTs used for oral intubation can be
used for nasal intubation. The depth of insertion is best judged by observing the depth
of the ETT during laryngoscopy and noting the marking at the nose. Alternatively, a
formula or table can be used, by adding 20% to the distance from the oral formula.
So, for children over the age of 1 year, the depth at the nose for nasal intubation is:
Depth cm in children older than 1 year age / 2 15
For dental procedures, a preformed, nasal (north-facing) RAE impinges least on

the dentist’s work (Fig. 18.2). These tubes are inserted until the pre-formed curve
is against the child’s nose. There is limited availability of pediatric, cuffed nasal
RAE tubes. Some tubes are too long and likely to cause endobronchial intubation
if inserted with the curve against the nose, and uncuffed nasal RAE tubes are often
used instead. An alternative is to use a wire reinforced ETT and curve the ETT
upwards away from the mouth. The tubes have a slightly larger outside diameter
than a standard tube with the same size internal diameter. They are also expensive
and may place pressure on the nostril as the tube curves upwards.
Preparation for nasal intubation includes spraying the nasal mucosa with vaso-
constrictor after induction, softening the ETT with warm water and lubricating the
outside of the ETT. The same sized tube is used for nasal and oral intubation in
children—the diameter of the cricoid determines the size of the ETT in children,
whereas the nose limits the size of the ETT in adults. Nasal intubation is often more
difficult than oral intubation, with three areas that can cause problems during pas-
sage of the ETT (Fig. 18.1).
Fig. 18.1 The three sites 1 Passage

of difficulty during a nasal through nose
intubation—passing the
ETT through the bony part
of the nose, making the
ETT turn downwards into
the oropharynx towards the
larynx, and aligning the
axis of the ETT with the
trachea
3 Aligning ETT 2 Curving down

with glottic towards the
opening oropharynx
18 Anesthesia for Dental Procedures in Children 367
Note
The same sized ETT is used for oral and nasal intubation in children.
The first area is the bony turbinates in the nose. The patency of the nostrils
can be assessed before induction, but the child needs to be cooperative to do this.
Resistance at the turbinates can be overcome by firm but careful, constant pressure.
Rotation of the tube to change the orientation of the bevel may also help. Passing the
endotracheal tube along the nasal floor, under the inferior turbinate, avoids the com-
plications of passing it above the inferior turbinates. The middle turbinate, which
sits above the inferior turbinate, is porous, fragile and vascular, and trauma from
an endotracheal tube may result in fracture, CSF leak and olfactory nerve dysfunc-
tion. Inserting a suction catheter as a guide for the endotracheal tube increases the
chances of passing below the inferior turbinates.
The second area that may cause problems is the nasopharynx, as the ETT often
hits the posterior wall of the nasopharynx or adenoidal tissue in its passage towards
the larynx. Softening the tube by placing it in warm water helps it to curve down-
wards with gentle pressure. Orientating the tube so the bevel is facing the posterior
wall may also help. It is important not to just push harder—forcing the tube may
traumatize the posterior pharyngeal wall, and there even are case reports of nasal
ETT’s entering the brain in neonates. If the tube will not curve downwards towards
the larynx, the most successful strategy is to insert a suction catheter through the ETT
and use it as a guide (Fig. 18.2). The catheter is passed through the nose and into the
oropharynx, then the ETT can then be “railroaded” over the catheter. The catheter
may also prevent mucus and tissue from plugging the lumen of the ETT. Some use
this technique routinely for nasal intubation because of these advantages.
The third problem is aligning the ETT with the laryngeal opening. Sometimes,
the Magill forceps will bring the ETT tip into the opening between the vocal cords,
but the ETT will not pass into the trachea—the tube becomes caught on the posterior
Fig. 18.2 A suction

catheter passed through the
nasal (north-facing) RAE Suction catheter or
tube to act as a guide. The nasogastric tube
free end of the catheter is
passed through the nose
into the oropharynx, and
then the ETT is railroaded
over it. This minimizes
trauma from the ETT to the
posterior wall of the
nasopharynx, and prevents
nasal secretions entering
the lumen of the ETT
Catheter tip
protruding from ETT
368 L. Khoo
arytenoids or the anterior wall of the trachea. There are three alternatives to align the
axes of the trachea and the ETT. The first is to apply external laryngeal pressure to
alter the angle between the ETT and larynx. The second is to lower the laryngoscope
(the view of the larynx is temporarily lost) to help align the larynx and ETT then
gently pushing the ETT inwards. A third option is to change the direction of the bevel
by rotating the ETT to stop it catching on the vocal cords or arytenoids.
Tip
Sometimes during nasal intubation, the ETT will not curve downwards from
the nose towards the larynx. The best strategy is to insert a catheter through
it, pass the catheter through the nose and into the oropharynx, then railroad
the ETT over it.
Another reason for difficulty passing the ETT through the larynx is that the ETT
may be the wrong size. If there is concern that the ETT may be too large, it can be
‘sized’ by intubating orally first to assess ease of passage through the cricoid ring,
and then reinserted nasally. If an uncuffed tube is used, a throat pack may tampon-
ade small leaks. A throat pack is routinely used during dental procedures to prevent
aspiration of blood and solid fragments, and to stop blood entering the stomach and
possibly causing vomiting later. A small child needs a small pack—it is useful to cut
the pack and shorten it. If an adult-sized pack is inserted into a child’s mouth, it
takes up a lot of space, pushes the tongue forward and restricts access to the mouth
for the dentist. The entire throat pack is placed within the mouth and there should be
an alternate visual cue that it has been inserted. Each anesthetist must take steps to
ensure the pack is removed before extubation. The role of throat packs is being
questioned, with concerns there is little evidence for any benefit, but real risks to
their continued use.
Tip
Throat packs risk being left behind after anesthesia. Follow strategies to
ensure they are removed. The greatest risk is when no part of the pack is pro-
truding from the mouth. Minimize this—if there is an ETT coming out of the
mouth, then the ‘tail’ of the pack can also come out of the mouth.
18.2 Dental Extraction
Removal of teeth may be needed for impacted teeth, dental trauma or dental abscess.
There may be blood in the airway or stomach after dental trauma, but this is rarely
an issue with the falls and accidents that damage children’s teeth.
Dental abscesses may reduce mouth opening due to pain, but rarely cause airway
problems in children. Children’s deciduous teeth are more anterior and higher in
the mandible than permanent teeth. The mandibular bone is thin, and the abscess
usually ruptures through the buccal side into the mouth or facial and neck tissues
(Fig. 18.3). It is rare for a young child’s dental abscess to rupture into the subman-
dibular or other deep tissue layers that may affect the airway. Nevertheless, it is wise
to assess the child’s airway, checking the floor of the mouth and neck tissues are
soft, and that there are no signs of obstructed breathing.
In older children and adults on the other hand, abscesses of the third (wisdom)
molar are posterior in the mandible and usually rupture at the apex of the root. They
spread into the submandibular space and deep tissue planes (Ludwig’s angina). In
this case, the airway is at high risk, and intubation is difficult—infection and edema
of the floor of the mouth stop tongue compression during laryngoscopy, and edema
in the laryngopharynx may obstruct the airway. Some of these patients need trache-
ostomy before induction.
Some permanent teeth require removal of bone using a low-speed drill to free
their roots. If a high-speed drill designed for dental restorations is used for this, air
from the drill may enter the tooth sockets and cause surgical emphysema of the face
and neck.
The anesthetic technique for dental extraction in children is dependent on the
number and position of teeth to be removed. A nasal mask can be used, or even a
facemask (removed briefly to allow access to the mouth) for short procedures on
anterior teeth. Nowadays however, the LMA is a better option as it stops blood
and fragments entering the airway from the mouth, and allows ongoing anesthesia
without time limits or theater pollution. A throat pack is not usually needed when
an LMA is used. A nasal ETT may be required for multiple or difficult extractions
in a small mouth. Dental extractions are usually brief, straightforward procedures
in generally well children. Problems are more likely if anesthesia is not adequate,
when laryngospasm may occur due to strong surgical stimulation (Table 18.1). The
Child Adult
Oral Cheek Oral

Cheek
cavity cavity
Tongue
Tongue
Posterior
Infection molar
Infection Infection spreads to
spreads to spreads to sublingual space
buccal buccal
space space Mylohyoid
muscle
Developing
Infection spreads
permanent
to submandibular
tooth
space
Fig. 18.3 Different patterns of spread from dental abscesses in young children compared to older
children and adults (adapted from Morosan et al.)
370 L. Khoo
Table 18.1 Keypoints for Keypoints for anesthesia for dental extraction in children
anesthesia for dental Common procedure—abscess or trauma
extraction in children Strong surgical stimulation may cause laryngospasm if
inadequate anesthesia
Shared airway
Blood in the airway
airway must be carefully monitored as the LMA may become dislodged during
the procedure. The LMA can be removed either deep or awake after suctioning the
pharynx with the child in the lateral position.
Local anesthesia used by the dentist reduces pain, but may cause distress in
small children because of the lip numbness. Some small children will also bite their
numb lip or chew at sutures while the local anesthetic is working, causing traumatic
ulcers. A small dose of opioid may be used for analgesia instead, and simple anal-
gesics such as paracetamol and ibuprofen provide adequate postoperative analgesia
for most children.
18.3 Restorative Dental Treatment
Nasal intubation with a nasal (north-facing) RAE tube allows unlimited access to the
patient’s mouth and enables accurate x-rays. A throat pack is usually placed to pre-
vent soiling of the airway by blood, secretions and water from the dental hand-piece.
These procedures may last a few hours, and care of pressure areas is needed. These
areas include the ETT at the nares and forehead, and the child’s eyes to prevent injury
should the dentist rest on them. Patients who are very young or underweight should
have their temperature monitored and be actively warmed if required. IV fluids are
infused to replace the patient’s deficit and maintenance requirements.
There is a moderate amount of trauma to the gums during the procedure, and
a small dose of opioid decreases pain and emergence delirium. Reducing minor
morbidity is important to facilitate same-day discharge, and antiemetics such as
dexamethasone and ondansetron may be helpful. Dexamethasone also decreases
swelling and pain following extractions.
18.4 Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Children with Cardiac Disease
Bacteremia may occur even with tooth brushing, although these bacteria do not
cause infective endocarditis. More serious bacteremia, most commonly with strep-
tococcus viridans, occurs with invasive dental procedures, and antibiotic prophy-
laxis may be required to prevent infective endocarditis. Invasive dental procedures
in children include extractions, clamping dental dams onto teeth, and fitting stain-
less steel crowns. These procedures disrupt the gingiva or periapical region of teeth.
Treatment such as scaling and cleaning, or injecting local anesthetic are not consid-
ered invasive. Endocarditis prophylaxis is required for some children with cardiac
conditions having invasive dental treatment (Table 18.2).
Table 18.2 Cardiac conditions in children requiring antibiotic prophylaxis during invasive dental
procedures
Cardiac condition
Unrepaired cyanotic congenital heart disease, even if palliated with a shunt or conduit
Repaired congenital heart disease either with prosthetic material within last 6 months or with a
residual defect next to the repair (preventing endothelialization)
Prosthetic valve or valve repair with prosthetic material
Previous infective endocarditis
Cardiac transplantation recipients with valvulopathy
Guidelines for prophylaxis in Australia include rheumatic heart disease in indig-

enous children and others at significant socioeconomic disadvantage.
In the UK, the guidelines of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
are less prescriptive. They state that the vast majority of patients at increased risk of
infective endocarditis do not need prophylaxis, but prophylaxis should be consid-
ered for some patients in consultation with the patient and their cardiologist. These
patients have the conditions listed in Table 18.2, similar to Australia and the rest of
Europe.
Intravenous prophylaxis is with amoxycillin 50 mg/kg IV (max 2 g) at induction,
or cefazolin 50 mg/kg (max 1 g) IV if non-anaphylactic allergy to penicillin. If the
child has had anaphylaxis to penicillin in the past, clindamycin 20 mg/kg IV (max
600 mg) over 20 min is recommended.
Review Questions
1. A 6 year old child is having restorative dental treatment under general anesthe-
sia. A nasal endotracheal tube is required. What size tube will you use?
2. A 6 year old child with Trisomy 21 is having dental treatment which includes
extractions and stainless steel crowns to four teeth. A nasal endotracheal tube is
required. Past history includes a fully repaired atrio-ventricular septal defect dur-
ing infancy. Does this child require endocarditis prophylaxis? What size tube
will you use?
Further Reading
Adewale L. Anaesthesia for paediatric dentistry. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain.
2012;12:288–94.
ANZCA Guideline PS09 (2010). Guidelines on sedation and/or analgesia for diagnostic and inter-
ventional medical, dental or surgical procedures; 2014.
Bailey CR, Nouraie R, Huitink JM. Have we reached the end for throat packs inserted by anaes-
thetists? Anesthesia. 2018;73:535–8. An editorial questioning why packs are used when there
seems little benefit but significant risk.
Frassica JJ, Miller EC. Anesthesia management in pediatric and special needs patients undergoing
dental and oral surgery. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1989;27:109–15.
372 L. Khoo
Lim CW, et al. The use of a nasogastric tube to facilitate nasotracheal intubation: a randomized
controlled trial. Anaesthesia. 2014;69:591–7.
Morosan M, Parbhoo A, Curry N. Anaesthesia and common oral and maxillo-facial emergencies.
Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2012;12:257–62.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Prophylaxis against infective endocar-
ditis: antimicrobial prophylaxis against infective endocarditis in adults and children undergo-
ing interventional procedures. NICE Clinical Guideline No 64. 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/
guidance/cg64/chapter/Recommendations. Accessed Jan 2019.
Endocarditis Prophylaxis
Baltimore RS, et al. Infective endocarditis in childhood: 2015 update. Circulation.

2015;132:1487–515.
Daly CG. Antibiotic prophylaxis for dental procedures. Aust Prescr. 2017;40:184–8.
NICE Guideline 64. Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis: antimicrobial prophylaxis against
infective endocarditis in adults and children undergoing interventional procedures. National
Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2016. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg64. Accessed Feb
2019.
Scottish Dental Clinical Effectiveness Programme. Antibiotic prophylaxis against infective endo-
carditis: implementation advice. 2018. http://www.sdcep.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/
SDCEP-Antibiotic-Prophylaxis-Implementation-Advice.pdf. Accessed Feb 2019.
Thornhill MH, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis of infective endocarditis. Curr Infect Dis Rep.
2017;19:9.
Anesthesia for Orthopedic Surgery
in Children 19
Martyn Lethbridge and Erik Anderson
Children commonly need anesthesia for orthopedic surgery, either urgently because
of limb fractures in previously well children, or electively in children who often
have coexisting diseases such as cerebral palsy or myopathies. These medical issues
are dealt with elsewhere in this book, and this chapter focuses on issues unique to
orthopedic surgery. It also outlines the management of anesthesia for scoliosis sur-
gery, so that trainees who are involved with these cases will understand some of the
background to their care.
19.1 Emergency Anesthesia for Forearm Fractures
Fractures of the upper limb are a very common reason for a child to have emer-
gency anesthesia. Greenstick fractures only occur in young, preschool aged chil-
dren. These fractures are nearly always reduced in the Emergency Department using
an analgesia technique described in Fig. 19.1.
Complete fracture-displacements may be reduced with a variety of techniques in
either the ED or the OR. Many of the techniques require skill and patience to per-
form in frightened young children, and depend on local expertise, preferences and
practical issues relating to staff and theatre availability. All of the techniques require
proper monitoring, safety guidelines and ability to resuscitate the child if necessary.
Although fasting beforehand to ensure an empty stomach would seem wise, fast-
ing requirements vary from center to center, depending on the anesthetic technique
M. Lethbridge (*) · E. Anderson

e-mail: martyn.lethbridge@health.wa.gov.au; Erik.Andersen@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_19
374 M. Lethbridge and E. Anderson
Technique to facilitate fracture reduction

Hematoma block
Axillary block
IV regional anesthesia
IV or IM ketamine with or without other agents
Nitrous oxide
IV or intranasal fentanyl
General anesthesia
Fig. 19.1 Anesthesia and analgesia techniques used for reduction of forearm fractures in
children
used. Many emergency departments accept fasting durations much shorter than
those for anesthesia. The safety of intravenous sedation in the emergency depart-
ment and the point at which sedation becomes anesthesia are controversial subjects.
Nevertheless, general anesthesia is still very commonly used during fracture reduc-
tion because it always results in satisfactory conditions for the procedure and has a
high level of safety.
19.1.1 General Anesthesia
Children needing surgery for a forearm fracture are usually fit and healthy, and
pulmonary aspiration of stomach contents is the main concern. Evidence about
minimizing the risk of aspiration for this procedure is scarce and anecdotal, and
it would be simple to recommend rapid sequence induction and intubation for all
cases. Rapid sequence induction however, is not without risks, does not entirely
protect against aspiration, and can be technically challenging to perform for a brief
procedure such as this. Although not formally studied, stratification of the risk of
aspiration can be attempted by considering several factors. These include the fast-
ing periods before and after injury, the amount of pain and use of opioid analgesics,
the age and level of anxiety of the child, and presence of hunger or bowel sounds.
In children undergoing closed reduction of forearm fractures, experience shows
children anesthetized with a facemask rarely vomit, even if they have significant
stomach contents. This presupposes that an adequate depth of anesthesia is main-
tained during fracture manipulation to avoid any coughing, straining, or triggering
a vomiting reflex. A laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is commonly used for this pro-
cedure, and it would seem prudent to use a second generation LMA with an esoph-
ageal drainage tube to mitigate the risk of gastric reflux. Intubation should still
be considered for patients who are thought more likely to regurgitate. Identifying
those children with a forearm fracture who are more likely to regurgitate relies on
factors such as a short interval between food and injury, short fasting time or ongo-
ing pain and opioid requirement. As discussed in Chap. 1, an inhalational induction
may be an acceptable option even in this group of children when there is difficult
venous access.
19 Anesthesia for Orthopedic Surgery in Children 375
Fractures above the elbow (supracondylar fractures) are more painful, frequently
require opioid analgesia, and tend to be brought to theater sooner than children with
forearm fractures. These patients are more at risk of aspiration, and are more com-
monly intubated—possibly requiring a rapid sequence induction.
19.1.2 Compartment Syndrome
In adults, compartment syndrome is said to be associated with the five ‘P’s of symp-
toms (pain, paresthesia, paralysis, pallor, pulselessness). In young children, it is said
to be associated with the three ‘A’s: anxiety, agitation and analgesia requirements that
are increasing. Children are often unsettled after surgery and analgesia is increased
in response, and compartment syndrome can easily be missed. It is particularly a
concern after supracondylar and tibial fractures, but can occur after other orthopedic
and non-orthopedic procedures. Regional analgesia using low concentrations of local
anesthetic probably do not prevent the detection of compartment syndrome.
Tip
Children at increased risk of gastric aspiration for fracture manipulation
include short interval between food and injury, children in more pain or with
anxiety, opioid use and supracondylar fractures. Coughing while lightly anes-
thetized is the most likely mechanism for regurgitation and aspiration during
facemask or LMA anesthesia.
19.2 Common Orthopedic Procedures
19.2.1 Procedures for Hip Dislocation and Dysplasia
Hip dislocation can occur in children for congenital reasons such as breech position
in-utero, or for acquired reasons such as muscular imbalance around the hip joint.
This can occur in children with neuromuscular disorders such as cerebral palsy. The
femoral head can be immobilized in the acetabulum in infants using a SPICA cast.
General anesthesia may be required for this. The child is positioned at the end of the
theater bed and elevated on a box that allows the cast to be placed circumferentially
from the umbilicus to the knees or feet. The cast must be applied to allow unim-
paired abdominal movement. Because it is awkward to manipulate the airway while
the infant is elevated on the box, tracheal intubation is often best.
Open surgical procedures for hip dislocation include the Salter pelvic osteot-
omy, and the varus de-rotational osteotomy (VDRO). Both procedures carry risks
of significant blood loss, although rarely require transfusion. Post-operative pain
and muscle spasms can be significant. Regional techniques, such as caudal block
or a lumbar epidural are useful if not contraindicated. Sometimes a SPICA cast is
applied, limiting access to an epidural site for inspection and catheter removal. If
this is the case, a single-shot caudal and opioid infusion may be preferred. Muscle
relaxants such as diazepam are useful for controlling spasm, but with caution as the
child is also receiving opioids.
19.2.2 Procedures for Talipes Equino Varus
Talipes or ‘club foot’ can be managed with serial casting but surgically releas-
ing the Achilles tendon is often required. This operation is commonly performed
transcutaneously under either local or general anesthesia. Factors in considering
the best approach to anesthesia include the age of the child, whether the procedure
is unilateral or bilateral, and local practice. Local anesthesia for this procedure
avoids exposure to general anesthesia and a possible risk of neurotoxicity, and
fasting may be avoided. A local anesthetic cream can be applied to the medial side
of the Achilles tendon before injection of a mixture of quick acting (lidocaine)
and longer lasting (ropivacaine) local anesthetic. Care must be taken to calculate
the maximum combined dose of local anesthetic. Other techniques such as awake
spinal anesthesia have been described.
19.2.3 Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE)
The upper femoral epiphysis is prone to subluxing on the femoral neck in ado-
lescence, threatening the vascular supply of the femoral head. It is more common
in obese children. The traditional surgery to stabilize the femoral head included
placement of pins or screws through the femoral neck into the femoral head. This
procedure is performed using a traction table, and anesthetic management requires
consideration of the airway in patients with increased body mass, risk of aspi-
ration, comorbidities such as obstructive sleep apnea, and post-operative pain.
Femoral nerve blocks are useful for controlling post-op pain, in combination with
multi-modal analgesia and the use of judicious doses of opioids. Some recent sur-
gical techniques for the condition are more extensive and prolonged, but require
similar anesthetic considerations.
19.3 Cerebral Palsy and Orthopedic Surgery
Orthopedic surgery is required by children with cerebral palsy for three main rea-
sons—to correct hip dysplasia, to relieve limb contractures and improve posture,
and to improve gait. Surgery often involves tenotomies, tendon transfers or oste-
otomies. Pain and muscle spasms can be significant issues after these procedures.
Anesthetic care of children with cerebral palsy is discussed further in Chap. 12,
Sect. 12.1.
19.4 Scoliosis
Scoliosis consists of spine curvature, rotation of the vertebrae and rib cage defor-
mity. The commonest form is idiopathic scoliosis in otherwise well adolescent girls,
but the most difficult form is caused by neuromuscular disease. The spinal curvature
is usually ‘S’ shaped in idiopathic cases, but neuromuscular cases tends to involve
whole thoracolumbar spine in a long ‘C’ shaped curve. The degree of curvature is
measured from the angle of the vertebral bodies (the Cobb angle). Surgery is con-
sidered if the spinal curve is greater than 40°, or less in neuromuscular cases. The
anesthetic considerations are summarized in Table 19.1, and discussed below.
19.4.1 Lung Changes
A restrictive lung defect commonly results from the rib cage and vertebral changes,
especially if the spinal curvature is greater than 65°. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch
and pulmonary hypertension may also occur, but usually only in severe cases with a
curvature greater than 100°. Patients with neuromuscular disease are at greater risk
of respiratory complications: they also have parenchymal lung disease from recur-
rent lung infections as a result of a weak cough, aspiration and immobility. Surgery
stops, but does not reverse, the progression of lung changes. It also improves the
wheelchair posture in adolescents with neuromuscular disease.
19.4.2 Surgical Approach
Surgery is most commonly via a posterior approach with the patient prone. An ante-
rior approach (via thoracic or abdominal incisions) is used along with the posterior
approach in severe cases. Anterior and posterior surgery can be performed as a staged
or single procedure. Surgery is extensive and causes blood loss from bone and soft
tissue. It carries a 0.3–0.6% risk of spinal cord damage from implant related trauma,
spinal ischemia, distraction injury or epidural hematoma. The risk of spinal cord
ischemia may be greater for more severe curves and curves associated with spinal
Table 19.1 List of issues that Anesthetic considerations for scoliosis surgery
need to be considered during anes- Risk of poor respiratory function postop
thesia and surgery for correction of Risk of rhabdomyolysis in neuromuscular cases
scoliosis Prone position
Spinal cord monitoring:
– SSEP, MEP, CMAP
– Wake up test
Blood loss and transfusion
Hypothermia
Postop analgesia and respiratory function
cord tethering. Spinal ischemia may be caused by direct vascular injury, reduced per-
fusion from hypotension, stretching of the cord or epidural hematoma. To reduce the
risk of spinal cord damage, intraoperative spinal cord monitoring is routine, although
cord ischemia may cause neurological problems up to 48 h postoperatively.
19.4.3 Spinal Cord Monitoring
Neurophysiological monitoring continuously assesses the spinal cord and has

replaced the ‘wake-up test’ in many centers. Monitoring has limitations of low sig-
nal strength, interference from background electrical noise and anesthetic agents,
and false negative results. Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) are performed
by stimulating the peripheral nerves and detecting either a spinal response with
epidural electrodes, or a cortical response with scalp electrodes. It monitors only
the sensory path (posterior columns), not the more vulnerable motor path in the
spinal cord (anterior columns). Motor evoked potentials (MEP) monitor motor path-
ways by transcranial stimulation of the motor cortex and detecting either a signal
in the spinal cord with epidural electrodes or a compound muscle action potential
(CMAP) with a skin electrode. CMAP monitoring is the most commonly used tech-
nique as it assesses the motor pathway, avoids cumbersome epidural electrodes and
detects problems affecting the nerve roots.
In the past, a wake-up test was used to assess lower limb function and may still
occasionally be required in cases of neurophysiological monitoring failure. In this
test, the patient is woken up during surgery by reducing anesthetic agents while
maintaining analgesia with remifentanil. The aim is to have the child cooperative
and able to move their toes on command. It is challenging to avoid excessive move-
ment but be awake enough to cooperate, and there are concerns that spontaneous
ventilation during the test may predispose to venous air embolism. Also, the test
only assesses the spinal cord at one point in time and irreversible damage may have
already occurred before the test. The clonus test can be performed as anesthesia is
lightened for a wake-up test, as clonus is easy to elicit at this stage due to the lack
of cortical inhibition. It can also be used as a way of deciding if a full wake up test
is needed.
19.4.4 Preoperative Assessment for Scoliosis Surgery
Respiratory and cardiac function affect the risk of complications. Exercise tolerance
is a good measure in otherwise well patients with idiopathic scoliosis. Asymptomatic
mitral valve prolapse is present in 25% of these patients. Cardiorespiratory assess-
ment in children who are wheelchair-bound or developmentally delayed is more
difficult, and consultation with the child’s respiratory team and cardiologist may
help to optimize the child’s condition preoperatively. Performance of activities of
daily living, and need for assisted ventilation and cough-assist machines are two
indicators. Spirometry commonly shows a mild restrictive defect. Postoperative
ventilation is more likely to be needed if the forced vital capacity is less than 30%
of predicted. Muscular dystrophy patients may have cardiomyopathy that may not
be detectable by a resting preoperative echocardiogram.
19.4.5 Anesthesia Techniques
The patient’s condition and requirements of the neurophysiological monitoring

affect the anesthesia technique for scoliosis surgery. Muscle relaxants, especially
suxamethonium, are used with caution in children with underlying neuromuscular
disease, and volatile agents are avoided if the child has muscular dystrophy. The
SSEP and MEP are suppressed in a dose-dependent manner by volatile agents and
propofol, but may be enhanced by ketamine and etomidate. They are also suppressed
by nitrous oxide, but this can be overcome with epidural recording. Opioids and
dexmedetomidine do not effect monitoring. Motor evoked potentials are abolished
by profound muscle relaxation, but not by lesser degrees of relaxation (train-of-four
count equaling 2 or 3) and may be useful for reducing background noise. A common
anesthetic technique is to use remifentanil and low dose volatiles or propofol infu-
sion. Invasive arterial pressure monitoring is essential and central venous pressures
monitoring is commonly performed. Prone positioning can place pressure on the
sternum, which can impair an already reduced cardiac function. Trans-esophageal
ECHO may assist in guiding fluid and inotrope use during scoliosis surgery.
19.4.6 Blood Loss
The amount of blood loss depends on the number of segments operated on, but is
typically more than 50% of the blood volume. About a third of the blood loss occurs
in the postoperative period. Patients with neuromuscular disease lose more blood
because surgery is longer and more extensive; they often have subclinical coagula-
tion abnormalities; and they have osteopenic bone that needs more instrumenta-
tion. Surgical technique is the most important determinant of blood loss, but patient
positioning to minimize epidural venous congestion is helpful. Controlled hypo-
tension is not used because of concerns about spinal ischemia, but instead blood
pressure aims to be normalized (MAP 70) and hypertension avoided. Tranexamic
acid reduces blood loss, especially in neuromuscular disease patients. Blood trans-
fusion is commonly needed during scoliosis surgery. Techniques to reduce transfu-
sion include autologous pre-donation, acute normovolemic hemodilution, and cell
savers. With these techniques, some patients with idiopathic scoliosis avoid donor
blood, but losses are so large in patients with neuromuscular disease that transfusion
of donor blood is usual.
19.4.7 Postoperative Management
Respiratory problems are the main postoperative concern. Analgesia and chest phys-
iotherapy are important in optimizing respiratory function. The analgesic require-
ments for these children are high and for a prolonged duration. Intravenous opioids
are often required for the first 5–7 days, followed by oral opioids for a further 1 or
2 weeks. Intrathecal opioids and analgesic doses of ketamine are also options. Bony
fusion after surgery is critical and some surgeons prohibit the use of NSAIDS.
Review Questions
1. A 11 year old boy with Duchenne muscular dystrophy presents for correction of
scoliosis. What complications from anesthesia is he particularly at risk of, and
how can the risk of these be minimized?
2. A 4 year old girl presents for MUA of forearm fracture at 6 pm after having
fallen off the swing at 1:30 pm. She has been assessed in ED and given three
doses of morphine for pain. Discuss how you are going to proceed and the rea-
sons for your choice.
3. You are scheduled to anesthetize a 15 year old girl with idiopathic scoliosis.
What are the key issues in your anesthetic management of this patient?
Further Reading
Brady M, et al. Preoperative fasting for preventing perioperative complications in children.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD005285. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.
CD005285.
Gibson PRJ. Anaesthesia for correction of scoliosis in children. Anaesth Intensive Care.
2004;32:548–59.
Glover CD, Carling NP. Neuromonitoring for scoliosis surgery. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014;32:101–14.
Marcus RJ, Thompson JP. Anesthesia for manipulation of forearm fractures in children: a survey
of current practice. Paediatr Anaesth. 2000;10:273–7.
Tobias JD, et al. Effects of dexmedetomidine on intraoperative motor and somatosensory evoked
potential monitoring during spinal surgery in adolescents. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18:1082–8.
Nagarajan L, Ghosh S, Dillon D, Palumbo L, Woodland P, Thalayasingam P, Lethbridge M.
Intraoperative neurophysiology monitoring in scoliosis surgery in children. Clin Neurophysiol
Pract. 2019;4:11–7.
Congenital Heart Disease
20
Serge Kaplanian
Congenital heart disease occurs in 6–10 per 1000 births and is one of the most com-
mon congenital defects.
Ninety percent of children born with congenital heart disease survive into adult-
hood and will present for non-cardiac surgery having had varying levels of surgical
correction. This chapter focuses on the management of children for non-cardiac
surgery, and the assessment of a child with a murmur.
20.1 Types of Congenital Heart Disease
There are numerous classifications of congenital heart disease, but the most use-
ful for anesthetists is based on physiology. Lesions fall into one of four groups as
shown in Table 20.1.
20.1.1 S
hunting of Blood Between the Systemic and Pulmonary
Circulations
20.1.1.1 Left-to-Right Shunts

Blood flows through a defect from the high pressure systemic side of the circula-
tion to the lower pressure pulmonary side. This increases pulmonary blood flow in
proportion with the size of the defect and the difference in resistance between the
systems. This occurs in lesions such as a ventricular septal defect (VSD) (Fig. 20.1).
Oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart enters the right side of the heart
S. Kaplanian (*)
e-mail: Serge.Kaplanian@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_20
382 S. Kaplanian
Table 20.1 Classification of congenital heart disease by main physiological defect

Types of congenital heart disease
1. ‘Simple’ left-to-right shunt with increased pulmonary blood flow
Atrial septal defect (ASD)
Ventricular septal defect (VSD)
Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)
Atrioventricular septal defect (AVSD)
2. ‘Simple’ right-to-left shunt with decreased pulmonary blood flow
Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF)
Pulmonary atresia (with shunting of blood through associated defect
Tricuspid atresia (with shunting of blood through associated defect)
Ebstein’s anomaly (Tricuspid obstruction with ASD or patent foramen ovale)
3. ‘Complex’ shunts: mixing of pulmonary and systemic blood flow causing cyanosis
Transposition of the Great Arteries (TGA)
Truncus arteriosus
Total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage
Double-Outlet Right Ventricle (DORV)
Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS)
4. Obstructive lesions
Aortic stenosis
Pulmonary stenosis
Coarctation of the aorta
Hypoplastic aortic arch
Commonly used abbreviations are in parentheses
Fig. 20.1 VSD with

left-to-right shunting of
blood. Oxygenated blood
from the left ventricle (LV)
enters the right ventricle
(RV) and increases
pulmonary blood flow RA LA
Lungs Body
RV LV
and lungs, and arterial oxygen saturations are normal. Pulmonary blood pressure
increases because of the higher pulmonary flow, but pulmonary vascular resistance
is relatively normal in the short term and not problematic. Eventually however, mus-
cle in the walls of the pulmonary vasculature hypertrophies and pulmonary vascular
resistance rises, causing Eisenmenger’s syndrome. This is a major problem, and
surgical treatment is timed to avoid this. Left-to-right shunts cause a volume over-
load of the right ventricle that is relatively well tolerated. Anesthesia is also well
tolerated provided myocardial contractility is not significantly depressed.
20 Congenital Heart Disease 383
20.1.1.2 Right-to-Left Shunts (Cyanotic Heart Disease)

De-oxygenated blood from the right side of the heart bypasses the lungs and
mixes into the systemic circulation, causing cyanosis. This occurs in lesions such
as a Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). This is a more debilitating condition than left-
to-right shunting as pulmonary blood flow is often reduced. Most cyanotic heart
conditions have complex defects allowing variable mixing of blood between the
right and left side of the heart, and the degree of mixing is affected by the balance
between the pulmonary and systemic vascular resistances. If pulmonary vascular
resistance increases, pulmonary blood flow decreases. However, the pulmonary
blood flow is also affected by the systemic vascular resistance. If the systemic
vascular resistance falls, more blood is shunted to the left side of the heart and
pulmonary blood flow decreases. The balance between the pulmonary and sys-
temic vascular resistances is the critical factor with anesthesia for children with
cyanotic heart disease.
Anesthesia for this group of patients is much more problematic than for children
with left-to-right shunts because pulmonary blood flow must not be reduced any
further. Right-to-left shunts slow inhalational induction due to a reduction in pulmo-
nary blood flow (Table 20.2). Intravenous induction is rapid and with a danger of
overdose because a proportion of the induction agent bypasses the lungs and is
immediately available to the cerebral circulation. Air bubbles from the IV line can
cross to the arterial circulation and must be avoided. Filters are available for IV lines
to prevent air bubbles entering the patient.
Keypoint
The balance between the pulmonary and systemic vascular resistances is the
critical factor in anesthesia for children with cyanotic heart disease.
20.1.1.3 Duct-Dependent Heart Disease

Some children with cyanotic heart disease have very little blood flow from the
right ventricle into the pulmonary artery and lungs. Although this is not a prob-
lem while the placenta is in the circulation, after birth it results in poor oxygen-
ation and may not be compatible with survival. Some of these children rely on
Table 20.2 Differences between the two types of pulmonary-systemic shunting of blood
Shunt type Example Effects
Left-to-right VSD Normal arterial SaO2
Inhalational induction faster
IV induction slower
Risk from IV air bubbles slightly raised
Anesthesia generally well tolerated
Right-to-left TOF Cyanosed, minimal improvement with high FiO2
High risk from IV air bubbles
Inhalational induction slower
IV induction faster, reduced dose required
384 S. Kaplanian
the ductus arteriosus that directs blood from the aorta into the pulmonary artery.
This oxygenated blood from the aorta mixes with any de-oxygenated blood
already in the pulmonary artery and then passes into the lungs. Although this is
not efficient for oxygenation, it often permits survival, albeit with persisting cya-
nosis. These babies have duct-dependent cyanotic heart disease, and their ductus
is kept open with prostaglandins until other methods of augmenting pulmonary
blood flow can be achieved. These methods depend on the underlying cardiac
problem but include atrial septostomy (in transposition of the great arteries) or a
modified Blalock-Taussig shunt (modified BT shunt). A modified BT shunt con-
nects the left or right subclavian artery to the left or right pulmonary artery with
a synthetic graft.
Note
If an infant has a modified BT shunt, pulmonary blood flow depends on the
systemic blood pressure. Increasing the SVR and blood pressure will improve
the child’s saturation.
20.1.2 ASD and VSD
Children with an atrial septal defect (ASD) or ventricular septal defect (VSD) have
a predominantly left-to-right shunt that increases pulmonary blood flow and causes
volume overload of the right ventricle. The size of the defect and difference in
chamber pressures determine the amount of shunting. Patients with small restric-
tive defects have minimal left to right shunting and minimal increase in pulmo-
nary blood flow. On the other hand, patients with large non-restrictive defects have
greatly increased pulmonary blood flow.
Both defects are associated with a systolic murmur maximal at the left sternal
edge. Small defects may eventually close without treatment. Others require either
surgical closure under cardio-pulmonary bypass or using a transvenous approach in
the catheter lab.
As long as pulmonary hypertension has not developed, anesthetic management
is relatively straightforward. Preload should be maintained, and the fall in systemic
vascular resistance that tends to accompany anesthesia reduces left-to-right shunt-
ing. Although increasing pulmonary vascular resistance also reduces shunting, PVR
is not deliberately manipulated. Inhalational induction is very rapid because of the
increase in pulmonary blood flow, but intravenous induction is delayed because of
recirculation of agent through the shunt and pulmonary circulation (Table 20.2).
In practice however, the change from the normal speed of induction is not great.
Paradoxical air embolism can occur during ventilation if high airway pressures
are used—IPPV and PEEP increase right atrial pressure and can induce R-to-L
shunting.
20.1.3 Tetralogy of Fallot
Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is the commonest ‘simple’ right-to-left defect resulting in

cyanosis. It consists of four abnormalities:
1. VSD
2. Overriding aorta (the aorta is positioned over the VSD, communicating with the
left and right ventricles)
3. Right ventricular hypertrophy
4. Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction (subvalvular, valvular and/or
supravalvular)
Obstruction of the right ventricular outflow tract increases right ventricular pres-
sure. Deoxygenated blood passes through the VSD and into the overriding aorta,
causing cyanosis. Obstruction at the level of the pulmonary valve (valvular) or pul-
monary artery (supravalvular) is constant, and the child is always cyanosed. The
classical outflow tract obstruction in Tetralogy is due to hypertrophy of the infun-
dibular myocardium at the subvalvular level (Fig. 20.2). The obstruction is dynamic
and behaves in a similar fashion to hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy—if
myocardial contractility increases or the right ventricular volume decreases, the
opposing ventricular walls at the level of the obstruction become closer and the
outlet obstruction worsens. Outlet obstruction diverts blood from the right ventricle
through the VSD, away from pulmonary artery and the lungs. Cyanosis worsens,
and a hypercyanotic spell or ‘Tet spell’ occurs. The intensity of the systolic mur-
mur also decreases during a Tet spell. Children with a dynamic obstruction may be
acyanotic between spells.
Fig. 20.2 Tetralogy of

Fallot during ‘Tet spell’.
RV pressure is increased
by the dynamic RV
obstruction causing
right-to-left shunting,
reduced pulmonary blood RA LA
flow and cyanosis
Lungs Body
RV LV
RV outflow Aorta over-

obstruction riding VSD
386 S. Kaplanian
Table 20.3 Perioperative Management of hypercyanotic ‘Tet spell’

management of hypercya- 100% oxygen
notic ‘Tet spells’ in TOF Fluid bolus (consider repeating)
patients Pressure on the groins to compress the femoral arteries and
increase afterload
Reduce sympathetic stimulation with opioids and deepening
anesthesia
Peripheral vasoconstriction with phenylephrine
Reduce infundibular contraction with a short acting beta
blocker such as esmolol
Spells are triggered by reduced right ventricular volume (dehydration), and by

increased myocardial contractility (sympathetic stimulation from hypothermia,
hunger or pain). The first aim of anesthetic management is to stop spells occurring,
as they can be frighteningly severe and difficult to reverse. Treatment includes fluid
to increase the volume of the right ventricle, opioids and beta blockers to reduce
contractility of the infundibular myocardium, and peripheral vasoconstriction with
a pure alpha agonist agent (e.g. phenylephrine) to increase the left ventricular pres-
sure above the right ventricular pressure to reduce shunting (Table 20.3).
20.1.4 Fontan Procedure
A Fontan circulation is created when a child is born with complex heart disease and
a biventricular repair is not possible. The Fontan procedure is a multi-stage opera-
tion that uses the child’s single functioning ventricle to supply the systemic arterial
system, and creates a passive venous conduit for blood from the systemic circula-
tion to pass through the lungs to be oxygenated (Fig. 20.3). This procedure is the
last of three stages. A complete Fontan operation is not possible in the first several
months of life as the pulmonary vascular resistance is too high. The first step there-
fore is to increase pulmonary blood flow with a modified Blalock-Taussig shunt
where a Gore-tex graft is used to connect the subclavian artery to the ipsilateral
pulmonary artery. This shunt permits survival and growth of the child.
The second stage is at approximately 6 months when pulmonary vascular resis-
tance has fallen. Typically, the superior vena cava and right pulmonary artery are
joined so that venous return from the upper body passively enters the pulmonary
circulation without a pumping chamber. It is also during this stage that the BT
shunt is taken down. The final stage takes place at approximately 1–5 years of age,
when the inferior vena cava and right pulmonary artery are joined via an extracar-
diac conduit, or occasionally an intra-atrial baffle. All systemic venous return now
passes passively through the lungs to be oxygenated—the systemic and pulmonary
circulations are now in series. However, if the pulmonary vascular resistance were
to rise, forward (passive) flow of blood through the lungs would stop, and cardiac
output would fall. To minimize the impact of a rise in pulmonary vascular resis-
tance, some Fontan repairs are ‘fenestrated’ between the conduit and the atrium,
which creates a shunt path between the systemic and pulmonary circulations. If
pulmonary vascular resistance increases, blood can pass through the fenestration to
Fig. 20.3 Schematic SVC + IVC,

representation of Fontan Conduit to pulmonary a.
circulation. The child’s
single ventricle supplies the
systemic circulation.
Venous return from the Body Lungs
body passively returns to
the lungs through a
Gore-tex graft joining the
great veins and pulmonary
artery. There is no ventricle
supplying the lungs. The
low pressure in the graft is Ventricle Atrium
not able to overcome any
increase in pulmonary
vascular resistance
Table 20.4 List of important management goals in anesthesia of child with Fontan circulation
Goal of anesthetic management Reason
Avoid hypovolemia, use fluid load The Fontan circulation is very preload dependent.
Maintain CVP to maintain pulmonary perfusion
Keep pulmonary vascular resistance low Prevent resistance to pulmonary blood flow
– Avoid hypoxia, hypercarbia,
acidosis
Keep intrathoracic pressure as low as Prevent extrinsic compression of pulmonary
possible vasculature; negative intrathoracic pressure during
– Consider spontaneous ventilation; breathing may help blood flow through lungs
minimize PEEP and aim for low
inspiratory pressures if IPPV
Avoid myocardial depression Function of ventricle supplying systemic circulation
may be marginal
the single ventricle of the heart and maintain cardiac output, albeit with deoxygen-
ated blood. The existence of the fenestration allows some level of mixing, hence a
degree of slight desaturation. Many patients with a Fontan circulation do well for
some years, while others fare less well. Complications are common and include
diminished ventricular function, thromboembolic events, conduction disturbances,
peripheral edema and protein losing enteropathy.
20.1.4.1 Anesthesia and the Fontan Circulation

Anesthesia in children after a Fontan procedure can be difficult and is best done
in a tertiary center. In the child with Fontan circulation, the pulmonary vascular
resistance must stay low to allow the entirely passive flow of blood through the
lungs. The pressure gradient for the pulmonary circulation is the difference between
the CVP and common atrial pressure, and it cannot rise to overcome an increase
in resistance. Spontaneous ventilation may help blood flow through lungs because
of negative intrathoracic pressure, but controlled ventilation is usually well toler-
ated and facilitates an anesthetic technique that minimizes myocardial depression
(Table 20.4).
388 S. Kaplanian
20.1.5 Eisenmenger Syndrome
Children with large left-to-right shunts have increased pulmonary blood flow. The
vessel walls in the pulmonary circulation hypertrophy leading to a rise in pulmonary
vascular resistance. Over time, pulmonary hypertension develops. Eventually, pul-
monary arterial pressures are so high that the pressure in the right ventricle becomes
higher than the pressure in the left ventricle. Blood now shunts from right-to-left
and cyanosis develops. Pulmonary hypertension with a reversed central shunt is
termed Eisenmenger syndrome. Anesthesia in patients with this syndrome carries
an extremely high risk.
20.1.6 Obstructive Lesions
The left ventricular outflow tract can be obstructed at the subvavular, valvular or
supravalvular level. Congenital aortic stenosis, hypoplastic aortic arch and coarc-
tation of the aorta are the most common lesions. The pathophysiology is similar
to that seen in adults with relatively fixed cardiac output, myocardial hypertrophy
causing reduced ventricular compliance and cardiac failure, and a predisposition to
arrhythmias. Anesthetic management also follows the same principles as in adults
and aims to maintain a balance of myocardial oxygen supply and demand. This is
achieved by maintaining normal heart rate and systemic vascular resistance and
avoiding myocardial depression.
20.2 erioperative Approach to the Child with Congenital

P
Heart Disease
The preceding sections give background information about the common types of
cardiac defects. This section focuses on anesthesia in a child with congenital heart
disease for non-cardiac surgery. Utilizing a perioperative approach to their manage-
ment simplifies the process and involves going through three steps:
1. What type of disease does the child have and what are the anesthetic
implications?
2. Does this child have major long-term consequences of congenital heart
disease?
3. Are there any special concerns?
20.2.1 W
hat Type of Disease Does the Child Have and What Are
the Anesthetic Implications?
Children with congenital heart disease fall into one of four categories:
• Children who have never had surgical correction

• Children who have undergone reparative surgery with no residual sequelae
• Children who have undergone reparative surgery with residual sequelae

• Children who have undergone a palliative procedure (e.g. Fontan circulation)
20.2.1.1 Children Who Have Never Had Surgical Correction

These children have uncorrected heart defects shown in Table 20.1. Management
depends on the underlying lesion and whether any of the long-term consequences
of congenital heart disease have developed.
20.2.1.2 hildren Who Have Undergone Reparative Surgery

C
with No Residual Sequelae
These are children with some of the most common congenital abnormalities, such
as a PDA or small ASD. Correction of the defect returns the circulation to a physi-
ologically normal state, and anesthetic management is no different to a non-cardiac
patient. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not required.
20.2.1.3 hildren Who Have Undergone Reparative Surgery

C
with Residual Sequelae
In these children, the main defect has been corrected but there is a residual defect.
Residual defects are common after corrective surgery, particularly if the original
defect was complex or if repair was later in life than is optimal. Table 20.5 lists
some of the more commonly repaired congenital cardiac lesions and their residual
sequelae.
20.2.1.4 Children Who Have Undergone a Palliative Procedure

Palliative procedures do not reconnect the heart and vessels into a normal sequence
with a normal circulation, but they create adequate systemic and pulmonary blood
flow for survival. Palliative surgery is performed for complex heart defects such as
univentricular heart, in which there is atresia of one of the ventricles. These patients
are the most complicated and challenging group. The Fontan procedure is one of the
most common palliative procedures.
Table 20.5 Residual sequelae after some types of cardiac surgery

Disease Residual sequelae after repair
ASD, VSD Arrhythmias
Residual shunt
Pulmonary hypertension (if delayed repair)
Coarctation of the aorta Residual gradient or re-stenosis
Systemic hypertension
Inaccurate blood pressure & SpO2 on side of shunt if subclavian
artery divided for repair
Tetralogy of Fallot Ventricular dysfunction, arrhythmias, pulmonary regurgitation
Residual VSD or RV outlet obstruction
Transposition of the great Stenosis at great vessel anastomoses
arteries Ventricular dysfunction
Coronary artery stenosis
Arrhythmias
Although surgery has reconnected the elements of the circulation into a normal arrangement, the
patients remain at risk from short- and long-term changes to the heart and circulation
390 S. Kaplanian
Keypoint
Children with cyanotic heart disease should be managed in specialist pediatric
centers.
20.2.2 D
oes this Child Have Any of the Major Long-Term
Consequences of Congenital Heart Disease?
The next step in the perioperative approach to the child with congenital heart dis-
ease is to assess if any long-term consequences of congenital heart disease are pres-
ent. Pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias and heart failure are not uncommon, and
chronic cyanosis has long term complications of its own.
20.2.2.1 Pulmonary Hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension is defined as a mean pulmonary arterial pressure greater
than 25 mmHg at rest or more than 30 mmHg during exercise. Large left-to-
right shunts are the most common cause of pulmonary hypertension in children.
Echocardiography is able to quantify pulmonary pressures, and children with
supra-systemic pulmonary pressures have high risk of complications under anes-
thesia. The main goal of anesthesia in these children is to avoid triggering a pulmo-
nary hypertensive crisis by avoiding hypoxia, hypercarbia, acidosis, stress, pain, or
hypothermia. Treatment includes controlled hyperventilation with 100% oxygen,
correcting acidosis, minimizing sympathetic stimulation and considering inhaled
nitric oxide.
20.2.2.2 Arrhythmias
Children who have undergone reparative or palliative surgery are the most likely
to develop arrhythmias. Atrial surgery often leads to supraventricular arrhythmias
while children who have undergone ventriculotomies are more likely to develop
ventricular arrhythmias. Some of these children may have permanent pacemakers
that require checking perioperatively.
20.2.2.3 Heart Failure

Heart failure is most common in infants with large unrestrictive left-to-right shunts
or in the child with the terminal phase of their cardiac disease. Treatment with
diuretics and converting enzyme inhibitors as well as consultation with a pediatric
cardiologist is essential.
20.2.2.4 Cyanosis
Chronic cyanosis (SaO2 <85% and >50 g/L deoxy-Hb) induces multiple coagula-
tion factor deficiencies, thrombocytopenia, and abnormalities in prothrombin and
partial thromboplastin times. Cyanotic children have an increased risk of bleeding,
Table 20.6 Chronic hypoxia Effects of chronic cyanosis

in cyanotic heart disease Coagulation factor deficiencies and risk of bleeding
affects several systems of the Thrombocytopenia
body Polycythemia (increased erythropoietin) and risk of cerebral
thrombosis
Neurodevelopmental changes
Renal dysfunction
and clotting studies should be reviewed and fresh frozen plasma and platelets orga-
nized preoperatively. Polycythemia is also common in cyanotic congenital heart
disease as a result of overproduction of erythropoietin. This increases the risk of
thrombosis and stroke, particularly if the child is dehydrated. Some children are
taking aspirin for this reason. Blood flow is redistributed to the brain and heart, and
renal dysfunction common. Chronic hypoxia may also affect neurodevelopment
(Table 20.6).
20.2.3 Are There Any Special Concerns?
The third and final step in the perioperative approach to the child with congenital
heart disease is to consider any special concerns that may be specific to the child or
procedure. These children have often had multiple anesthetics, and the parent will
know about their child’s preferred induction, behavior at induction and need for
premed.
20.2.4 Infective Endocarditis Prophylaxis
Some children with congenital heart disease having certain procedures require endo-
carditis prophylaxis (Table 20.7). Congenital heart disease with left-to-right shunt,
including ASD and VSD, generally don’t require prophylaxis. Some of these condi-
tions are closed with a device using transcatheter technique, and children with these
devices will need prophylaxis for at-risk procedures for the first 6 months, until the
device is endothelialized. Children with cyanotic heart disease are a high-risk group
whether unrepaired, palliated with a shunt or conduit, or repaired but with a residual
defect. A child with a Fontan circulation is in a high risk group, whereas a child with
a repaired Tetralogy of Fallot with no residual defect would not need prophylaxis
from six months after any repair using prosthetic material.
Only certain procedures necessitate endocarditis prophylaxis. Prophylaxis
is not required during upper and lower gastrointestinal procedures including
gastroscopy and colonoscopy, genitourinary or reproductive tract procedures.
Adenotonsillectomy is considered an indication for prophylaxis in most countries,
but not the United Kingdom.
392 S. Kaplanian
Table 20.7 Groups of children with congenital heart disease that need to be given endocarditis
prophylaxis for procedures with a risk of causing bacteremia
Cardiac conditions needing prophylaxis for certain procedures
Unrepaired cyanotic congenital heart disease, even if palliated with a shunt or conduit
Repaired congenital heart disease either with prosthetic material within last 6 months or with a
residual defect next to the repair (preventing endothelialization)
Repaired CHD with residual defect at or adjacent to prosthetic patch or device
Prosthetic valve or valve repair with prosthetic material
Previous infective endocarditis
Cardiac transplantation recipients with valvulopathy
In Australia: Rheumatic heart disease in indigenous children and others at significant
socioeconomic disadvantage
Procedures needing endocarditis prophylaxis if one of the cardiac conditions above is present
Dental procedures involving manipulation of the gingival tissue or the periapical region of teeth
or perforation of the oral mucosa
Procedures on the respiratory tract involving mucosal incision (includes tonsillectomy and
adenoidectomy, but not bronchoscopy without biopsy), or infected skin, skin structures or
musculoskeletal tissue
In the United Kingdom, ENT procedures are not considered an indication for prophylaxis
20.3 reoperative Assessment of the Child with Congenital

P
Heart Disease
As with adults, assessment of the functional state is an important component in

determining risk. Adult measures such as the New York Heart Association clas-
sification are not usually applicable to children. Exercise tolerance can be easily
assessed in older children, often by asking about their performance compared to
their peers at school. Functional state in preschool-aged children is assessed by
information from the parents. In infants, cardiac symptoms manifest as poor feed-
ing or failure to thrive. Children with defects that shunt blood through the lungs are
predisposed to respiratory infections. Many children have had multiple procedures
or complex cardiac conditions. A hospital record review and deliberation about the
physiology of the child’s cardiovascular system and its response to changes in pul-
monary and systemic vascular resistance is vital.
Physical examination includes observation for dysmorphic features, as about
1 in 5 children with congenital heart disease have other anomalies or syndromes.
Routine observations include the oxygen saturation while breathing room air, blood
pressure, and the pulses in all extremities to detect reduced distal pulses from coarc-
tation of the aorta. Tachypnea, tachycardia, a gallop rhythm, hepatomegaly, and
pulmonary congestion are all indicative of heart failure in the infant. Mottling is
a sign of severe disease. Clubbing and peripheral edema are more relevant in the
older child.
The most useful investigation is echocardiography, as it will give an indication on

function, anatomy, shunting and evidence of pulmonary hypertension. Coagulation
studies should be performed in children with cyanotic heart disease. Other inves-
tigations depend on the child’s pathology, functional state, procedure, and recent
investigations.
20.3.1 The Child with an Incidental Murmur
Cardiac murmurs are commonly noted when assessing children before surgery. Up
to 70% of infants and 50% of school age children may have a murmur, but the
majority are innocent and not caused by any cardiac pathology. Innocent murmurs
are common throughout childhood and adolescence, but particularly common in
children aged 7 years and younger. The commonest type of innocent murmur is
a vibratory (Still’s) murmur, but other types are the pulmonary flow murmur and
venous hum. The latter is due to flow in the systemic great veins and is a continuous
murmur that is sometimes confused with a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). A venous
hum murmur, however, varies with respiration and disappears when supine. It is
important to differentiate these innocent murmurs from the relatively uncommon
pathological murmur. In most cases, the anesthetist is able to distinguish between
the two types from a detailed cardiac-specific history and examination (Table 20.8).
When taking a cardiac-specific history in the child with a murmur, the important
points are family history of congenital heart disease, co-existing syndromes, symp-
toms and a functional assessment. Respiratory problems such as cough, wheeze
or recurrent respiratory infections can be caused by cardiac dysfunction but are
also very common in all children. Physical examination assesses the child’s gen-
eral appearance, and observations include SpO2 and pulses in the upper and lower
extremities. Pathological murmurs are loud, have a harsh quality, may radiate and
are associated with an early or mid-systolic click or an abnormal second heart
sound. The timing of the murmur is also important-pathological murmurs tend to be
pansystolic (VSD) or diastolic, whereas innocent murmurs are soft early systolic or
ejection systolic. If the child is less than one year old or has features suggestive of a
pathological murmur, then referral to a pediatric cardiologist is warranted.
Table 20.8 Clinical features that suggest either innocent or pathological cause for murmur in a
child
Innocent Likely to be pathological
Asymptomatic Child has chromosomal abnormality or syndrome Cardiac
Soft, no associated thrill symptoms, frequent respiratory symptoms Failure to thrive
Ejection systolic Family history
Lower sternal edge and Infant <12 months
does not radiate Harsh, loudness 3/6 or more
Pansystolic or diastolic
394 S. Kaplanian
20.3.2 The Pediatric ECG
The ECG is different during infancy and early childhood due to the significant car-
diac and circulatory changes compared to adults. The anatomical dominance of the
right ventricle during neonatal life is responsible for many of these changes. Apart
from the normal, faster heart rate, a smaller cardiac muscle mass leads to a shorter
PR interval and QRS duration in infants and young children compared to adults.
There is also a shift from right ventricular dominance in the newborn period (reflect-
ing the neonate’s elevated pulmonary vascular resistance) to left ventricular domi-
nance by 1 year of age.
Review Questions
1. A 4 year old girl with Trisomy 21 had an VSD repaired while an infant. She
is active and well and is scheduled for a dental procedure. Could her proce-
dure be performed in a regional hospital? Does she need endocarditis
prophylaxis?
2. A 6 month old infant with hypoplastic right ventricle had a modified Blalock
Taussig shunt performed soon after birth and is now scheduled for surgery. Why
would this child have had a shunt so soon after birth? What factors will affect the
child’s SpO2 during anesthesia?
Further Reading
Apitz C, Webb GD, Redington AN. Tetralogy of Fallot. Lancet. 2009;374:1462–71.
2015;132:1487–515.
Kelleher AA. Adult congenital heart disease (grown-up congenital heart disease). Contin Educ
Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2012;12:28–32.
Miller-Hance WC. Anesthesia for noncardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease. In:
Cote CJ, Lerman J, Anderson BJ, editors. A practice of anesthesia for infants and children. 6th
ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2019.
Nayak S, Booker PD. The Fontan circulation. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2008;8:26–30.
Puri K, Allen HD, Qureshi AM. Congenital heart disease. Pediatr Rev. 2017;38:471–84.
White M. Approach to managing children with heart disease for noncardiac surgery. Paediatr
Anaesth. 2011;21:522–9.
Wise-Faberowski L, Asija R, McElhinney DB. Tetralogy of Fallot: everything you wanted to know
but were afraid to ask. Paediatr Anaesth. 2019;29:475–82.
Endocarditis Prophylaxis

2015;132:1487–515.
NICE Guideline 64. Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis: antimicrobial prophylaxis against
infective endocarditis in adults and children undergoing interventional procedures. National
Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2016. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg64. Accessed
July 2019.
Therapeutic Guidelines: Antibiotic. Version 16. 2019. Electronic Therapeutic Guidelines Complete.
https://tgldcdp.tg.org.au/index. Accessed July 2019.
Anesthesia for Thoracic Surgery
in Children 21
Neil Chambers and Siva Subramaniam
This chapter outlines the differences between children and adults undergoing tho-
racic surgery and discusses some aspects of applied physiology and clinical practice.
Anesthetic management of these cases requires an understanding of the relevance
of age and pathophysiology, and knowledge of the risks of surgery and anesthesia.
These risks include equipment problems, perioperative loss of airway and ventila-
tion problems, bleeding, pneumothorax, and lung soiling.
21.1 Background
Pathologies in children requiring thoracic surgery involve congenital, neoplastic,

infective, traumatic and cystic lesions (Table 21.1). Congenital lung malformations
are a collection of uncommon conditions that primarily present in childhood and are
not commonly seen in adult practice (Table 21.2).
Thoracic surgery is carried out by thoracotomy or thoracoscopy (Video Assisted
Thoracoscopic Surgery, VATS). Thoracic surgery in adults almost always requires
lung isolation and one-lung ventilation (OLV), usually with a double lumen tube.
Children’s lungs are usually healthy and respond differently to surgical interven-
tion compared to chronically diseased adult lungs, and one-lung ventilation is not
always needed. Thoracoscopy with a low intrapleural pressure (below 8–10 mmHg)
is well tolerated by children, who do not usually get significant mediastinal shift
or cardiovascular changes. Although two-lung ventilation has been used for many
years in children, and can be used during some procedures such as thoracoscopic
N. Chambers · S. Subramaniam (*)

e-mail: Neil.Chambers@health.wa.gov.au; Sivanesan.Subramaniam@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_21
398 N. Chambers and S. Subramaniam
Table 21.1 Indications for thoracic surgery in children of different age groups
Age group Indication
Neonate and infant PDA and coarctation of the aorta Congenital lung malformations
Tracheo-esophageal fistula
Child Tumor
Adolescent Tumor
Scoliosis anterior repair
Correction chest wall deformity
Table 21.2 Congenital lung malformations likely to require surgery

Condition Abnormalities
Congenital pulmonary airway Cystic or solid mass connected to a bronchus, usually
malformations (CPMA; formerly within one lobe of the lung. Commonest congenital
called CCAM) lung malformation.
Bronchial mucocele (bronchial Focal narrowing or obliteration of distal segment of
atresia) bronchus causing a mucous-filled cyst.
Bronchogenic cyst Embryologic duplication cyst filled with mucous and
not communicating with a bronchus. Can compress
adjacent structures.
Congenital lobar emphysema Hyperinflation of one or more lobes. Symptoms if
large; may cause pneumothorax.
Pulmonary sequestration Non-functioning lung tissue supplied by anomalous
systemic artery and not communicating with a bronchus
sympathectomy, surgical access is often better if one-lung ventilation is performed.

Some of the equipment issues for one-lung ventilation in children have been
addressed, and one-lung ventilation is being increasingly used in children.
21.2 One-Lung Ventilation in Children
The indications for one-lung ventilation in children are similar to those for adults,
although no indication can be regarded as absolute in children (Table 21.3). One-
lung ventilation can be technically difficult in small children and has potential risks
such as airway trauma or obstruction. These risks need to be balanced against the
potential gain in surgical access. It is generally well tolerated in children, although
reinflation of the lung is associated with a mild acute lung injury. Distribution of ven-
tilation in the lateral position during IPPV is similar in children and adults. During
spontaneous ventilation however, the compressible thoracic cage and reduced effect
of gravity on lung perfusion has the potential to worsen ventilation-perfusion mis-
match in the dependent infant lung. There are three different techniques for one-
lung ventilation in children, each having their own advantages and disadvantages.
Note
One-lung ventilation for VATS in small children is not always necessary, and
its risks and benefits should be discussed with the surgeon.
21 Anesthesia for Thoracic Surgery in Children 399
21.2.1 Double-Lumen Tubes (DLT)
The smallest double lumen tube available is size 26F, and this can be used for
children over 8 years of age or 35 kg (Table 21.4). The size of the DLT can be
estimated with the formula Size (in FG) = (age × 1.5) + 14, or the tracheal diam-
eter measured on CT. A left-sided tube is usually selected because of the rarity
of peri-hilar pathology and young elastic tissues in children, and it is usually
easy to position. Placement is best confirmed using a fiberoptic bronchoscope.
The advantages of the double lumen tube in older children include a good safety
record, ease of insertion, stable positioning, and the ability to suction, oxygen-
ate and apply CPAP to the upper lung. It remains the gold standard when abso-
lute lung isolation is required to prevent contralateral soiling. The disadvantages
of double lumen tubes are the lack of small sizes, an inability to ventilate during
placement, the need to replace the tube for post-operative ventilation and their
potential to cause tracheo-bronchial injury.
Keypoint
Double lumen tubes are less likely to shift during patient positioning and sur-
gery, and allow suction and CPAP to the collapsed lung. They are usually the
best choice for OLV. Their problems however, are their large size and high
incidence of sore throat.
Table 21.3 Indications and contraindications for one-lung ventilation

Indication Comments
Major indications Air leak (actual or potential)
Risk of contamination with pus or blood
Differential ventilation
Other indications Surgical exposure
Contraindications Inability to maintain oxygenation
Technical or equipment problems
Table 21.4 Devices available to achieve one-lung ventilation in children

Smallest device Minimum age/
Tube size weight Comments
Double lumen tube 26F 8 years/35 kg Usually left-sided tube used
(DLT)
Bronchial blockers
Fogarty 3F Infants and older Technically difficult and prone to
embolectomy etc complications
Arndt 5F 18 months Most widely used. Positional
stability may be a problem
Univent 3.5 mm 6–8 years Similar age group to DLT (which is
(7.5 mmOD) preferable to use)
21.2.2 Endobronchial Intubation
Selective endobronchial intubation of the dependent lung is a simple technique that

may be the one of choice in emergencies such as airway hemorrhage or major bron-
chopleural fistula. A tube that is normal sized or a half size smaller is inserted with
its bevel angled towards the lung intended for ventilation. Turning the child’s head
in the opposite direction helps guide the tube. Using a cuffed tube can potentially
improve the seal. Confirmation of correct placement is made clinically or by bron-
choscopy. Problems with this technique include failure to achieve an adequate seal
in the bronchus (preventing deflation of the contralateral lung or failing to protect
the lung from soiling), upper lobe orifice obstruction, and inability to deflate, suc-
tion or provide CPAP to upper lung.
21.2.3 Endobronchial Blockers
Endobronchial blockers are placed either inside or outside the lumen of the
endotracheal tube and occlude the mainstem bronchus of the operative lung.
Their position is checked with either the fiberoptic bronchoscope or image
intensifier. Various types of catheters have been used as endobronchial blockers,
and the technique is suitable for children from infancy onwards (Table 21.4).
Historically, catheters designed for other purposes, such as embolectomy, uri-
nary, pulmonary artery and atrial septostomy catheters have all been used. They
share the significant problems of being difficult to position and their high-pres-
sure cuffs may shift to occlude the tracheal lumen. Furthermore, suction is not
possible through any blocker and the size of the central lumen of most is too
small to be useful. Other blockers, such as the Cohen® blocker, do not have
pediatric sizes available.
The Arndt endobronchial blocker is designed specifically for one-lung ventila-
tion and is now the most popular because it has a large central lumen to allow
lung deflation and oxygenation to the non-ventilated lung, as well as a low pressure
endobronchial cuff that has a lower risk of displacement. The blocker is positioned
while observing through a small diameter bronchoscope (Fig. 21.1). The small-
est Arndt blocker is 5FR, which requires an endotracheal tube of at least 4.5 mm
ID (using a 2.2 mm diameter bronchoscope) to accommodate the catheter and a
bronchoscope to position it. This means that they can only be used in children over
about 18 months, depending on the child’s size. The blocker can be used outside the
endotracheal tube, allowing its use in even younger children but risking localized
pressure from the catheter on the cricoid cartilage.
The Univent® tube (Fuji) is a single lumen ETT with moveable bronchial blocker
incorporated into the side of the tube. It is easy to place and allows both one- and
two-lung ventilation. It is easier to place compared to the double lumen tube if
laryngoscopy is difficult, and there is no need to change the tube if post op ventila-
tion is required. However, they have a large external diameter and are only suitable
for older children, in whom a double lumen tube is preferable.
Fig. 21.1 The Arndt

endobronchial blocker
positioned in the left
Fiberscope
mainstem bronchus. A fine
fiberscope passed alongside Endotracheal
the blocker is used to tube
visualize the cuff of the
blocker
Bronchial
blocker
Cuff occluding left

main bronchus
21.3 Anesthesia Maintenance
Intraoperative management of anesthesia during thoracic surgery is based on the

underlying pathophysiology and planned surgery. Invasive arterial monitoring can
be helpful but is not essential in children undergoing one-lung ventilation. The
lack of pulmonary and cardiovascular disease in most children means that both
thoracotomy and one-lung ventilation are generally well tolerated. ETCO2 can be
an unreliable indicator of arterial CO2 during one-lung ventilation, but trends and
changes are still useful. Positioning of the child for surgery or intraoperative surgi-
cal maneuvers can alter the precisely positioned endobronchial blocker, which is not
as secure as a DLT. For this reason, a fiberoptic bronchoscope needs to be readily
available throughout surgery.
Most children undergo surgery for a focal lesion and otherwise have normal
lungs. They usually tolerate one-lung ventilation well, and may need only a small
increase in FiO2. Nevertheless, there should be a plan to manage hypoxemia during
one-lung ventilation (Table 21.5). If constant pressure ventilation is being used,
airway pressure will not increase during one-lung ventilation, but the tidal volume
will fall. The respiratory rate and inspiratory pressure will need adjusting. Blood
loss and fluid shifts during surgery may be considerable, and heat loss is large. Fluid
replacement should match losses, but excessive fluid may cause lung edema and
postoperative respiratory complications.
Table 21.5 Causes and management of hypoxemia during one-lung ventilation in a small child
Hypoxia during one-lung ventilation
Causes Bronchial tube too far in or out, or blocking trachea
Tube lumen obstructed
Under-ventilation
Diminished hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
Management Increase FiO2
Check tube position and equipment function
Oxygenate operative lung (O2 insufflation, CPAP, intermittent re-expansion)
Optimize ventilation (hand ventilate, tidal volume, I:E ratio, PEEP)
Suction
Ensure optimal cardiac output
Ask surgeon to wait until oxygenation is adequate
21.4 Postoperative Management
Thoracotomy is a painful procedure in children as it is in adults. It is less pain-

ful in infants however, due to their cartilaginous ribs and costovertebral junctions.
Postoperative analgesia in children follows the same principles as adults: multi-
modal, incorporating a regional or local technique when possible, and aiming to
facilitate extubation and postoperative recovery.
Children with previously good lung function can usually be extubated in
theatre. Postoperative ventilation may sometimes be required if there is under-
lying lung pathology, atelectasis or soiling, or if management of the child is
facilitated by maintaining sedation for a period of time. Recovery and return to
normal function is generally faster in younger children compared to adolescents
and adults.
Review Questions
1. How would you manage hypoxemia during one lung ventilation in children?
2. What are the signs of significant mediastinal shift during videoscopic assisted
thoracic surgery?
Further Reading
Fabilia TS, Menghraj SJ. One lung ventilation strategies for infants and children undergoing video
assisted thoracoscopic surgery. Indian J Anaesth. 2013;57:339–44. A comprehensive review
article with color pictures and free download.
Hammer GB. Single-lung ventilation in infants and children. Pediatr Anesth. 2004;14:98–102.
Letal M. Paediatric lung isolation. BJA Edu. 2017;17:57–62.
Templeton TW. Bending the rules: a novel approach to placement and respective experience with
the 5 French Arndt endobronchial blocker in children <2 years. Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:512–20.
Tobias JD. Anesthetic implications of thoracoscopic surgery in children. Pediatr Anesth.
1999;1:103–10.
Wald SH, Mahajan A, Kaplan MB, Atkinson JB. Experience with the Arndt paediatric bronchial
blocker. Br J Anaesth. 2005;94:92–4.
Anesthesia for Plastic Surgery
in Children 22
Rohan Mahendran
Anesthesia is often required for small traumatic injuries such as lacerations, which
would be treated under local anesthesia in an adult. It is also required for plastic sur-
gery to correct congenital deformities, sometimes in children with other congenital
anomalies that affect anesthesia.
22.1 Anesthesia for Cleft Lip and Palate Repair
Cleft lip and palate is the most common craniofacial disorder in children, with an
overall incidence of 1 in 600 births. It occurs from the failure of fusion of the com-
ponents of the nasal and maxillary prominences during early gestation. Children
can have an isolated cleft clip, cleft palate only, or both cleft lip and palate. Babies
with cleft lip and palate are usually otherwise well. Babies with cleft palate alone
are less common (about 1 in 2000 births), but are more likely to have other con-
genital anomalies including cardiac disease (5–10%) or other syndromes including
Trisomy 21, or Robin sequence. The cleft varies in severity and may be unilateral or
bilateral. It can involve the nose, philtrum, lip vermillion, gum, hard and soft palate,
uvula and Eustachian tubes.
There are many subsequent effects of the cleft. These include cosmetic and
maternal attachment issues, sucking and feeding, hearing and speech development,
and dental issues. Children with cleft palate are managed by a team including plas-
tic surgeons, geneticists, ENT and speech pathology, dentistry and orthodontics,
and nutritionists. An early issue for babies with cleft palate is developing an effec-
tive suck for feeding. Specialized teats or squeezy bottles are used for feeding.
R. Mahendran (*)
e-mail: Rohan.Mahendran@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_22
406 R. Mahendran
Orthodontic plates are used before surgical repair to align the gum margins. Infants
with syndromes in association with cleft are particularly prone to gastro-esophageal
reflux, which in turn inflames the upper airway and affects surgery.
22.1.1 Surgical Repair
Surgical procedures optimize function and cosmesis. The first procedure is lip repair
at 3 months of age. Some centers perform this repair at ages as young as 1 week to
reduce scarring, but this must be balanced against anesthesia and airway concerns.
The anterior part of the gum is sometimes repaired at the same time as the lip, or
otherwise later when the palate is repaired.
The cleft palate is repaired between 9 and 18 months of age. Repair at a young
age improves speech development, whereas later repair allows more normal devel-
opment of the midface. The age chosen for repair is a balance between these two
opposing requirements. For this reason, some centers close the lip and soft palate
early and leave the hard palate cleft until childhood. Repair is carried out using
mucoperiosteal flaps, and intravelar veloplasty to re-orientate the muscles of the
palate (Fig. 22.1). Particular attention is paid to the levator muscle of the soft palate
because it is important for speech. The bony defect of the gum is corrected later with
an alveolar bone graft, usually taken from the iliac crest.
22.1.2 Anesthesia for Cleft Lip Repair
The lip is repaired during early infancy to reduce scarring and help with mater-
nal bonding and feeding. The airway is managed during general anesthesia with
a south-facing oral RAE tube. Intubation can be awkward if the baby also has a
cleft palate, and is discussed below. The surgeon will infiltrate the area with local
anesthetic or perform bilateral infra-orbital blocks. Although this provides adequate
Fig. 22.1 Schematic of one a b

of the surgical techniques Raw areas, open from
used to repair cleft palate. Incisions
tension-relieving sutures
(a) Isolated cleft of hard and
soft palate, showing
abnormal orientation of
palatal muscles in the soft
palate and surgical incision
lines (dotted line). (b)
Surgical repair of cleft
palate using mucoperiosteal
flaps and intravelar
veloplasty. The repair leaves
anterior raw areas that may
bleed postoperatively Palatal Reoriented
muscles palatal muscles
22 Anesthesia for Plastic Surgery in Children 407
analgesia, intraoperative fentanyl may help to keep the baby settled and calmer in
PACU. Although the lip defect has been closed, there is no major change to the
infant’s upper airway after surgery, which facilitates postoperative management.
22.1.3 Anesthesia for Cleft Palate Repair
There are several important issues for anesthetic care, mostly relating to the airway
(Table 22.1). Intubation is usually straightforward, but may difficult in about 5% of
cases—usually in children with a coexisting syndrome affecting the airway. Cleft
palate babies are classically said to be awkward to intubate because the laryngo-
scope blade can fall into the cleft. However, this is not a common problem in prac-
tice, although it is more likely to occur if the cleft is left-sided. Techniques to avoid
this problem include intubation using a laryngoscope with the broad Oxford cleft
lip and palate blade, or using folded gauze to fill the cleft during intubation. Routine
use of a videolaryngoscope would be a reasonable choice nowadays.
After intubation, the head is significantly extended to bring the hard palate almost
parallel to the floor to facilitate surgical access. A mouth gag is inserted and the sur-
gical site is extensively infiltrated with local anesthetic containing adrenaline (epi-
nephrine) to reduce bleeding. Maxillary nerve blocks are used by some surgeons.
Blood loss is usually low, but can be higher and a group and hold or crossmatch of
blood is often performed before surgery. Tranexamic acid may be given, although
without direct evidence of benefit.
Issues during surgery include the partial occlusion of the ETT by the gag, or
desaturation due to coughing and poor ventilation. The latter occurs at a stage when
the infant is no longer paralyzed, lightly anesthetized and surgical stimulation trig-
gers reflex movement or coughing.
After surgery, the main concern is airway obstruction, which may occur for mul-
tiple reasons. Closure of the cleft results in a sudden and significant narrowing of
the upper airway, especially in infants with a pre-existing syndromic airway—the
nose is often blocked by secretions or blood, and there is usually bleeding into the
mouth from the raw surfaces of the palate created when the oral mucosa is mobi-
lized to close the cleft. Some centers place a nasopharyngeal airway or a cut nasal
tube at the end of surgery to splint the nose and nasopharyngeal airway.
At the end of surgery, the aim is to extubate the infant awake but settled to min-
imize coughing and crying, which can worsen venous congestion and bleeding.
Table 22.1 Anesthetic Anesthetic issues for cleft palate repair

issues for infants undergoing Infant anesthesia, possible coexisting syndrome
cleft palate surgery Difficult/awkward intubation
Occlusion of ETT by oral gag during surgery
Dramatic change in airway patency and resistance after
surgery
Bleeding into mouth and airway during and after repair
Analgesia after surgery
408 R. Mahendran
Opioid analgesia during surgery will facilitate this, but must not make the baby
too sedated or apneic. Clonidine or dexmedetomidine may be useful adjuncts. Arm
splints are used to prevent the infant picking at the repair, but they often irritate the
baby and make it more difficult to settle. An opioid infusion is commonly required
for analgesia during the first 24 h. Infants are usually admitted to a higher-care area
after cleft palate surgery to allow close observation for airway obstruction, bleeding
and adequacy of analgesia.
22.1.4 Subsequent Surgeries
Children born with cleft lip and palate often require a series of procedures dur-
ing childhood and adolescence (Table 22.2). They have often had a lot to do with
hospitals, and some may benefit from premedication before induction, particularly
children for alveolar bone graft who are older and more aware of their procedure.
About 15–20% of children with cleft palate require pharyngoplasty. This is per-
formed in children with nasal-sounding speech and velopharyngeal incompetence.
There are two common types of pharyngoplasty. In the first, a flap is raised from
the posterior pharyngeal wall and is attached to the middle part of the soft palate,
leaving two small, lateral passages for nasal breathing. In the second, the Jackson
pharyngoplasty, the posterior tonsillar pillars are freed and rotated onto the soft
palate, leaving a small, central passage. Children are older and larger at the time of
this procedure, reducing the postoperative risk of airway obstruction from surgical
narrowing of the airway. A longer-term effect of pharyngoplasty is obstructive sleep
apnea.
Pharyngoplasty may affect subsequent nasal intubation. Some of these children
subsequently require restorative dental treatment under anesthesia, and this treat-
ment is facilitated by a nasal endotracheal tube. The pharyngeal flap can be badly
damaged by the ETT as it passes through the nose. If nasal intubation is required in
Table 22.2 Children with cleft lip and palate often need a series of procedures during childhood
and early adulthood
Typical age at time of
procedure Procedure Comments
3 months Cleft lip repair Anesthesia of young infant
8–12 months Cleft palate repair and Airway changes after surgery
ear tubes
5–6 years Pharyngoplasty
5–6 years Revision palatoplasty Soft palate lengthened with Z-plasty as
alternative to pharyngoplasty
8–10 years Alveolar bone graft Pain from iliac crest donor bone graft site
18–20 years Maxillary advancement Complex maxillofacial surgery, at age when
facial growth finished
22 years+ Rhinoplasty Young adult, blocked nose and blood in
airway postop
However most children do not need all these procedures
22 Anesthesia for Plastic Surgery in Children 409
a child who has had a pharyngoplasty, consider contacting the previous surgeon
who can describe the flap’s robustness and the size and location of the orifice into
the oropharynx. Guiding the ETT with a fiberscope is usually recommended, but
this technique can still traumatize the flap if the scope is not advanced gently and
under direct vision. An alternative is to pass a soft suction catheter through the nose
into the oral cavity and railroad a softened and lubricated ETT over it.
Tip
If planning a nasal intubation in a school-aged child who has had a cleft palate
repair, check if they have also had a pharyngoplasty.
22.2 Craniosynostosis Repair
Craniosynostosis is the premature fusion of one or more of the cranial sutures, stop-
ping normal growth of the skull. This causes cosmetic changes and increased intra-
cranial pressure, and may cause neurodevelopmental changes. Although commonly
an isolated abnormality, 20% are associated with an identified syndrome or genetic
disorder. Such syndromes include Crouzon’s, Apert’s, Pfeiffer’s, and Saethre-
Chotzen’s. These usually involve multiple sutures and may affect the cranial vault
and face, and are often associated with increased intracranial pressure.
Surgery for craniosynostosis is usually performed before the age of 12 months.
Infants with a single, fused saggital suture may undergo spring cranioplasty, in
which calibrated springs are applied across a strip craniectomy of the suture. These
springs are normally removed 4–6 months later. Children with multiple sutures
involved or abnormal bone shape are managed with cranial vault reconstruction.
Although some children having this procedure have syndromes affecting the airway,
the biggest challenge with these cases is managing blood loss that may equal one or
two blood volumes. Venous air embolism is also a risk during surgery.
Keypoint
Early replacement of blood loss with non-crystalloid replacement (albumin/
blood/blood products) is prudent to prevent a dilutional coagulopathy and
maintain normovolemia.
Reconstruction of the cranial vault is performed with bifronto-orbital advance-

ment, which involves an extensive incision and exposure of the cranium along with
a frontal craniotomy and removal of a band of bone above the orbits. These bones
are then individually cut, shaped and repositioned using wires and resorbable plates
and screws. Posterior cranial vault reconstruction is performed for saggital synosto-
sis presenting later in childhood. The child is prone during surgery, and sections of
the skull are removed and reshaped before being repositioned.
410 R. Mahendran
Further Reading
Abbott M. Cleft lip and palate. Ped Rev. 2014;35:177–80. A short medical review of the condition
and associated problems.
Basta MN, et al. Predicting adverse perioperative events in patients undergoing primary cleft pal-
ate repair. Cleft Palate Craniofac J. 2018;55:574–81.
Gangopadhyay N, Mendonca DA, Woo AS. Pierre Robin sequence. Semin Plast Surg.
2012;26:76–82.
Nargozian C. The airway in patients with craniofacial abnormalities. Pediatr Anesth. 2004;14:53–
9. A synopsis of the different syndromes and their airway anomalies.
Thomas K, et al. Anesthesia for surgery related to craniosynostosis: a review. Part 1. Pediatr
Anesth. 2012;22:1033–41.
Thomas K, et al. Anesthesia for surgery related to craniosynostosis: a review. Part 2. Pediatr
Anesth. 2013;23:22–7. A review of craniosynostosis and the operations to correct this.
Pediatric Neuroanesthesia
23
Mairead Heaney
Despite the evolution of anesthetic and surgical techniques over time, the goals of
pediatric neuroanesthesia remain unchanged—to provide effective anesthesia and
analgesia, reduce intracranial pressure, maintain cerebral perfusion pressure, and to
allow rapid recovery after surgery.
23.1 Anatomy
The child’s brain and central nervous system is the fastest growing organ in the
body. As in adults, brain tissue and extracellular fluid occupy 80% of the intracranial
compartment, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood occupy 10% each. The brain
can grow during infancy because the cranial suture lines are not fused. The child’s
skull however, is pliable and incomplete, and offers less protection than an adult’s.
The posterior fontanelle closes by the second month of life. The anterior fontanelle
stays open until approximately 18 months and it allows assessment of intracranial
pressure (ICP) or ultrasound imaging of intracranial structures. The child’s brain is
incompletely myelinized, has a higher water content than an adult’s, and is more
homogenous and susceptible to diffuse axonal injury and cerebral edema. The blood
brain barrier is freely permeable to water, and rapid changes in plasma osmolarity
greatly affect the water content of the brain.
M. Heaney (*)
Paediatric Critical Care Unit, Perth Children’s Hospital, Nedlands, WA, Australia
e-mail: Mairead.Heaney@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_23
412 M. Heaney
23.2 Physiology
Compared with adults, neonates have lower, and children higher, cerebral
blood flow (CBF) and cerebral metabolic oxygen consumption (CMRO2) (neo-
nate < adult < child) (Table 23.1). The pediatric brain is probably less tolerant to
reduced cerebral blood flow than the adult brain. Cerebral autoregulation occurs,
but the pressure limits of regulation are not known with certainty. In neonates
and infants, the lower limit of autoregulation is closer to the baseline mean arte-
rial pressure than in older children—a fall in neonatal blood pressure is likely to
reduce cerebral blood flow.
Intracranial pressure in neonates and infants is normally between 0 and 6 mmHg.
In older children and adults, the range is between 13 and 15 mmHg. In infants, a
gradual increase in intracranial volume will expand the head with only a small
increase in ICP, such as with hydrocephalus. If volume rises rapidly, however, the
non-elastic pericranium and dura mater means ICP rises rapidly, ultimately causing
herniation of the brain stem through the foramen magnum. In infants, an increase in
intracranial volume of only 10 mL results in a 10 mmHg increase in intracranial
pressure, which is the reason children rapidly deteriorate after intracranial hemor-
rhage. The cerebral perfusion pressure is lower in younger children than adults
(Table 23.4).
Keypoint
When intracranial pressure gradually rises in an infant, the fontanelles bulge,
the suture lines open and the increase in ICP is accommodated. When intra-
cranial pressure suddenly rises in an infant, the inelastic pericranium cannot
suddenly stretch, and just as in adults, the ICP suddenly increases.
23.3 Pharmacology
The inhalational and intravenous anesthetics have broadly the same effects on cere-
bral blood flow and CMRO2 in children and adults. All inhalational agents increase
CBF and reduce CMRO2. Low concentrations of isoflurane and sevoflurane (less
Table 23.1 Differences between adult and pediatric brain blood flow
Cerebral blood flow
Brain mass (% (mL/100 g brain tissue/ Percentage of CMRO2
body weight) min) cardiac output (mL/100 g/min)
Adult 2 55 15 3.5
Child 10 100 25 5.5
Term 15–20 40 Lower than
neonate adult
Preterm 15–20 12 Lower than
neonate adult
23 Pediatric Neuroanesthesia 413
than 1 MAC) with ventilation to maintain normocarbia minimally affect CBF and
ICP. Propofol is a cerebral vasoconstrictor that reduces CBF and CMRO2 while pre-
serving autoregulation in both children and adults. Ketamine does not increase ICP
when ventilation is controlled, has favorable effects on cerebral perfusion pressure
and may have neuroprotective effects. Fentanyl and remifentanil have only minor
effects on CBF and CMRO2 in children and adults.
23.4 Pediatric Brain Tumors
Intracranial tumors are the second commonest childhood cancer after leukemia.
23.4.1 Background
Most pediatric brain tumors are primary tumors and more than half occur in the
posterior fossa. The peak incidence is between 3 and 8 years of age. The commonest
types in the posterior fossa are medulloblastoma, pilocytic (low grade) astrocytoma,
glioma and ependymoma (Table 23.2). Supratentorial tumors are more common in
infants and older children.
Because of their location, childhood tumors present differently from adults.
Children will often present with the triad of headache, nausea and vomiting (espe-
cially in the morning) and gait imbalance. Infants and young children may present
with macrocephaly, or with fairly non-specific symptoms including vomiting, irri-
tability, lethargy, failure to thrive, loss of developmental milestones or torticollis.
23.4.2 Assessment
The preoperative assessment focuses on identifying raised intracranial pressure and

cranial nerve abnormalities. The preoperative MRI scan and the operative strategy
Table 23.2 Types of brain tumors in children and their incidence

Tumor type Incidence
Posterior fossa tumors 55–60% (usually children 3–8 years)
Medulloblastoma (PNET of cerebellum) 20%
Pilocytic (low Grade) astrocytoma 20%
Brain stem glioma 15%
Ependymoma 5%
Supratentorial tumors 40–55% (usually infants and older children)
Astrocytoma 15%
Glioblastoma 10%
Midline
Craniopharyngioma 5%
Optic glioma 3%
PNET primitive neuroectodermal cell tumor
414 M. Heaney
should be discussed with the neurosurgeon, including positioning and potential

complications. Posterior fossa tumors can delay gastric emptying and involvement
of the cranial nerves can lead to an impaired gag reflex. Potential issues during
surgery include the need for reduction in brain mass, blood loss, hemodynamic
changes and electrolyte abnormalities. Supratentorial tumors are usually resected in
the supine position with the head slightly elevated, whereas posterior fossa tumors
are resected in the prone position. The sitting position is now rarely used in children,
as they are even more likely than adults to have air embolism in this position.
It would be easy to say that sedative premedication should be avoided due to
the potential for respiratory depression in children with brain tumors. These chil-
dren however, have often been through multiple procedures in a short period of
time, and the child and their parents are justifiably anxious about the neurosurgery
procedure. Judicious use of premedication can often be considered in all children
except those with critically raised ICP, who often have a depressed level of con-
sciousness in any case.
23.4.3 Induction
Anesthesia may be induced by the IV or inhalational route. Although an IV induc-

tion might be desirable in a child with raised ICP, a smooth gas induction is prefer-
able to repeated attempts to obtain an IV in an upset child with raised intracranial
pressure. In addition to standard monitoring, an arterial line, large bore IV access
and urinary catheter are inserted once the child is asleep. A central venous cath-
eter is often inserted, most commonly in the femoral vein to avoid obstruction to
cerebral venous drainage. A nasogastric tube may be inserted to drain gastric secre-
tions during prolonged anesthesia. A south facing oral endotracheal tube (ETT) or
armored orotracheal tube is used if the child is supine during surgery. An armored
ETT will affect MRI scans if they are planned during or after surgery.
If the child will be prone for surgery, meticulous attention is paid to fixing the
ETT in position. A nasal ETT can be more securely fastened than an oral tube,
and is commonly used in prone children. In infants, a throat pack may be inserted
to help stabilize the tube within the pharynx and to stop secretions loosening the
tapes on the ETT. The pack is left part way out of the mouth so it is not left in after
anesthesia. Ventilator tubing is secured to the operating table so that its weight does
not dislodge the endotracheal tube. The head is placed in pins for prone positioning
in children older than 3–4 years, but younger children have a thin cranium and the
headrest is used instead.
23.4.4 Maintenance
Both volatile and intravenous anesthetic techniques are commonly used. There is
no evidence to recommend one volatile agent over another in children. However,
the volatile should be maintained at less than 1.0 MAC to minimize the effect on
cerebral blood flow. There are concerns with high-dose propofol in children for
prolonged periods (propofol infusion syndrome), but the dose can be reduced with
concomitant remifentanil or volatile agent. Dexamethasone and anticonvulsants
should be continued intraoperatively.
A potentially life-threatening complication of posterior fossa surgery is venous
air embolism. Venous air emboli are detected very commonly when sensitive
Doppler techniques are used. These techniques are so sensitive however, that even
microbubbles in IV fluid are detected and cause false positives. The majority of
venous air emboli are too small to be clinically significant. If hemodynamic com-
promise occurs (hypotension and loss of end tidal carbon dioxide) the surgical field
should be flooded with saline, and air may be aspirated if there is a central venous
line positioned in the right atrium (although this is not commonly successful at
removing air). Negative intrathoracic pressure should be avoided and muscle paral-
ysis ensured.
Surgery in the region of the pituitary, such as resection of a craniopharyngioma,
may cause intraoperative diabetes insipidus. This will cause polyuria and if the urine
output cannot be matched with dextrose-saline solutions and the serum sodium and
osmolality increase, intravenous DDAVP or a vasopressin infusion may be required.
Surgery around the brain stem may cause bradycardia or blood pressure changes.
Unless the brain is very edematous and surgery very complicated, patients are
generally woken and extubated at the end of the case. Whatever anesthesia tech-
nique is employed, a rapid smooth emergence is desirable to allow early neuro-
logical evaluation. Posterior fossa surgery is much more painful than supratentorial
surgery and painful muscle spasms occur postoperatively. Some children develop
posterior fossa syndrome for a period of time after surgery. It includes combinations
of cortical blindness, mutism, ataxia, irritation and nerve palsies.
23.5 nesthesia for Children with Traumatic Brain

A
Injury (TBI)
Injury is the leading cause of death of children in most developed countries, and 40%
of these deaths are due to traumatic brain injury. There are two phases to traumatic
brain injury. The first is the mechanical damage occurring at the time of injury. The
secondary injury is caused by an inflammatory process resulting from a complex
interplay of several events including hypoxia, raised ICP, cerebral edema, hydro-
cephalus, hyperglycemia and infection. The brain of a young child has incomplete
myelinization and a high water content. As a result, blunt head trauma in children
often results in diffuse axonal injury and diffuse cerebral edema. This diffuse pro-
cess can be worsened by physiologic insults, most often hypoxia and hypotension.
Intracranial and extracranial collections are much less common in children than
in adults. Children nevertheless undergo surgical procedures after brain trauma,
including insertion of an external-ventricular drain (EVD), evacuation of extradu-
ral, subdural or intracerebral hematomas, or decompressive craniectomy for man-
agement of refractory intracranial hypertension. They also undergo surgery for
extracranial injuries. The most important aspect of anesthesia is control of ICP and
maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure. Hypoxia and hypotension have been
416 M. Heaney
shown repeatedly to worsen outcome in head injured patients. Glycemic control is

also important as hyperglycemia has been shown to worsen neuronal injury. These
children will generally not have had their cervical spines cleared (see Chap. 25,
Sect. 25.4) and therefore maintenance of spinal precautions is vital.
Note
Brain trauma in children tends to cause a diffuse axonal injury with subse-
quent edema and raised ICP. Intracranial and extracranial collections of blood
are much less common than in adults.
23.5.1 Control of Intracranial Pressure
If measured, ICP should be maintained below 20 mmHg. If a monitor is not in place

it may be estimated from the imaging studies. Steps to control ICP are outlined
in Table 23.3. Cerebral perfusion pressure should be maintained at an appropriate
level for the child’s age (Table 23.4). This may require fluid boluses, central venous
access and administration of pressors such as noradrenaline (norepinephrine) 0.1–
0.5 μg/kg/min. If ICP is refractory medical therapy, a decompressive craniectomy
may be considered.
Table 23.3 Overview of steps that can be used to control ICP in children
System Steps to control ICP
Physical Confirm raised ICP: ensure transducers are correctly positioned and zeroed
Head up 30°
Avoid neck vein obstruction: head in neutral position, no constricting ETT
tapes
Drain CSF if EVD in situ
Ensure ETT is not obstructed by secretions and no bronchospasm
Physiological Temperature control: avoid hyperthermia and in emergency consider active
cooling 33–35 °C
Maintain adequate oxygenation
Maintain CO2 low normal (35–40 mmHg; 4.7–5.3 kPa). In emergency
consider hyperventilation CO2 25–30 mmHg; 3.3–4 kPa (temporizing
measure only)
Avoid hyponatremia, in emergency consider hypertonic saline 3% 3mL/kg
Avoid hypovolemia
Pharmacological Ensure adequate sedation and paralysis
Seek and treat seizures
Osmotherapy: hypertonic sodium chloride 3% 3mL/kg, or mannitol 20%
0.25–0.5 g/kg (given slowly to avoid hypotension)
Steroids if brain tumor, avoid steroids if TBI (increase mortality)
Consider barbiturate coma if standard treatments fail
Surgical Drain any intracranial collection
Consider decompressive craniectomy
Table 23.4 Target cerebral Age CPP target (mmHg)

perfusion pressure (CPP) in Infant >40
children of different ages Child (1–10 years) 50
Adolescent (10–16 years) 50–60
Adult (>16 years) 50–70
23.6 Neural Tube Defects (Spina Bifida)
Neural tube defects are birth defects of the brain and spinal cord. They include
spina bifida (myelomeningocele), in which the fetal spinal column fails to close
during the first trimester. Maternal antenatal folate supplements have reduced
the incidence of neural tube defects. Spinal nerve involvement causes at least
some paralysis of the legs. Some defects are covered by skin and have less neu-
ral involvement (lipomyelomeningocele, lipomeningocele and tethered cord).
Neurosurgery and plastic surgery are performed within the first day or two of
life to cover the defect and prevent infection or rupture. Induction can be in the
lateral or supine position (as long as the lesion is surrounded by padding to pre-
vent rupture).
Surgery is performed in the prone position. Large lesions may require rotational
flaps with the potential for significant blood loss. Wound infiltration with local anes-
thetic and paracetamol are sufficient for analgesia and these infants can usually be
extubated postoperatively. Postoperative apnea is a concern and these infants are all
monitored in the NICU.
Most children with myelomeningocele have Chiari malformation and require
a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt for hydrocephalus. More than 70% of children with
neural tube defects are sensitive to latex, possibly due to immune changes rather
than direct exposure to latex. These children will frequently have multiple surgeries
(VP shunt, orthopedic, scoliosis, bladder, bowel) during childhood and latex pre-
cautions should always be observed (See Chap. 12 Sect. 12.11).
23.7 Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus is due to an imbalance between CSF production and absorption.

Most hydrocephalus in children is congenital and causes include aqueductal steno-
sis, hemorrhage, infections, and Arnold-Chiari malformation. Over 50% of infants
with intraventricular hemorrhage and 20% of children with posterior fossa tumors
develop permanent hydrocephalus requiring shunting. The ventricles become
dilated, and in infants there is a disproportionate increase in head size. Patients with
hydrocephalus will present to theatre for insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt
(lateral ventricle to peritoneum) or endoscopic ventriculostomy.
418 M. Heaney
23.7.1 Anesthesia for Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) Shunt Insertion
A large proportion of children having surgery for a VP shunt are neonates and babies
having their initial shunt. The ICP is not markedly raised because of the compliance of
the infant skull, and routine volatile anesthesia is commonly used. Intubation may be
awkward if the head is large but this can be overcome by raising the infant up from the
table on a rolled towel ensuring the neck is not flexed. Older children with a blocked VP
shunt needing revision are often unwell and have raised ICP. In this group of patients,
increases in ICP during anesthesia and intubation are minimized. Hypotension and bra-
dycardia may occur when the shunt is inserted and the CSF pressure suddenly relieved.
Tunneling the shunt’s catheter from the head down through the neck to the abdomi-
nal wall may cause tachycardia and hypertension. The entire length of the abdominal
component of the shunt is inserted to allow for linear growth of the child, and as CSF
circulation changes significantly in the first few years of life shunts now have a pro-
grammable valve which allows adjustments to be made to titrate the shunt’s flow rate
to the growing child’s need. An important point to remember is that patients with VP
shunts in situ who present unwell to hospital should be considered to have a blocked
shunt until proven otherwise and may require emergency shunt revision.
23.7.2 Chiari Malformation
There are several types of Chiari malformation, which are a spectrum of congenital
hindbrain abnormalities affecting the structural relationships between the cerebel-
lum, brainstem, cervical spinal cord, and the bones of the base of the skull. Type II
Chiari malformation is usually associated with spina bifida—the posterior fossa is
shallow and the cerebellar tonsils, fourth ventricle and brainstem herniate through
the foramen magnum into the upper cervical canal. These changes obstruct CSF
flow, causing a syringomyelia of the spinal cord, as well as brainstem compres-
sion causing respiratory and cardiovascular changes. Treatment is craniectomy with
expansion of the foramen magnum and a laminectomy of the first cervical vertebra
(C1) (Fig. 23.1). The neck is still stable after this procedure.
Fig. 23.1 (a) The Type II a b

Chiari malformation with
herniation of the
cerebellum and brainstem
into the upper cervical
spinal canal. (b) After
craniectomy with
widening of the foramen
magnum and C1
laminectomy, relieving
pressure on the brainstem
Review Question
1. A 10 year old boy has been knocked unconscious by a blow to the head with a
hockey stick and has arrived at your pediatric hospital. After appropriate initial
management, a CT scan has shown an extradural hematoma. Discuss your anes-
thetic management for craniotomy.
Further Reading
Allen B, et al. Specific cerebral perfusion pressure thresholds and survival in children and adoles-
cents with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2014;15:62–70.
Crawford J. Pediatric brain tumors. Pediatr Rev. 2013;34:63–76. A detailed medical review of the
different brain tumors in children.
Emeriaud G, Pettersen G, Ozanne B. Pediatric traumatic brain injury: an update. Curr Opin
Anesthesiol. 2011;24:307–13.
Furay C, Howell T. Pediatric neuroanaesthesia. Cont Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2010;10:172–6.
Hardcastle N, Benzon HA, Vavilala MS. Update on the 2012 guidelines for the management
of pediatric traumatic brain injury—information for the anesthesiologist. Pediatr Anesth.
2014;24:703–10.
McClain CD, Soriano SG. Anesthesia for intracranial surgery in infants and children. Curr Opin
Anesthesiol. 2014;27:465–9.
Szabo EZ, Luginbuehl I, Bissonnette B. Impact of anesthetic agents on cerebrovascular physiology
in children. Pediatr Anesth. 2009;19:108–18. A good review of the factors that affect cerebral
blood flow.
Wright Z, Larrew T, Eskandari R. Pediatric hydrocephalus: current state of diagnosis and treat-
ment. Pediatr Rev. 2016;37:478–88.
Anesthesia for Ophthalmic Surgery
24
Elaine Christiansen
Children may need general anesthesia for procedures that would be performed
awake in adults, such as examination or refraction of the eyes, removal of super-
ficial foreign bodies and cataract repair. Common procedures include strabismus
surgery, tear duct surgery and management of the penetrating eye injury. Most of
these children are well, but some may be very young or have associated syndromes.
Anesthesia depth affects the intraocular pressure and eye position.
24.1 Airway Management
The airway can often be managed with an LMA. Considerations are size of the
child, access to the airway should a problem arise during the procedure, dura-
tion of the procedure and adequacy of the airway obtained if an LMA is chosen
initially. Full-head draping is often used during eye surgery and its removal
to urgently access the airway is awkward and introduces the risk of wound
infection.
24.2 Oculocardiac Reflex
The oculocardiac reflex is bradycardia, junctional rhythm or even asystole caused

by traction on the extraocular muscles or compression of the eyeball. It occurs most
commonly during strabismus surgery or enucleation. Anecdotally, the reflex is most
likely to be triggered when traction is applied to the medial rectus muscle. The
E. Christiansen (*)
e-mail: Elaine.Christiansen@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_24
422 E. Christiansen
afferent path of the reflex is via the trigeminal nerve to the motor nucleus of the
vagus nerve, from which efferent impulses affect the sino-atrial node. The incidence
is increased when propofol is used for maintenance of anesthesia.
The oculocardiac reflex is very common, but severe bradycardia (30–40 bpm) is
less common. Bradycardia gradually improves over a minute or two and usually
resolves quickly if the stimulus is stopped. Sometimes, atropine or glycopyrrolate
may be required. Pharmacologic treatment is not always needed and depends on the
severity of the bradycardia or arrhythmia and the child’s hemodynamic state.
Treatment, particularly with atropine, often results in tachycardia and hypertension
unless small, judicious doses are titrated over a short period. Although some would
routinely use anticholinergics to prevent the oculocardiac reflex developing, this is
not generally necessary due to the potential for side-effects from these drugs and the
potential for masking heart rate responses as an indicator of depth of anesthesia or
analgesia requirements.
Tip
The oculocardiac reflex can be frightening—there may only be one or two
QRS complexes on the ECG screen! Ask the surgeon to stop traction on the
muscle and check that there is still a plethysmograph trace from the oximeter
to indicate a pulse is present. Prepare to give atropine 10–20 μg/kg if the
heart rate does not quickly improve, or if the reflex recurs despite more gentle
muscle traction next time.
24.3 Examination Under Anesthesia of the Eyes
Examination of the eyes under general anesthesia (EUA) may be required when
a child is too young or uncooperative to allow examination while awake. EUA
may be done to assess conditions such as retinoblastoma and congenital cataracts,
or to screen for glaucoma or refraction errors. An inhalational technique with
spontaneous ventilation is used, and the procedure is usually performed in a dark-
ened room. Most anesthetic drugs, including sevoflurane and propofol, reduce
intraocular pressure (IOP) by several mmHg. The effect on IOP is maximal soon
after induction, when anesthetic depth is maximal. Some ophthalmologists will
allow for this while measuring the IOP and others will measure IOP as the child
awakens. Ketamine increases IOP by 2–3 mmHg. It is an alternative for anesthe-
sia because some consider the IOP after ketamine is more reflective of the IOP in
the awake child. Ketamine is not an ideal anesthetic agent because it may cause
dysphoria and nausea. Children being screened for glaucoma often have multiple
check-ups over time, and a pleasant anesthetic experience is important to main-
tain the child’s cooperation with subsequent anesthetics. Hypoxia and hypercarbia
also increase intraocular pressure but mild changes produce clinically insignifi-
cant effects.
24 Anesthesia for Ophthalmic Surgery 423
24.4 Tear Duct Surgery
Blocked lacrimal ducts are relatively common in babies and young children.
Patency is restored by probing and syringing the tear duct. This is a short pro-
cedure allowing good access to the airway so an LMA is often used. Saline or
fluoroscein is used to syringe the duct and enters the pharynx, so this needs to be
suctioned away at the end of the procedure. Dacrocystorhinostomy is sometimes
performed to create a patent tear duct if attempts at probing fail. It is often a long
procedure with fluid and blood entering the pharynx so endotracheal intubation
is often used.
24.5 Strabismus Surgery
Strabismus, or squint, is caused by an imbalance of the extraocular muscles so that

the visual axes of the two eyes are not parallel. Surgical correction involves shorten-
ing or changing the insertion position onto the globe of one or more of the extra-
ocular muscles. The airway can be managed with either an LMA or an ETT, but
access to the airway during surgery is limited. The advantages of the LMA include
a smoother induction and emergence and less postoperative coughing.
The oculocardiac reflex (OCR) is common in squint surgery. It is a trigeminal
(ophthalmic division)-vagal reflex. It most commonly causes a sinus bradycardia,
but can also cause junctional or other brady-arrhythmias. It is less likely if trac-
tion on the eye muscle by the surgeon is gentle and gradual, and the reflex fades
over time. It is more common with anesthetic techniques that are associated with a
reduced heart rate, including propofol, remifentanil and fentanyl. It is more likely
during light planes of sevoflurane anesthesia compared to deep planes. Atropine
given prophylactically causes a tachycardia, making assessment of depth and
response to surgery more difficult. If OCR occurs, the surgeon can be asked to
temporarily release the muscle, and atropine given if required. Small, incremental
doses of atropine are preferable, as larger doses may cause severe hypertension and
tachycardia.
Nausea and vomiting (PONV) occur in 50–70% of children when no antiemetic
is given, and prophylaxis is routinely given. The greater the number of eye mus-
cles repaired, the greater the likelihood of PONV. Ondansetron 0.15 mg/kg with
dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg decreases the incidence of PONV (Fig. 24.1). Propofol
anesthesia is as effective as the administration of dexamethasone and ondansetron
in the prevention of PONV, but the incidence of the oculocardiac reflex is higher in
propofol-based techniques. In practice, the oculocardiac reflex is not a great prob-
lem, and propofol anesthesia together with antiemetics and IV fluids facilitate day-
stay strabismus surgery.
Effective analgesia is required as the eyes are sore and itchy after surgery.
Opioids can be avoided to reduce PONV, but this may result in the child being very
unsettled afterwards—there is usually ointment in the eyes and the child cannot see
424 E. Christiansen
Fig. 24.1 Incidence of

PONV after strabismus 66%
surgery in children with no
antiemetic, ondansetron
alone, dexamethasone
Incidence of PONV
alone, or ondansetron
combined with
dexamethasone. Based on
37%
data from Shen YD et al. 34%
Pediatr Anesth 2014;24:
490–8
10%
Nil Ondans Dex Combined

Antiemetic therapy
Table 24.1 Concerns during anesthesia for strabismus surgery

Anesthesia for strabismus surgery
Head drape and limited access to airway
Oculo-cardiac reflex is common, increased by TIVA
High incidence PONV—double antiemetic, IV fluids, propofol anesthesia beyond toddler age
group
Multimodal analgesia to reduce opioid dose
clearly for a short while after awakening. Therefore, opioids are usually given dur-
ing surgery to aid emergence. The important concerns for anesthesia of children for
strabismus surgery are listed in Table 24.1.
Note
Strabismus surgery is associated with the oculocardiac reflex and
PONV. Propofol is often used for maintenance to reduce PONV, but may
increase the oculocardiac reflex.
24.6 The Penetrating Eye Injury
Anesthesia for the repair of a penetrating eye injury may need to proceed without
adequate preoperative fasting. The management of these unfasted patients has been
a controversial issue due to long-held concerns regarding the potential for extru-
sion of intraocular contents with anesthesia induction and suxamethonium weighed
against the need to secure the airway as quickly as possible. The controversy of
this issue has declined with the acceptance of modified rapid sequence induction,
in which the airway is secured at the time of best conditions rather than after a pre-
determined time (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.6.3).
24 Anesthesia for Ophthalmic Surgery 425
Suxamethonium increases intraocular pressure for up to 10 min, but there have

been no documented cases of extrusion of ocular contents after its use in patients
with an open globe. Non-depolarizing relaxants do not increase IOP, but there are
concerns about the child coughing if intubation is attempted too soon. Laryngoscopy
and intubation also increase IOP, and this increase can be attenuated by a short
acting opioid such as alfentanil. In practice, it is thought that the problem of IOP
increasing with anesthesia may have been overstated. After all, children with a pen-
etrating eye injury have usually cried and rubbed their eyes, both of which increase
the IOP. A reasonable approach to anesthesia in these children is a modified rapid
sequence induction using a dose of propofol at the upper end of its dose range,
a non-depolarizing relaxant, gentle ventilation during cricoid pressure with high
concentration of volatile agent while taking care that the face mask is not pressing
against the eye. The aim is to avoid light anesthesia and incomplete paralysis and
coughing.
Review Questions
1. A 3 years old penetrated his eye with sharp scissors 3 h ago, soon after finishing
his dinner. The child has an IV in situ and is otherwise well. How will you anes-
thetize this child?
2. What are the anesthetic issues in a healthy child undergoing squint surgery? The
child develops a sinus bradycardia rate 38 during surgical traction on the eye
muscle. What will you do?
3. Would an LMA be reasonable as airway management during anesthesia of a 1
year old undergoing EUA of the eyes?
4. Would an LMA be reasonable as airway management during anesthesia of a 1
year old undergoing an intraocular lens replacement?
Further Reading
James I. Anesthesia for paediatric eye surgery. Cont Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2008;8:5–10.
Rodgers A, Cox RG. Anesthetic management for pediatric strabismus surgery: continuing profes-
sional development. Can J Anesth. 2010;57:602–17.
Termuhlen J, et al. Does general anesthesia have a clinical impact on intraocular pressure in chil-
dren? Pediatr Anesth. 2016;26:936–41.
Vachon CA, Warner DO, Bacon DR. Succinylcholine and the open globe: tracing the teaching.
Anesthesiology. 2003;99:220–3.
Trauma and Burns
25
Mary Hegarty
Trauma is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children aged over 1 year,
accounting for 40% of all deaths. Children who survive serious injuries are often
left with permanent disabilities which may be life-changing for the child and their
family. Whilst the management of children after trauma follows the same principles
as adults, there are unique features of pediatric trauma.
Children are at risk of injury because of their curiosity, risk taking behavior and
lack of fear. Their small size means trauma is more likely to impact on multiple
organs. Children have greater elasticity of their connective tissue, so shearing forces
may cause tearing of major blood vessels and mediastinal structures. The flexible
nature of a child’s skeletal system means that greenstick fractures are more common,
and significant organ damage can occur with no overlying fractures. For example,
blunt chest wall trauma may not result in rib fractures, but the force sustained during
trauma may cause extensive injury to the thoracic organs. The abdominal wall of a
child is less protected by fat and subcutaneous tissues so intra-abdominal organs are
more prone to injury than in the adult population.
Physiological compensation may mask clinical signs of deterioration. This can
lead to a delay in the recognition of injury and failure to respond appropriately
to subtle clinical signs, particularly when there may be little external evidence
of injury. Children may rapidly decompensate if these subtle signs are missed,
so continual reassessment is required (Table 25.1). Caution is therefore advis-
able when administering opioids and anesthetic drugs, which have the potential
to cause cardiovascular instability in the injured child with unrecognized and
untreated shock.
M. Hegarty (*)
e-mail: Mary.Hegarty@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_25
428 M. Hegarty
Table 25.1 Normal values for physiological variables in children. Expected systolic blood pres-
sure = 80 + (age in years × 2) mmHg
Age (years) Heart rate (bpm) Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
<1 110–150 70–90
2–5 95–140 80–100
5–12 80–120 90–110
>12 60–100 100–120
Keypoint
The flexible skeleton of children allows them to withstand severe forces with-
out incurring fractures. There may be few outward signs of injury when in fact
there are severe internal injuries. Repeated reassessment of the child’s clinical
condition is imperative.
Keypoint
Children possess robust compensatory mechanisms, so a high index of sus-
picion for serious injury should be maintained even when a child appears
initially stable. Once clinical signs of injury become evident this is often at a
late stage when cardiac arrest may be imminent.
25.1 Types of Injury
Injuries in children tend to follow set patterns according to age and gender. As
children grow, they increase in size and their body proportions change. With
age, muscle mass increases and the body is able to withstand the effects of blunt
trauma better.
Falls and transport-related incidents are the leading overall causes of injury, fol-
lowed by accidental poisoning and burns. In children under 5 years, suffocation,
drowning and burn injuries are more prevalent, whilst intentional self-harm, suicide
and assaults are an increasing problem in adolescents. The commonest traumatic
injuries in children are falls and transport-related incidents, and children have the
highest death rates of occupants in motor vehicles (Table 25.2). In pedestrian inci-
dents, younger children hit by a car are more susceptible to thoracic and abdominal
trauma than adolescents because of their low center of gravity, whilst older children
are more likely to incur to limb injuries as their center of gravity is higher. Children
are less visible to drivers, and driveway-reversing accidents are relatively common
in pre-school age children. Head injuries cause the greatest mortality in children.
Infants are particularly vulnerable as they have large heads with thin cranial bones,
less head and neck control and incomplete myelination of brain tissue. Falls from a
height, suffocation, drowning and burns are more likely to occur in children younger
than 5 years. Two thirds of trauma related injuries occur in males, which may be
related to a higher incidence of risk taking behavior.
25 Trauma and Burns 429
Table 25.2 Causes of Causes of trauma

pediatric trauma Transport related injuries
Falls
Drowning
Burns
Accidental poisoning
Non-accidental injury
Self-harm/suicide
Assaults
Keypoints
Pediatric trauma is different because:
Children have a smaller body size resulting in different patterns of injury.
Internal organs are less protected and more vulnerable to trauma.
There are anatomical differences e.g. airway, cervical spine.
They have a large body surface area and are more likely to lose heat and
fluids.
Greater distribution of force is more likely to result in multi trauma than a
single organ injury.
Increased metabolic rate and smaller functional residual capacity makes
them more vulnerable to hypoxia.
Greater airway resistance and smaller airway diameter makes respiratory
impairment more likely.
The large head in comparison to body makes head injuries more common.
Because they are able to increase systemic vascular resistance and heart rate
to compensate for losses, children maintain their blood pressure until >30%
blood volume is lost, causing sudden irreversible shock if not recognized early.
25.2 Initial Management
Advance preparation of drugs and equipment can be done if there is sufficient warn-
ing of an incoming trauma patient. Some centers use Broselow tapes to estimate
the child’s weight and to determine drug doses and equipment sizes without any
calculations (see Chap. 7, Sect. 7.1.4). The initial evaluation should identify life-
threatening problems, using a primary survey followed by a secondary survey. The
primary survey starts with assessment and control of the airway including cervical
spine control followed by assessment of breathing and circulation. Appropriate life-
saving interventions, such as endotracheal intubation, should be performed during
the primary survey if indicated.
It is vital to uncover the child to ensure that a thorough secondary survey is per-
formed and that no injuries are missed, but hypothermia from prolonged exposure
must also be avoided. Infants have impaired thermoregulation and children have
a larger surface area to body mass ratio so are more susceptible to heat loss than
adults. Consider the use of warmed fluids, cling wrap, space blankets, forced air
warmers and passive humidification of ventilator gases.
430 M. Hegarty
Keypoint
The important first steps during the initial management of the child with trauma
are to establish a clear airway, give oxygen, immobilize the cervical spine, con-
trol any bleeding and immobilize any fractures to minimize blood loss.
Table 25.3 Indications for Indications for intubation and ventilation in pediatric trauma
intubation and ventilation in Airway obstruction unrelieved by simple airway maneuvers
pediatric trauma Risk of aspiration due to loss of airway reflexes
Inadequate ventilation (e.g. secondary to chest trauma)
Hypoxia
Control of ETCO2 in head injuries
Transfer of patient (e.g. CT scan, inter-hospital transfer)
Anticipated airway obstruction (e.g. burns)
25.2.1 Airway
Intubation is needed if there is airway obstruction, depressed conscious state or if

the child is combative and unmanageable (Table 25.3). Children are more at risk
than adults from edema of the upper airway caused by burns for example. A com-
mon problem is the use of an uncuffed endotracheal tube (ETT) that is too small and
has an excessive leak preventing effective ventilation. Cuffed tubes are now more
commonly used. When planning to intubate, it is important to prepare the appro-
priately sized equipment and to consider the choice of anesthetic agent that will be
used to induce anesthesia. In the child with shock, ketamine may be preferable to
propofol, or otherwise propofol in reduced doses. Suxamethonium is safe to use in
children with head injuries and children with burns less than 24–48 h old.
25.2.2 Breathing
Chest trauma is usually caused by blunt trauma and there are usually associated
injuries. Severe intra-thoracic injuries can occur without any obvious external signs
on the chest. The main cause of cardiac arrest is respiratory failure. Children have
a small respiratory reserve and may tire easily. Children who are tired will eventu-
ally have a decreased respiratory rate as a sign of an impending respiratory arrest.
In children with chest trauma, respiratory compromise may be from direct injury to
the chest wall or indirectly from shock or head injuries. Gastric distension may be
caused by bag-mask ventilation and impedes ventilation, avoided by the insertion of
gastric tubes to decompress the stomach early in resuscitation.
25.2.3 Circulation
Children have excellent compensatory mechanisms and will remain normotensive

until they have lost 25–40% of their blood volume. Consequently, hypotension
indicates severe blood loss. Tachycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction are ear-
lier signs of hypovolemia—an important early sign is cool, clammy and mottled
extremities (Table 25.4). The blood volume should be calculated early in resuscita-
tion (Table 25.5). An algorithm for the initial management of hypovolemia is shown
in Fig. 25.1.
Table 25.4 Hypotension is a Signs of impending circulatory failure in children

late sign of hypovolemia in Altered mentation (irritable, confused, combative, lethargic.)
children due to their low Cool, clammy and mottled extremities
resting sympathetic tone and Prolonged capillary refill time >3 s
excellent compensatory Poor urine output
mechanisms Tachycardia or bradycardia
Poor pulse volume
Sunken fontanelle in children <1 year
Earlier signs of hypovolemia should be sought
Table 25.5 Normal blood Age group Blood volume (mL/kg)

volumes in children of Preterm babies 100
different ages Neonates 90
Infants and children 70–80
Fig. 25.1 An algorithm

for the initial management Give 10-20 ml/kg normal saline
of hypovolemia in children
reassess
Give a further 10-20 ml/kg normal saline
reassess
Give tranexamic acid and packed cells

10-20 ml/kg
reassess
Consider further blood products, inotropes,

other diagnoses
432 M. Hegarty
Keypoint
Blood pressure measurements are an unreliable indicator of shock in the pedi-
atric patient. Children can compensate for 25–40% loss of their blood vol-
ume. Hypotension indicates severe blood loss.
Intravenous access in the arms or legs may be difficult, and an intraosseous nee-
dle inserted in the tibia if not fractured, should be considered early. The saphenous
vein at the ankle is a vein that can be cannulated by landmarks alone—it is found
just in front of the medial malleolus (there is a groove in the malleolus where the
vein runs). Central venous access should only be performed by those skilled and
familiar with the technique, but the femoral vein is a possible site for the occasional
operator as it has a low risk of complications at the time of insertion (see Chap. 28,
Sect. 28.4).
Massive transfusion in children is defined as red cell transfusion of 50% of
the total blood volume (TBV) in 3 h. Most hospitals now have a critical bleed-
ing protocol to facilitate the supply of large amounts of blood products to a
critically bleeding child. In time-critical situations, uncross matched O-negative
blood or type-specific blood should be considered to avoid delay (see Chap. 5,
Sect. 5.8.2). A fluid warmer is added to the IV fluid system as early as possible.
As blood loss continues, coagulation is monitored with point of care devices
such as ROTEM.
In a critical bleeding situation, tranexamic acid (TXA) should be administered
early, with a loading dose of 15 mg/kg followed by an infusion of 2 mg/kg/h. Packed
red blood cells are given at a dose of 10–20 mL/kg with cryoprecipitate at 5 mL/kg
or human fibrinogen concentrate 70 mg/kg. Guided by laboratory tests, the patient
may then require further packed red blood cells at a dose of 20 mL/kg with platelets
at 10 mL/kg with or without fresh frozen plasma (FFP) 15 mL/kg (Table 25.6). It is
important to consider the critical triad of massive blood loss—hypothermia, acido-
sis and coagulopathy. In addition, calcium gluconate 30 mg/kg may be required to
treat hypocalcemia.
Tip
Always remember to keep the child WARM, SWEET and PINK—remember
to exclude hypoglycemia and avoid hypothermia.
Table 25.6 A guide to blood Administration order Blood product Dose

product administration in 1 TXA 15 mg/kg
children 2 Cryoprecipitate 5 mL/kg
3 Platelets 10 mL/kg
4 FFP 15 mL/kg
25.3 Head Injuries
Half of children with major trauma have a head injury, and head injuries cause up
to 40% of trauma deaths in children. Head injuries are common in children as they
have a large head, prominent occiput and weaker neck muscles. Their brains are less
able to tolerate acceleration and deceleration forces due to poor buoyancy within the
CSF, thinner craniums and the delayed closure of the fontanelle at 12–18 months of
age. The injury in children tends to be a diffuse axonal injury with cerebral edema
rather than the focal collections seen in adults. Signs of raised ICP are similar to
those in adults (Table 25.7). Head injury outcomes are better in children than in
adults with similar pathology, so aggressive early management is essential (see
Chap. 23, Sect. 23.5).
The Glasgow Coma Score is not well validated in children, and is not reliable in
children younger than 1 year. There is a modified version for pediatric trauma, which
takes into account the age and the developmental stage of the child (Table 25.8). An
alternative scoring system is the AVPU (Table 25.9).
Table 25.7 Signs of Signs of raised ICP

increased ICP in children Decreased level of consciousness—be wary of the silent
child
Irritability
Unequal pupils
Dysconjugate gaze
Vomiting
Seizures
Cushing’s response
Table 25.8 The Glasgow coma scale, modified for children

Modified pediatric GCS scoring system
Motor response Verbal response Eye opening
6. Spontaneous 5. Babbles, coos 4. Eyes open spontaneously
5. Localises to pain 4. Consolable cry 3. Eye opening to shouting
4. Withdraws to pain 3. Inconsolable cry 2. Eye opening to pain
3. Flexion to pain 2. Grunts or moans 1. No eye opening
2. Extension to pain 1. No verbal response
1. No motor response
Table 25.9 The AVPU AVPU scoring system

scoring system is used as an A: alert
alternative to the GCS to V: responds to voice
assess head injuries in P: responds to pain
children U: unresponsive
434 M. Hegarty
Management of head injury in children follows the same principles used for
adults. Children most at risk should be identified early and child with a GCS <9
should generate a trauma call and retrieval to the nearest pediatric neurosurgical
center.
25.4 Cervical Spine Clearance
Cervical spine injuries only occur in 1–2%. In children under the age of 8 years,
transport-related accidents are the most common cause of neck injuries. At this age,
they have a large, heavy head on a neck with poorly developed muscles and lax liga-
ments. This affects the upper cervical spine especially, so spinal injury in children
usually occurs at the higher level of C1 or C2. Many of these high cervical injuries
result in death at the scene of the accident, so it is rare to see them in the hospital
setting. Children older than 8 years tend to have a more adult pattern of injury with
cervical spine injuries affecting the lower cervical vertebrae, and most commonly
from sports-related activities. Non-accidental injuries involving shaking can lead to
whiplash type injuries and are more likely to occur in babies.
Keypoint
Unconscious children with an injury to the head, neck or upper torso area and
all children involved in high speed motor vehicle accidents should be assumed
to have a spinal injury until proven otherwise.
To assess a child for a C-spine injury, they must be alert, cooperative and of a
sufficient developmental age for assessment (Table 25.10). After taking a history to
elicit symptoms of pain or neurological deficit, a gentle palpation of the neck in the
posterior midline and lateral regions of the neck is undertaken. Active range of neck
movements can be performed by the patient if there is no midline tenderness or
Table 25.10 Indications for Indications for C-spine immobilization

C-spine immobilization in Fall from height >3 m
children Pedestrian or cyclist collision >30 km/h
Passenger in MVA >60 km/h
Fall from horse
Reverse driveway collision
Ejection from vehicle
Severe electrical shock impact
Neck pain and/or limited neck movement
Suspicious mechanism of injury i.e. significant head, neck or
upper torso injury
Traumatic torticollis
Distracting injury with suspicious mechanism
Neurological deficit
Reduced level of consciousness
Substance affected, with suspicious mechanism
Prior history of C-spine injury or neck problem
Table 25.11 Technique for immobilization of C-spine in children

Immobilization technique
Apply manual in-line immobilization
Apply an appropriately sized collar
Collars may be inadvisable in the uncooperative child, where the correctly sized collar is
unavailable and in children with torticollis
In the intubated patient, lateral bolsters e.g. rolled up towel can be placed either side of the
collar
Table 25.12 Steps required to clear the cervical spine in children

C-spine clearance
Alert, asymptomatic children with normal examination can be cleared without need for
radiology
Children with symptoms and/or signs require plain X-ray (AP, lateral and Odontoid peg views)
Children with impaired level of consciousness require careful evaluation and discussion with
pediatric radiologist
Children with a neurological deficit or who are intubated require neurosurgical consult
Plain X-rays may need to be supplemented by CT ± MRI
abnormal neurological findings on the initial examination. If the child can move
their neck without pain or neurological symptoms then the collar may be removed
and the C-spine cleared. All C-spine assessment, clearance and radiological investi-
gations should be performed in conjunction with an experienced senior clinician. If
the C-spine is unable to be cleared, then immobilization is necessary (Table 25.11).
Keypoint
Manual in line stabilization (MILS) should be performed until a collar can be
applied. The use of sandbags and tapes is no longer recommended. The choice
between a hard or soft collar varies in different institutions.
The C-spine can be cleared once a history and examination have been done and
the relevant investigations have been performed (Table 25.12). There is a low prob-
ability of injury if on examination the child has no midline tenderness and no focal
neurological deficit, but the child must be alert, asymptomatic and have no distract-
ing injuries to make this assessment. Clinical assessment is often difficult in young
patients, however, and interpretation of C-spine x-rays requires knowledge of pedi-
atric normal variants. For example, pseudo-subluxation at C2/C3 is a normal finding
in 24% of children under the age of 8 years. It may therefore be necessary to seek
advice from a pediatric radiologist, as important injuries to exclude are fractures,
ligamentous injuries and spinal cord injuries.
The best decision-making assessment tool to determine when imaging should be
utilized in children under the age of 16 years is NEXUS (National X-ray Utilization
Study). The Canadian C-spine rule is not validated for use in children. Current rec-
ommendations for imaging in patients who cannot be cleared are for 2-view radio-
graphs in children <9 years and for 3 view radiographs in children >9 years of age.
CT imaging is recommended as the first line investigation in obtunded children
436 M. Hegarty
<10 years. MRI is indicated for obtunded children with a suspicious mechanism of
injury, in those with a neurological deficit and in the presence of equivocal radio-
graphs or CT images.
Tip
In the uncooperative child, attempting to enforce rigid immobilization can
cause more harm to the spinal cord. In this instance, apply a collar if possible
and allow the child to adopt their own position until they are comfortable.
25.4.1 S
pinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality
(SCIWONA)
SCIWONA is an injury in children defined as the presence of objective signs of

cervical spinal cord damage without radiological evidence of fracture or ligamen-
tous instability of the cervical spine. This occurs due to the elasticity of the spinal
cord and a more tenuous blood supply to the spinal cord in the pediatric population.
It is more common in children than adults, and accounts for about two thirds of
severe cervical injuries in children younger than 8 years. It is primarily caused by
flexion and extension injuries, but a combination of lateral bending, axial loading,
rotation and distraction may also be implicated. MRI is the investigation of choice
for investigation of soft tissue injuries of the C-spine and should be requested if
there is evidence of a focal neurological deficit.
Tip
In children with SCIWONA, a normal X-ray or CT scan does not exclude a
spinal cord injury.
The mechanism of injury provides a clue to an increased risk of C-spine pathol-

ogy—for example children injured as a result of falls from height, diving accidents,
high speed motor vehicle accidents and any children with head, neck or back trauma
are at risk of having a C-spine injury. An MRI of the spine may reveal SCIWONA,
particularly if there is hemorrhage or edema of the spinal cord or evidence of sub-
luxation. This type of spinal cord trauma is generally regarded as a stable injury and
management involves specialized multidisciplinary care with immobilization of the
C-spine in the immediate period and thereafter for up to 3 months. Some cases will
require surgical stabilization.
Tip
When intubating a child, it is preferable to remove the collar and perform
MILS until the airway has been secured. The collar can then be replaced.
25.5 Non-accidental Injury
Child abuse is a common cause of traumatic injury in small children, especially

babies under 6 months of age. The affected child may be undernourished and
unkempt with signs of neglect. There may be evidence of multiple bruising and old
injuries. The patient is often withdrawn and difficult to engage (Table 25.13). In
cases of suspected non-accidental injury, a detailed history, examination and docu-
mentation of the reported injury is mandatory. If non-accidental injury is suspected
it is the responsibility of all health care workers to report their findings to the appro-
priate authorities (see Chap. 29).
25.6 Burns
Burn injuries are very common in children, but the commonest type of burn is dif-
ferent in different age groups. There are several differences of children affecting
burn management in them compared to adults (Table 25.14).
25.6.1 Type of Injury
Seventy percent of burns in children are due to scalds caused by hot drinks or from
hot water immersion. Scald injuries tend to be superficial and may often be managed
conservatively. Contact burns occur in ambulant children, such as toddlers, who
may place their hands onto an electric heater or sustain friction burns from devices
such as treadmills. Older children are more likely to suffer from flame burns, which
Table 25.13 Indicators of non-accidental injury in children with trauma

Non-accidental injury in trauma
Injuries inconsistent with history
Child reports adult harm
Multiple injuries of differing ages
Delayed presentation
Unusual injuries (significant bruising, well demarcated burns, perianal or genital injuries,
retinal hemorrhages, multiple fractures, intra-oral injuries)
Subdural hematoma
Injury to internal organs with no history of major trauma
Table 25.14 Differences in Difference in children

children affecting burn Prone to airway edema
management compared to Vascular access more difficult
adults At risk of hypothermia
High metabolic rate and may become very catabolic
Prone to hyponatremia
438 M. Hegarty
Table 25.15 Burn types Burn Injury pattern in NAI

suspicious of non-accidental Burns to sole, palms, buttocks, perineum
injury A well demarcated burn or burns in a pattern
No splash marks with a scald burn
Symmetrical burns
Restraint marks or bruises on limbs
‘Doughnut sign’—area of spared skin surrounded by scald
burn
Other signs of neglect or previous trauma
may be associated with inhalational injuries and concomitant trauma. These types
of burn are more likely to be full thickness and require surgical intervention. Up
to 10% of burns are due to non-accidental injury, so a high index of suspicion is
necessary when taking the initial history and examining the child. Detecting NAI
is important as repeated injuries are common and up to 30% of these children will
subsequently die (Table 25.15).
25.6.2 Physiology of Burns in Children
Large burns, greater than about 10–15% of body surface area (BSA), cause a sys-
temic response due to the release of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators.
The larger the burn area, the larger the systemic response. There is an initial fall
in myocardial contractility and cardiac output, and systemic vasoconstriction that
may affect the perfusion of essential organs. Capillary permeability is increased
and there is loss of intravascular proteins and the development of interstitial fluid
edema. Pulmonary pathology results from direct inhalational injury or indirect sys-
temic effects which may cause interstitial edema, impaired cilia function and inacti-
vation of surfactant. Inflammatory mediators can cause bronchoconstriction, even in
the absence of inhalational burns, and in severe cases ARDS. The systemic response
includes formation of extra-junctional receptors on muscle membranes and a hyper-
kalemic response to suxamethonium.
Basal metabolic rate increases threefold a few days after large burns. The child
enters a catabolic state and early enteral feeding is important to counter this. It is vital
to ensure that repeat visits to theatre for dressing changes, debridement and graft-
ing do not interrupt nutrition unnecessarily. In children with large burns requiring
numerous surgeries, continuous naso-jejunal feeding may be more appropriate as
this allows anesthesia with shorter fasting intervals than oral intake. Some children
develop burn encephalopathy, which may cause hallucinations, agitation and delir-
ium. This can also be associated with raised intracranial pressure and hypertension.
25.6.3 Assessment of Burn Injury
Estimation of the burnt area is important because it determines the need for special-
ist referral and transfer of the child. Children who need referral for specialist plastic
surgical assessment include those with more than 5% full or partial thickness burns,
chemical and electrical burns, inhalational injury, children with pre-existing medi-
cal conditions or concomitant trauma, and infants and children with burns to the
face, hands, perineum or feet.
The size of the burnt area also guides fluid requirements in resuscitation.
However, estimating the size of a burn in children can be difficult. In adult burns the
rule of nines is often used, but for children and infants the head is proportionately
larger (nearly 20% of BSA), and the trunk and legs proportionately smaller. Age-
specific burn diagrams are available to assess area (such as the Lund and Browder
chart), but the easiest method is to use the palm of the child’s hand (palmar aspect
including fingertips) as an estimate of 1% BSA. More recently, free smartphone
apps have been developed (e.g. BurnMed® or Mersey Burns®) to estimate burn area
and guide fluid resuscitation.
25.6.4 Airway Assessment in Burns
Airway assessment should begin with the history surrounding the injury and an
examination to identify the patients at risk of airway compromise. Children with
burns need regular observation of their respiratory rate and work of breathing. A
history of inhalational burns in enclosed spaces should alert to the possibility of
carbon monoxide poisoning or cyanide toxicity. Pulse oximetry may be inaccurate
if there is carboxyhemoglobin present in the blood. Normal carboxyhemoglobin
level is <13% and toxic levels >25%.
Management of the compromised airway in a burns patient includes oxygen,
early intubation and transfer to a specialist pediatric burns center. There should be a
low threshold for intubation in children with evidence of airway compromise. It is
important to remember that in children with large burns not involving the airway
there may be still be airway compromise as a result of systemic effects on pulmo-
nary physiology. Cuffed endotracheal tubes may be preferable in these children, as
their airway diameter may change as swelling occurs. Also, pulmonary pathology
and decreased lung compliance mean that higher ventilation pressures may be
required which will be difficult to achieve in the presence of a large leak around an
un-cuffed tube.
Tip
When selecting an endotracheal tube for intubation of the child with burns,
allow for later airway swelling. A cuffed tube may be preferable. There is no
need to shorten endotracheal tubes for children, particularly in burns children
who may develop marked facial swelling.
25.6.5 Fluid Management in Burns
Fluid management in burns aims to maintain adequate circulating volume and organ
perfusion, particularly renal function. Electrical burns or crush injuries add the
possibility of myoglobinuria and the risk of renal failure. Intravenous access may
440 M. Hegarty
become more difficult when swelling occurs in the burnt areas, so it is important to
obtain access at an early stage. It is preferable to place the cannula through unburnt
skin if possible or to consider alternatives such as intraosseous access if the child
has large areas of burns.
Fluid therapy consists of resuscitation and maintenance fluids. In infants, the
maintenance fluids should contain dextrose, and blood glucose monitored regu-
larly. IV fluids should be started in all children with burns more than 10% BSA
and should be calculated from the time of injury. There is no clear evidence as to
whether crystalloids are better than colloids in the fluid management of burns. Most
burns centers currently use crystalloid for initial resuscitation in the first 24 h, add-
ing colloid (usually albumin) thereafter.
The volume of fluid required is estimated using various formulae. These formulae
are only guides and require ongoing clinical assessment using acid base status, urine
output, CVP, blood pressure measurements and the arterial waveform. Generalized
edema is a significant problem in major burns, and the aim of fluid management is
to maintain euvolemia and avoid excessive fluid. Assessment of fluid status is done
hourly in the early stages of fluid management. Resuscitation is adequate when
the child is comfortable, easily roused, with warm distal extremities, an adequate
systolic blood pressure (80 mmHg + 2 × age in years), pulse rate 80–160, and urine
output of 0.5–1 mL/kg/h.
The modified Parkland Formula (3–4 mL × kg × % burn; Table 25.16) is
commonly used, with 50% of the estimated fluid requirements given in the first
8 h since the time of the burn and the remaining 50% given in the next 16 h.
However this formula commonly underestimates fluid requirements in children
under 10 kg—more fluid is needed in younger children because they have higher
fluid and calorie requirements relative to weight. Children with inhalational
burns, electrical burns or delayed presentation to hospital may have increased
fluid requirements. A urinary catheter should be considered in all children with
moderate to severe burns and a urine output of 0.5–1 mL/kg/h should be the aim.
A nasogastric tube may also be useful to prevent gastric distension and for nutri-
tional purposes later on.
Most children with burns injuries can tolerate oral fluids, and after the initial
resuscitation intravenous fluids can be converted to oral. After the initial 24 h of
fluid resuscitation, fluid replacement therapy should be guided by urine output,
Table 25.16 Modified Parkland formula to estimate fluid resuscitation volume for children with
burns
Modified parkland formula
3–4 mL/kg Hartmann solution × % burn
Therefore, for a 20 kg child with 25% burns:
Resuscitation fluid = 4 × 20 × 25 = 2000 mL in 24 h from the time of the burn
50% should be given in the first 8 h = 1000 mL in 8 h = 125 mL/h
Maintenance fluid = 100 mL/kg for first 10 kg + 50 mL/kg for second 10 kg = 1500 mL in
24 h = 62.5 mL/h
Therefore, in the first 8 h, fluid requirements = 125 mL + 62.5 mL = 187.5 mL/h
serum electrolytes and hemoglobin. Children with more severe burns may require
longer term IV therapy. Care should be taken to avoid hyponatremia, particularly in
younger children.
Blood losses during burns surgery can be large and difficult to monitor, with
blood loss being proportional to the amount of necrotic tissue that is to be removed.
It is estimated children can lose approximately 3% of their blood volume for every
1% burn surface area excised. Blood should be cross matched preoperatively and
potential losses should be discussed with the burns surgeon. Measures to reduce
intra-operative blood loss during burns surgery include the use of tourniquets, infil-
tration with adrenaline (epinephrine) containing local anesthetic solutions, electro-
cautery and good surgical technique.
25.6.6 Anesthesia and Pain Relief for Burns
Children with burns may require frequent visits to theatre for dressing changes,
debridement and grafting. Early wound excision and grafting has been shown
to improve survival rates. A thorough pre-operative assessment, with particular
emphasis on airway assessment, fluid volume status and aspiration risk (burns
patients are at increased risk of gastric stasis due to their injury and opioid anal-
gesia) should be done. Pre-operative hemoglobin and electrolyte levels, coagula-
tion studies and cross match will be required for major burns surgery. For some
children, the experience of frequent procedures can cause anxiety and distress.
This may be alleviated by explaining the process to the child in language they
understand and having a low threshold for using premedication (see Chap. 9,
Sect. 9.3.4).
Suxamethonium may be used in the first 24–48 h after a burn, but should be
avoided thereafter for up to 2 years post burn injury to prevent hyperkalemia.
Children with burns have an increased dose requirement for non-depolarizing mus-
cle relaxants. The optimal first dose is 30–50% higher than the normal dose and is
related to the depth and size of the burn. Consideration should also be given to intra-
operative monitoring, temperature control and IV access which may be challenging
in children with larger burns.
Tip
Children with burns commonly require anesthesia. Have a low threshold to
use premedication, and a low threshold to use an opioid infusion for postop-
erative analgesia.
Children with burns benefit from multi-modal analgesia, with intravenous mor-
phine being the first line treatment. Their analgesia requirements are often surpris-
ing high. Management is aided by ensuring analgesia is adequate before the child
wakes up from anesthesia, and liberal use of IV rather than oral analgesic tech-
niques. A caudal block is often useful to cover the donor site for skin grafts.
442 M. Hegarty
25.6.7 Psychosocial Issues
Families may feel guilt after their child has had a burn injury or trauma injury. It is
important to keep the family involved and informed about what is happening during
the management of their child. Allow the parent or guardian to be with the child as
much as possible. This has benefits both for the child and the family member. It is
often a frightening time for a child who may have a fear of strangers, suffer separa-
tion anxiety and will often have a poor understanding of what is happening to them.
Review Questions
1. A 20 kg child suffered 20% full thickness burns 6 h ago. What would be the
optimum volume of crystalloid fluid resuscitation for the first hour?
(a) 160 mL
(b) 260 mL
(c) 360 mL
(d) 460 mL
(e) 660 mL
2. A 2 year old child has burns to lower body from immersion into a hot bath.
Describe your assessment and management of pain in the first 24 h following
injury. Describe your assessment of a 5 year old child, who has been rescued
from a house fire.
3. A 4 year boy was injured in a traffic accident. On arrival at hospital, he has weak
pulses and an unrecordable BP. Peripheral IV cannulation was unsuccessful.
What are the alternative routes of vascular access and outline the disadvantages
and complications of these routes?
Further Reading
Cullen PM. Pediatric trauma. Cont Educ Anesth Crit Care Pain. 2012;12:157–61.
Goergen S et al. Pediatric cervical spine trauma. In: Education modules for appropriate imaging
referrals: Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists. 2015. https://www.ran-
zcr.com/our-work/quality-standards/education-modules. Accessed July 2019.
Gopinathan NR, Viswanathan VK, Crawford AH. Cervical spine evaluation in pediatric trauma: a
review and an update of current concepts. Indian J Orthop. 2018;52:489–500.
Jamshedi R, Sato TT. Initial assessment and management of thermal burn injuries in children.
Pediatr Rev. 2013;34:395.
Kanani AN, Hartshorn S. NICE clinical guideline NG39: major trauma: assessment and initial
management. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed. 2017;102(1):20–3.
McDougall RJ. Paediatric emergencies. Anaesthesia. 2013;68(Suppl.1):61–71.
Mitchell RJ, Curtis K, Foster K. A 10-year review of child injury hospitalisations, health outcomes
and treatment costs in Australia. Inj Prev. 2018;24:344–50.
Sheridan RL. Burn care for children. Pediatr Rev. 2018;39:273–83. A very good, contemporary
overview.
Malignancy and Treatment
of Malignancies in Children 26
Bruce Hullett
Children with cancer have multiple anesthetics during their treatment. Their clini-
cal state may be related directly to the cancer or to the complications of therapy
and they may be very unwell at times. The children and their families are under
considerable stress and require an empathic approach from all of their health care
providers
Cancer is uncommon in children compared to adults—15% of all cancer occurs
in children, half of which occurs in children 4 years and younger. Cancers however
are the second commonest cause of death in children after trauma (road accidents
and drowning). One third of all cancers are leukemia, and 1 in 5 cancers are CNS
tumors, although the different cancers occur at different rates in various age groups
(Fig. 26.1). Childhood cancers have a survival rate higher than for adults, approach-
ing 85% for hematological malignancies.
Although the commonest cause of pain in children with cancer is chemother-
apy treatment, these children report that medical procedures or surgery cause the
Fig. 26.1 Incidence of the Wilms, neuroblastoma,

commonest tumor types in retinoblastoma
different age groups. Darker
CNS tumors
shading indicates higher
incidence. Adapted from
Lymphoma
Steliarova-Foucher E. Lancet
Oncology 2017;18: 719–31 Leukemia
0-4y 5-9y 10-14y 15-19y
B. Hullett (*)
e-mail: Bruce.Hullett@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_26
444 B. Hullett
worst pain during their treatment. General anesthesia during medical procedures
such as lumbar punctures and bone marrow biopsies avoids this pain—anes-
thetists can make a huge contribution to the care of these children by reducing
the most severe pain during cancer treatment. Anesthetists may also provide IV
access, anesthesia for imaging procedures, surgical tumor resection, radiotherapy
and pain management.
The issues arising in the oncology patient vary over the course of their treatment.
Direct effects of the tumor give way to systemic effects of treatment—particularly
hematopoietic effects of chemotherapy that can result in potentially life-threatening
complications. Pain is often present at the time of diagnosis, but its character may
change as therapy is begun and pain from procedures and mucositis become pre-
dominant. Many children participate in oncology trials that follow set treatment
protocols. These protocols may be compromised by issues such as anesthesia not
being available at the correct time in the treatment cycle, or simply by using dexa-
methasone as an antiemetic.
26.1 Chemotherapeutic Agents
Chemotherapy is based on the age of the child and the type and stage of the
tumor. It may be used alone or in conjunction with surgery or radiotherapy.
Chemotherapy has significant side effects, and multiple agents are usually used to
improve outcome and reduce toxicity. Chemotherapeutic agents may be consid-
ered either as conventional agents directed at rapidly dividing cancer cells by vari-
ous mechanisms, or as more modern molecularly targeted agents directed at tumor
cell receptors or specific processes such as angiogenesis or immunomodulation.
Conventional agents are commonly used at maximally tolerated doses, whilst
molecular target agents have greater specificity with possibly fewer side effects.
Many of these drugs, however, are in early development and their full potential
is yet to be realized. Corticosteroids are also commonly used in treatment for
their cytotoxic, immunosuppressive and antiemetic properties. Suppression of the
hypothalamic-pituitary axis is common.
Chemotherapy is used to treat the commonest childhood leukemias—acute lym-
phatic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The treatment for ALL
is more protracted than for AML and has 3 phases—induction and intensification
lasting about 1 month each, followed by a maintenance phase lasting 1 or 2 years.
Treatment includes intrathecal methotrexate or cytarabine, which has decreased the
need for central nervous system radiotherapy and its longer-term effects on neu-
rodevelopment and body growth. The treatment of AML requires more aggressive
chemotherapy with an increased risk of complications, but treatment is shorter and
without a maintenance phase. Hematological malignancies with poor prognostic
features or that have relapsed may be considered for a stem cell transplant if a suit-
able donor can be found.
26 Malignancy and Treatment of Malignancies in Children 445
26.1.1 Toxicity
Chemotherapeutic agents cause myelotoxicity with anemia, neutropenia and throm-

bocytopenia, as well as gastrointestinal toxicity with nausea, vomiting and mucositis.
Toxicity may also affect every other organ system in the body. Myelotoxicity often
causes anemia that may require transfusion before surgery, depending on the clinical
status of the child. Transfused blood is usually leucodepleted to reduce fevers and
infection, and irradiated to stop donor T-cell replication and reduce graft vs. host dis-
ease. Thrombocytopenia may delay procedures such as lumbar puncture or line inser-
tion. Platelet levels of 30,000/μL or higher are usually acceptable in these children,
although the lower acceptable limit varies as evidence-based guidelines are lacking.
Children with severe leucopenia are vulnerable to infection and sepsis, and strict
attention should be paid to aseptic techniques during anesthesia care. Many of these
children have long term surgical IV lines (Hickman, Broviac, Portacath, Infusaport)
that need to be accessed carefully to avoid infection—the anesthetist should wash
their hands, clean the access point, wear gloves and use a no-touch technique to
access the device. Early placement of indwelling venous devices reduces the need for
multiple peripheral IV lines, reduces the child’s anxiety, and allows recovery from
the surgical insertion before the effects of chemotherapy become problematic.
Fortunately for anesthetists, the oncology team are very experienced with the
toxicity and problems from these chemotherapeutic agents and are careful to moni-
tor for them and manage them. The anesthetist is usually alerted to their presence.
Some chemotherapeutic agents have specific effects on organ systems—the most
important are outlined in Table 26.1.
26.1.2 Tumor Lysis Syndrome
This syndrome results from the massive release of intracellular contents from tumor
destruction at the start of chemotherapy. It most commonly occurs with leukemias
Table 26.1 Effects of chemotherapy on specific organ systems side effects

System Drug Comment
Cardiac Doxorubicin Rhythm abnormality, cardiomyopathy
Daunorubicin
Cyclophosphamide
Cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil
Pulmonary Bleomycin Pneumonitis, non-cardiogenic edema (may be
increased by supplemental oxygen) Fibrosis
Mitomycin
Methotrexate Pneumonitis, bronchospasm, effusion
Nervous Cisplatin Sub-clinical neuropathy
system
446 B. Hullett
and high-grade lymphomas where there is high tumor mass and rapid early response
to treatment. It results in hyperkalemia, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphatemia and
hyperureacemia, which in turn can cause arrhythmias, seizures, multi-organ failure
and death. A lactate dehydrogenase level (LDH) greater than 1000 U/L indicates
tumor lysis in children. It is prevented with hyperhydration, urinary alkinization
and supportive measures. Allopurinol inhibits xanthine oxidase and reduces the
conversion of xanthine and hypoxanthine to uric acid, and may be used preven-
tatively. Rasburicase is used to treat hyperuraecemia. It is a recombinant form of
urate oxidase which converts uric acid to allantoin, which is readily excreted in the
urine. Steroids should be avoided in newly diagnosed children at risk of tumor lysis,
because it can be precipitated by even a single dose of dexamethasone.
26.1.3 Mucositis
Mucositis is the inflammation of gastrointestinal mucosa as a result of chemotherapy,

or of radiation to the head and neck. The inflammation may occur anywhere in the
GI tract from the mouth to the anus, causing ulceration and pain. The pain can be
severe and usually begins after 3–5 days of chemotherapy, peaking a few days later
before gradually subsiding. It can be severe enough to require IV opiates at high
doses and possibly supplementation with adjuncts such as ketamine. The ulcerated
and inflamed mouth and oropharynx means instrumentation of the airway should be
done with care. It can rarely be so severe that airway obstruction becomes a concern.
26.1.4 Stem Cell Transplant
Anesthesia is usually required to harvest bone marrow from an allogenic, HLA-

matched donor. Autologous transplants are possible but carry the risk of reintroduc-
ing malignant cells to the patient. Short-term side effects of stem cell transplant
are related to bone marrow ablation from high dose chemotherapy. Late complica-
tions include graft versus host disease, endocrine changes, bone damage affecting
growth, and secondary cancers.
26.2 Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy usually requires frequent, or even daily, treatments for 2–6 weeks.
Treatment occurs in an environment that is often not familiar to the anesthetist, and
not normally equipped to deal with anaesthetized patients, let alone children. The
radiotherapy beam is highly focused and requires careful positioning of the child. If
the radiation is to the neck or head, a plastic stabilizing device placed on the head
to guide the beam may limit access to the airway. The child needs to be completely
still for a few minutes while the treatment is given, and monitored from outside the
room because of the radiation dose.
Oral sedation can be given to the child to facilitate the procedure but there are
problems with reliability of effect, onset of sedation relative to the time of procedure
and prolonged sedation after the (brief) treatment. Furthermore, there are often time
pressures on the treatment sessions, with limited ability to delay other cases while
waiting for a child to become settled in the treatment room. Anesthesia is therefore
usually required for children younger than 6 years. These children often have long
term IV access in situ, and an intravenous anesthetic technique is often preferred
as it avoids the need for anesthetic machine and issues regarding waste anesthetic
gases. From a practical point of view, minimizing the number of staff involved pro-
vides some anesthetic consistency and a better experience for the child and parents.
26.3 Anesthesia for Short Oncology Procedures
Although some children with cancer will have major surgery for tumor removal,
most children will have multiple anesthetics for short diagnostic or therapeutic
procedures. These are procedures that would often be performed without anesthe-
sia in adults, but for which children will not remain still or tolerate while awake.
Leukemia and lymphomas are the most common of childhood cancers and children
with these usually first undergo anesthesia for diagnostic bone marrow aspiration,
lumbar puncture and central venous access.
26.3.1 Patient Welfare
The importance of the child’s psychological welfare cannot be overstated. Many

oncology patients will require multiple anesthetics during their therapy. The time
around diagnosis is particularly difficult for the family and so it is important to
make the process as smooth as possible right from the start. Some time spent by the
anesthetist at this stage will benefit the child, family and health care providers down
the track. It is important not to hurry assessment and discussion, and extra care
taken with the behavioral management of the child. Oncology families become very
informed about all aspects of their child’s care, which can be very useful in summa-
rizing a complex medical history for an anesthetist caring for the child for the first
time. Newly diagnosed patients and families are obviously stressed and for ‘routine’
low risk anesthesia, a restrained discussion of anesthetic risks should be considered.
26.3.2 Anesthesia Techniques
Anesthetics will often involve a particular routine and special requests, as the child
may have had many anesthetic experiences to compare. Inspection of previous
records is useful in providing consistent care and avoiding pitfalls or recurrence of
minor morbidity. This is best done before preoperative assessment where possible to
help reassure the parents that you are up to speed with their child’s case.
448 B. Hullett
Most anesthetics are for short, stimulating diagnostic procedures. This facili-
tates an intravenous anesthetic technique which has a better recovery profile than
volatile-based anesthesia (less emergence delirium, less PONV). Propofol with
a short-acting opioid such as remifentanil or alfentanil improves immobility and
reduces total propofol dose. Some children come to hate the taste or feel of IV
propofol, and this can be reduced by giving it slowly, especially if via a central line.
Note
Take great care with aseptic technique when accessing surgical lines, and
take great care to flush the line after anesthetic drugs have been given—about
20 mL is needed to completely flush an Infusaport. The line will also need to
be flushed with heparinized saline if not being used after anesthesia. The con-
centration of heparin used depends on the length of time before next access
is planned.
26.4 Anterior Mediastinal Mass
The anterior mediastinum is the space between the sternum and middle mediasti-
num. It contains the thymus and some lymph nodes. In the middle mediastinum
are the heart, great vessels and tracheobronchial tree. Tumors in the anterior medi-
astinum surround and may compress the tracheo-bronchial tree, the SVC, or the
pulmonary trunk or artery. These tumors can cause life-threatening problems at
induction of anesthesia. Lymphomas are the commonest tumor in this location in
children. The initial anesthetic in these children is of tissue diagnosis—usually
either bone marrow aspiration or biopsy of a lymph node in the neck. This is a very
high-risk anesthetic, and treatment to shrink the tumor usually cannot begin until
the tissue diagnosis is made. The commonest cause of the mass, T cell (Hodgkin’s)
lymphoma, responds very quickly to chemotherapy, reducing the tumor mass
and anesthetic risk. This rapid response raises the question of whether to begin
treatment without a tissue diagnosis. In reality, treatment is rarely started before
definitive diagnosis, for fear of never obtaining a satisfactory tissue sample to con-
fidently direct treatment.
26.4.1 Consequences of Anterior Mediastinal Masses
Anterior mediastinal masses compress the structures in the middle mediastinum,

particularly when the child is supine. The tracheobronchial tree and great vessels
may all be compressed. The larger the mass, the more likely it will cause compres-
sion. Children younger than 1 or 2 years are at even higher risk due to their small
airway diameter and very compliant airways. Compression of the airway over time
may lead to tracheo-bronchomalacia, which further predisposes to airway obstruc-
tion during anesthesia. The pulmonary artery is protected by the aorta, but may still
rarely be compressed. The pericardium may be infiltrated by tumor, causing effu-
sion or pericarditis. The aorta is usually spared because of its intraluminal pressure
and location. Compression of structures is less of a problem in adults because the
tracheo-bronchial tree is more calcified and rigid.
The symptoms of tracheal compression are stridor, reduced exercise tolerance,
wheeze and especially orthopnea and supine cough. A child who is reluctant to lay
flat is likely to have significant airway compression. Compression of the superior
vena cava causes facial swelling and plethora, especially in the morning after lying
flat during the night. Syncope during valsalva (such as during bowel action) is a par-
ticularly worrying sign, as it indicates inability to compensate for reduced venous
return. A lack of symptoms is reassuring but does not does exclude serious risks
from anesthesia.
Keypoint
Anesthesia for a child with an anterior mediastinal mass can be life-threatening.
The risk comes from compression of the great vessels and airways. Muscle
paralysis with the child supine is a consistent cause of problems.
26.4.2 Investigations
Chest X ray demonstrates the size of the mass and pleural effusions. Sometimes
the tracheobronchial tree can be seen clearly enough to visualize any airway com-
pression and pleural effusions. Many centers routinely perform echocardiography
to search for great vessel compression, pulmonary outflow tract obstruction and
pericardial effusion. It is an important investigation, as cardiovascular involvement
increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. It gives dynamic information and can
be performed in an upright position if the child is unable to lie down. A CT scan is
useful to assess airway compression-if the trachea is compressed more than 50%,
intraoperative airway obstruction is more likely. Unfortunately, CT scans usually
require anesthesia in young children and the risk involved needs to be balanced
against the additional information gained. New scanners are able to perform very
fast, partial scans that may provide some information without the need for anesthe-
sia. Respiratory function testing will reveal obstruction with flow-volume loops, but
is seldom performed as it is difficult in small, uncooperative children, and has a poor
correlation with the degree of airway obstruction. Clinical features that indicate
extreme risk and high desirability to avoid general anesthesia entirely are listed in
Table 26.2.
450 B. Hullett
Table 26.2 Factors that Important risk factors

indicate extreme risk of Stridor, orthopnea or syncope
anesthesia in children with Large tumor >4 cm or mass to mediastinal ratio >45%
anterior mediastinal mass Tracheal compression >50% or main bronchi compressed
on CT
Signs of SVC obstruction or vessel compression on
echocardiogram
General anesthesia is best avoided if at all possible if these factors
are present
Table 26.3 Key considerations for safe anesthesia for cervical lymph node biopsy in a child with
anterior mediastinal mass
Anesthesia for the child with anterior mediastinal mass
Communication and consultation with all specialties involved
Thorough assessment to allow risk stratification and planning
Consider performing biopsy awake with local anesthesia in older children
Maintain lung volume:
– Consider semi-recumbent or sitting position for anesthesia and surgery
– Avoid muscle relaxants
– Maintain spontaneous ventilation with CPAP
– Use local anesthetic to facilitate ‘light’ general anesthesia
– Consider anesthesia using ketamine and dexmedetomidine to maintain FRC
Fluid load to maintain cardiac filling pressures in face of SVC obstruction
– IV access in leg if SVC obstruction suspected
Plan for options if obstruction occurs
– Lateral or prone positioning
– Rigid bronchoscopy
– Vasoconstrictors or inotropes for CVS collapse
26.4.3 Induction
General anesthesia usually requires the child to be supine, which is often poorly tol-
erated. Induction of anesthesia relaxes airway and chest wall muscles and reduces
functional residual capacity (FRC) of the lung. If the child is positioned supine and
muscle relaxation used, lung volume falls further and reduces forces that may have
been holding the mass off vital structures while the child was awake. Induction
may then precipitate airway obstruction or cardiovascular collapse. The key con-
siderations for anesthesia are listed in Table 26.3. Maintaining lung volume is the
over-arching principle, and of the techniques to achieve this, maintaining spontane-
ous ventilation is particularly important as it produces a negative intrapleural pres-
sure that expands the airways. The requirement to maintain spontaneous ventilation
means that many of these cases are performed using a LMA for airway maintenance.
If obstruction develops, there are several options. Changing to a lateral or prone
position is simple and readily performed. Intubation is an option, but there are con-
cerns that either the ETT will not be able to pass through the compressed trachea,
or the site of compression may be distal and not able to be bypassed by an ETT. It
is therefore usually recommended that an ENT surgeon is available to perform rigid

bronchoscopy. Cardiovascular collapse and cyanosis may respond to fluid loading,
but vasoconstrictors to increase systemic vascular resistance and restore preload
to both ventricles may be better. Cardiopulmonary bypass is not a realistic option
given the speed at which deterioration occurs.
Review Questions
1. How do anterior mediastinal masses cause airway obstruction or cardiovascular

collapse under anesthesia?
2. Why is it important to maintain spontaneous ventilation during anesthesia in
children with an anterior mediastinal mass?
3. What are four factors which indicate higher risk in children with anterior medi-
astinal mass?
4. What procedures are followed at your hospital to reduce the risk of line infection
when anesthetic drugs are given through central lines to oncology patients?
Further Reading
Allan N, Siller C, Breen A. Anaesthetic implications of chemotherapy. Cont Educ Anaesth Pain
Foerster MV, et al. Lumbar punctures in thrombocytopenic children with cancer. Peditr Anesth.
2015;25:206–10. A case series of 9000 lumbar punctures, including 25 with platelet counts
<10,000/mm3 without incident.
Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient-part 1: a
review of anti-tumor therapy. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:295–304.
Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient-part 2:
systems-based approach to anesthesia. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:396–420.
Latham GJ, Greenberg RS. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient-part 3:
pain, cognitive dysfunction, and preoperative evaluation. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:479–89.
Oduro-Dominah L, Brennan LJ. Anaesthetic management of the child with haematological malig-
nancy. Cont Educ Anaesth Pain Crit Care Pain. 2013;13:158–64.
Anterior Mediastinal Mass
Pullerits J, Holzman R. Anesthesia for patients with mediastinal masses. Can J Anaesth.
1989;36:681–8. An older article about adults and children, but contains excellent diagrams of
the anatomy and contents of the mediastinum.
Slinger P, Karsli. Management of the patient with a large anterior mediastinal mass: recurring
myths. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2007;20:1–3.
Kaplan JA. Leukemia in Children. Pediatrics in Review. 2019;40:319–31. A review of the medical
aspects of leukemias in children.
Procedural Sedation: Anesthesia
and Sedation of Children Away 27
from the OR
Tanya Farrell
Young children often need sedation for diagnostic or therapeutic procedures. The
number of procedures is increasing as technology improves and many are performed
in areas away from the operating room. Demand for sedation is also increasing
because of cultural changes suggesting it is not acceptable to restrain children or
subject them to frightening or painful procedures whilst awake. In addition, children
presenting for some diagnostic procedures may have poorly delineated pathology
and be quite unwell. The demand for sedation places pressure on the resources of
anesthetic services, and techniques that do not require an anesthetist are often used.
This chapter discusses the issues and techniques to safely sedate children for medi-
cal procedures.
27.1 Remote Location
Many diagnostic or therapeutic procedures are performed remote from the OR in

areas as diverse as radiology, neurophysiology or oncology wards. These areas
are usually poorly designed for anesthesia, with bulky equipment, poor lighting
and often limited access to the child. Staff in these locations may be unfamiliar
with anesthetic protocols and priorities. Extra vigilance is required when checking
patient preparation and fasting, equipment, emergency supplies and the recovery
area. Occasionally, procedures on children are carried out in adult hospitals due to
limited facilities and expertise in smaller children’s hospitals. The lack of assistance
and equipment on site and the transfer to and from the parent hospital add another
element of risk.
T. Farrell (*)
e-mail: Tanya.Farrell@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_27
454 T. Farrell
27.2 Typical Procedures Requiring Sedation
Procedures such as echocardiograms, MRI scans and EEGs are not painful, but
require the child to remain still for extended periods of time in an uncomfortable
and frightening environment. Older children can cooperate, particularly if they are
distracted. Babies up to 3 months old can usually be fed and wrapped up warmly—
most will fall asleep (incredibly!) during the examination. Some children, especially
preschool aged, can be difficult to image adequately while awake. Other diagnos-
tic and therapeutic procedures such as lumbar punctures, bone marrow biopsies,
nephrostomy insertion, and endoscopies are painful and require analgesia as well
as sedation. These procedures, particularly those that are intermittently painful,
are more difficult to provide safe sedation for—doses of agents sufficient to make
the child comfortable during painful stimulation may then leave them excessively
sedated or even apneic when the stimulation is removed.
Keypoint
It is difficult to safely provide sedation for painful procedures in children,
particularly when the pain is intermittent.
27.3 Sedation Versus General Anesthesia
The aims of sedation are to safely reduce fear and anxiety, increase compliance
with the procedure and to control pain if necessary. Sedation has traditionally been
described as a continuum from consciousness to unconsciousness (Table 27.1). The
endpoints of the different levels of this continuum however, are arbitrary and sub-
jective. Personnel involved in monitoring sedation may not appreciate the levels are
not discrete and are difficult to assess in young children who are also susceptible
to fluctuations between the levels. There is also a dilemma in assessing sedation in
children—rousing a settled child to assess the level of sedation may cause the proce-
dure to be abandoned if the child then doesn’t settle again. Sometimes even inflating
a blood pressure cuff may rouse the child, and so monitoring is sometimes more
Table 27.1 Levels of sedation in children (based on American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines
2016)
Level of sedation Characteristics
Minimal Anxiolysis only (e.g. state induced by nitrous oxide at less than 50%)
sedation
Moderate Purposeful response to verbal command (also termed ‘conscious sedation’)
sedation
Deep sedation Purposeful response after repeated verbal or painful stimuli. At risk of
airway obstruction
Anesthesia At risk of airway obstruction and may need ventilatory support
27 Procedural Sedation: Anesthesia and Sedation of Children Away from the OR 455
restricted than it might be for an adult. The development of a more objective model
for sedation levels based upon cardiorespiratory monitoring rather than response to
verbal or physical stimuli would allow closed medication loops and self-correction
with automated algorithms. However, interindividual variation and argument over
what constitutes moderate, deep sedation and general anesthesia have hampered
progress in this area.
Note
The level of sedation is more difficult to assess in children—young children
cannot talk and rousing a child to assess level might wake them completely.
At the same time, they are more at risk of respiratory problems if sedation is
not closely monitored.
Minimal and moderate sedation are rarely effective in children—small doses of

sedation do not change a tired and hungry toddler into an awake yet co-operative
patient. There is a tendency, especially in younger children, toward deeper sedation
to produce the desired conditions. The increased risk of airway obstruction and
cardiopulmonary depression, combined with problems associated with remote loca-
tion and inexperienced staff can sometimes mean that general anesthesia is a safer
option than sedation. This is especially pertinent for long procedures, medically
compromised patients, or if procedures are painful or distressing.
There is an impression among non-anesthetists that sedation is safer than anes-
thesia. Many proceduralists will persist with attempts at deeper and deeper sedation,
compromising safety that could otherwise be gained with more tightly controlled
conditions and a protected the airway. Nevertheless, sedation, including sedation
provided by non-anesthetic personnel, has advantages over general anesthesia in
many children and for many procedures (Table 27.2).
Patient selection is critical to the success of sedation techniques (Table 27.3).
In some cases, general anesthesia a quicker alternative than the preparation for
Table 27.2 Sedation versus general anesthesia for medical procedures-their advantages and
disadvantages
Sedation General anesthesia
Advantages Less staff and equipment required May need less preparation of child
May have faster recovery with less More reliable airway control
PONV or drowsiness Movement less likely and procedure
always completed
Disadvantages Child may need preparation More staff and equipment
May take time to titrate sedation to Extensive training required for
correct level personnel
Procedure not always completed Greater propensity for PONV
The actual levels of staffing and equipment required for sedation depends on the level of sedation
used
456 T. Farrell
Table 27.3 Contraindica Contraindications to sedation

tions to sedation (based on Abnormal airway (consider large tonsils, anatomical issues,
SIGN guidelines) sleep apnea)
Raised intracranial pressure or depressed conscious level
Reduced respiratory or cardiac function (including
neuromuscular disease, active URTI)
Aspiration risk
Child too distressed despite adequate preparation
Older child with behavioral problems or informed refusal
Previous adverse reaction to sedative
sedation and the slow onset of sedation agents. Some studies have compared anes-
thesia with sedation and concluded that anesthesia is more cost effective when the
total time for induction, procedure and recovery is considered. On the other hand,
the supply of highly trained personnel required for provision of anesthesia or deep
sedation is far outstripped by demand in most hospitals.
Keypoint
Moderate sedation to complete a scan or procedure without complication is
difficult in preschool aged children.
If minimal sedation does not provide co-operation, it may be safer and
more time effective to arrange general anesthesia with airway protection.
27.4 Principles of Good Sedation Practice
Complications of sedation in children are difficult to quantify—the population is a

heterogeneous group undergoing procedures in many clinical areas and with seda-
tion administered by many different groups of personnel, and there is a tendency
to under report incidents. There are several published documents of consensus sug-
gesting principles of good sedation practice (including the Scottish Intercollegiate
Guidelines Network (SIGN), the American Academy of Pediatrics and NICE). Most
of these highlight the following themes:
27.4.1 Assessment
Assessment before sedation detects cardio-respiratory problems, multi system dis-

ease, airway issues and drug history. There is a tendency to be less thorough in
patients anticipated to require ‘just a little sedation’. Risks and benefits are dis-
cussed with the parents during the consultation.
27.4.2 Fasting
In general, fasting is the same for elective sedation cases as for general anesthetic
techniques, and fasting patients in this manner has the advantage of flexibility to
convert to general anesthesia if required. There is some evidence from emergency
medicine however that shorter fasting times may be safe, and non-anesthetists
sometimes follow these shorter times. Most studies conducted in this area, however,
are underpowered and the true incidence of aspiration is not known.
27.4.3 Monitoring, Equipment and Personnel
The availability of equipment and drugs for monitoring, airway management and
cardiopulmonary resuscitation are checked before starting sedation. More extensive
monitoring and more personnel are required for deeper levels of sedation. Guidelines
from colleges and professional societies outline these requirements. Pulse oximetry,
respiratory rate, heart rate and sedation score is a minimum monitoring require-
ment, with access to NIBP measurement and ECG available if indicated. Facilities
for emergency resuscitation are also essential, including two sources of oxygen, a
self-inflating bag and mask of the correct size, suction equipment, equipment for IV
access and airway management. Emergency drugs should be available (naloxone,
flumazenil, atropine, suxamethonium, epinephrine (adrenaline), IV fluid).
27.4.4 Minimizing the Amount of Sedation
Techniques such as distraction, play therapy and guided imagery can be useful
techniques to reduce the amount of sedation needed. Painful procedures may be
converted to non-painful procedures with topical or local anesthetic agents. Most
sedative agents are relatively safe when used on their own, but the success rate for
single agents is lower than for drug combinations. The use of two or more agents
however, causes greater inter-individual variation in effect and is associated with
more adverse incidents. Not all attempts at sedation for a procedure will be suc-
cessful—rather than persisting with other agents or higher doses, the child can be
rescheduled for general anesthesia.
27.4.5 Competent Personnel
It is simply not possible for all sedation to be administered by anesthetists, non-

anesthetic personnel give the majority of sedation for children. Besides placing
an enormous workload upon stretched services, many procedures do not require
the skill set of a specialist anesthetist. As a minimum, personnel administering
458 T. Farrell
sedation must be aware of the benefits and side effects of drugs used. At least
one person involved must be up to date in resuscitation techniques and airway
management for children, and familiar with the equipment required for emergency
procedures. Non-anesthetists using techniques with multiple or IV agents must be
able to recognize contraindications to sedation, and to manage children’s airways
and resuscitation.
27.4.6 Recovery
Children should recover from sedation in a supervised area with access to monitor-
ing, drugs and the equipment needed to deal with complications. Recovery of the
child to the pre-sedated state with appropriate motor and verbal skills is witnessed
and documented before discharge. Adequate recovery is important—the child may
potentially be placed in a rear-facing car seat and could develop complications that
aren’t noticed because the parent is focused on driving. Written information about
the procedure performed, drugs given, discharge instructions and contact details is
given at discharge.
27.4.7 Documentation
Documentation of drugs and observations is made as during general anesthesia.
27.5 Agents for Sedation
Non-pharmacological methods are outlined in the Chap. 3, and include distraction

techniques, guided imagery, hypnosis and parental presence.
27.5.1 Inhaled Agents
Nitrous oxide is widely used in children to facilitate procedures such as den-

tal treatment, dressing changes and bone marrow biopsies. Small children are
not able to use demand valves on intermittent flow machines (such as found
in delivery suites), and continuous flow devices are used. Nitrous oxide is less
useful in children younger than 2 or 3 years as they are often distressed by the
face mask. Concentrations higher than 50% are considered a form of moderate
or deep sedation. Problems include nausea and vomiting (8–20%) and scaveng-
ing of waste gas. Vitamin B12 metabolism does not seem to be affected, even
with frequent use in children with burns. Methoxyflurane is a strong analgesic
available in a small inhaler, but the problems of scavenging and renal toxicity
limit its use.
27.5.2 Oral Agents
Oral sedative agents are simple to administer and commonly used. However, they
are difficult to titrate, may have a slow or variable onset and may have a pro-
longed duration of action—the child may remain sedated for hours after a brief
scan. Scheduling problems can occur while waiting for sedation adequate to begin
the procedure. Oral agents include midazolam, chloral hydrate and barbiturates.
Paradoxical hyperactivity or dysphoria is not uncommon.
27.5.3 Ketamine
Ketamine has a wide margin of safety, and is a good choice for painful procedures
because of its analgesic properties. It is given by the oral, IM and IV routes, and
Emergency Departments commonly use it for procedures. The minimum fasting
period before ketamine can be safely used in the ED is not known. Fasting times
shorter than general anesthesia are common, and there is no evidence of increased
morbidity. The term ‘dissociative sedation’ is often used, but is confusing and
unnecessary. Sedation is minimal at low doses of ketamine, moderate at higher
doses, and deep (or anesthesia) at still higher doses. An IV dose of 1.5–2 mg/kg or
intramuscular dose of 4 mg/kg is effective with a low rate of restraint to complete
brief procedures. The IV route has a shorter recovery than the IM route. Dysphoria
and hallucinations are less common in children than adults, but occasionally occur.
If a benzodiazepine is given with ketamine, dysphoria and hallucinations are not
reduced, but adverse respiratory events are more common. A benzodiazepine is
therefore given only if needed to treat dysphoria or hallucinations. Occasionally,
the antisialogues atropine or glycopyrronium bromide (glycopyrrolate) is required.
27.5.4 Fentanyl
Intravenous or intranasal fentanyl is useful for brief, painful procedures such as

dressing changes or greenstick fracture reduction. Intranasal fentanyl 1.5 μg/kg by
an atomizing device (to maximize mucosal absorption) is safe and effective.
27.5.5 Dexmedetomidine
Intravenous or nasal dexmedetomidine produces sedation and anxiolysis. It lowers

heart rate (by prolonged atrio-ventricular conduction) and blood pressure. These
effects are worsened by medications prolonging AV conduction such as digoxin,
beta blockers and atropine. Apnea, airway obstruction and hypoxemia are less likely
after dexmedetomidine than many other agents because it causes little respiratory
depression. It is effective on its own or in combination with agents such as propofol
460 T. Farrell
or ketamine. The IV dose is a loading dose of 2–3 μg/kg given over 10 min, fol-
lowed by 0.5–2 μg/kg/h (not more than 0.5 μg/kg/h for prolonged periods such as
ICU sedation). Intranasal dexmedetomidine is given using an atomizing device with
a dose of 1–3 μg/kg (by aerosol) followed by 1 μg/kg rescue doses 30–45 min after
the first dose.
27.6 Sedation and Anesthesia for Upper Endoscopy
Gastro-duodenoscopy is a common procedure performed under sedation, deserv-

ing individual discussion as it involves the airway. Although it can be performed in
awake, non-sedated children, it is usually performed with intravenous sedation or
general anesthesia.
Children are at risk of airway and ventilation problems during endoscopy. The
endoscope partly occupies the upper airway and may compress the trachea. There is
gastric distension from air insufflation, and there is a risk of regurgitation and pul-
monary aspiration. Because of these concerns, general anesthesia with endotracheal
intubation is common in infants and children younger than 2 or 3 years.
Endoscopy in older children does not require intubation. Oxygen can be given
through a nasal catheter or using a blow-by technique, and a bite block inserted
to protect the endoscope during IV anesthesia. The anesthetic depth must provide
unconsciousness and immobility and prevent laryngospasm, but also avoid apnea.
If positive pressure ventilation is needed, the scope must be withdrawn from the
child.
Keypoint
Endoscopy in children: Shared airway may impede spontaneous respiration,
the scope can compress the trachea, stomach distension affects ventilation,
less reserve to deal with hypoventilation or apnea.
The LMA can be used during anesthesia for endoscopy. The proceduralist can
negotiate the scope past a deflated LMA into the esophagus before the cuff is rein-
flated, but the LMA cuff can grip the scope and cause some difficulty with scope
manipulation. The endoscope also causes a leak around the LMA cuff, which affects
positive pressure ventilation and causes pollution of the room with volatile anes-
thetic agents. Nevertheless, IV anesthesia and an LMA is a useful technique because
it permits some positive pressure ventilation if apnea occurs while the scope is in
the child.
Children have strong pharyngeal and bite reflexes, and either deep sedation or
general anesthesia is required to prevent movement, particularly during insertion of
the endoscope. Propofol is often used, and its dose is reduced and the recovery time
shortened by combining propofol with alfentanil or remifentanil.
Regardless of the technique employed, vigilance is required with regard to the

airway throughout the procedure as the back and forth motion of the endoscope
can easily dislodge an airway, and the deep sedation required to negotiate the scope
past an oropharynx with an active cough and gag reflex can result in apnea. Topical
anesthesia may reduce sedative dose, but the taste is often unacceptable to awake
children, and may require fasting after the procedure if the gag continues to be
suppressed.
27.6.1 Balloon Dilatation of the Esophagus
Some children undergo endoscopic balloon dilatation of the esophagus. These chil-
dren may have had a tracheo-esophageal fistula repaired, in which case they will
also have tracheomalacia, or an esophageal stricture after caustic ingestion. The
inflated dilatation balloon occludes the trachea, and although intubation does not
stop this, it assures ventilation when the balloon is deflated.
Tip
Propofol with alfentanil 25 μg/mL is a useful IV anesthesia agent for pediatric
endoscopy.
27.6.2 Ingestion of Button Batteries
Small, flat circular batteries are common in consumer electronics. They can be
swallowed by young children and require endoscopic removal. The positive and
negative terminals of the battery are close together and bridged by tissue. Current
flowing between the terminals quickly causes a burn and perforation of the tissue.
Batteries in the gastrointestinal tract (or nose) are urgently removed without waiting
for the usual fasting duration.
27.7 Sedation for MRI
The last 10 years have seen an increase in demand for MRI with improved access
and the advantages of better images and less radiation than CT. However, MRI
scans take significantly longer and the scanner tunnel is quite narrow and noisy—a
confronting prospect for children.
Many children will not require sedation or anesthesia. Young babies can be fed
and wrapped warmly, falling asleep for long enough for the scan. Selected chil-
dren from the age of 5 will tolerate an MRI with preparation and distraction (many
scanners are set up with audio-visual devices that can be viewed while the scan is
underway). Experienced MRI staff are able to manage these children during their
462 T. Farrell
scan and are able to determine which children will be suitable for these techniques,
but significant amounts of scanner time will be lost establishing the technique in
each individual instance.
There has been a great deal of work looking at the best method for obtaining
scans in children who require sedation. Outcome measures are safety (with respira-
tory complications the most common) and completion of the scan with good quality
images. For most services, the resources available and the factors considered in
Table 27.2 determine the approach taken. The scarcest resources are MRI scanner
time and specialist medical staff (anesthesia and radiology), and a balance needs to
be struck to utilize these resources efficiently.
Potentially more scans can be completed in a given time with simple general
anesthesia by an experienced anesthetic team. In this scenario, inhalational anes-
thesia and a supraglottic airway (unless contraindicated) is associated with the least
number of complications and the quickest time to discharge. Sedation using agents
such as propofol, dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and benzodiazepines have been
described but with no particular advantage. They require IV access for induction,
and pumps and lines for the scan. Children with complex medical issues having
general anesthesia for an MRI scan represent an opportunity for specialist medical
teams to carry out other investigations and procedures ‘while the patient is asleep’.
This has benefits for the child, but the scanner time saved using general anesthesia
can be lost performing other procedures.
Regardless of the personnel or technique to facilitate MRI scanning, MRI-
compatible equipment to safely deal with complications or emergencies must be
available. Part of this is assigning a craft group (usually medical imaging special-
ists) to ensure staff and equipment are safe to enter the scanner room.
Keypoint
Several techniques achieve safe sedation for MRI, and the choice is deter-
mined by local factors and experience. Considerations include maintenance
of a magnet-safe environment and effective resource utilization.
27.8 Nuclear Medicine Scans
Nuclear medicine scans are used to assess renal function (DTPA or MAG3 scan),
to track tumors or before epilepsy surgery in children (PET scans). A radioactive
tracer is injected at a predetermined time before the scan. Children need to be fasted
and relatively still for approximately an hour following injection of a tagged glucose
molecule for PET scan, while MIBG scans (for neuroblastoma or pheochromocy-
toma) usually take place within 24 h of injection. The scan itself is similar to a CT
or MRI scan, and takes approximately 30–60 min. The scans are performed in areas
not always equipped for anesthesia.
Review Questions
1. A 3 year old girl is being managed in ICU after an intracerebral hemorrhage. She
is intubated and ventilated and you are going to take her to MRI for scanning.
Describe the precautions you would take to prevent burns to the child in the scan-
ner. Describe the other precautions you would take while the patient is having
the scan.
2. A 2 year old child is going to have a gastroscopy to investigate possible reflux.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different ways to manage the
airway in this child for this procedure?
Further Reading
Bailey CR. Sedation in children—is it time to change our practice? Anaesthesia. 2016;71:487–505.
Deasy C, Babl FE. Intravenous vs intramuscular ketamine for pediatric procedural sedation by
emergency medicine specialists: a review. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20:787–96.
Green SM, Mason K. Stratification of sedation risk—a challenge to the sedation continuum.
Hansen TG. Sedative medications outside the operating room and the pharmacology of sedatives.
Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2015;28:446–52.
Kanagasundaram SA, et al. Efficacy and safety of nitrous oxide in alleviating pain and anxiety dur-
ing painful procedures. Arch Dis Child. 2001;84:492–5. A report on the use of nitrous oxide at
Westmead Children’s, Sydney.
Li BL, et al. A comparison of intranasal dexmedetomidine for sedation in children administered
either by atomiser or by drops. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:522–8.
Lightdale JR. Sedation for pediatric endoscopy. Tech Gastrointest Endosc. 2013;15:3–8.
Concentrates on sedation rather GA, perhaps because of funding arrangements in the US.
Schulte-Uentrop L, Goepfert MS. Anesthesia or sedation for MRI in children. Curr Opin
Anaesthesiol. 2010;23:513–7.
Sury M. Conscious sedation in children. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2012;12:152–6.
Tobias JD. Sedation of infants and children outside of the operating room. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol.
2015;28:478–85.
Guidelines
Cote CJ, Wilson S. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients before, dur-
ing, and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: update 2016. Pediatrics.
2016;138:e20161212.
NHS National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Sedation in children and young people.
2010. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG112. Accessed July 2019.
Sury M, et al. Sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in children and young people:
summary of NICE guidance. BMJ. 2010;341:c6819.
Wilson SR, et al. Guidelines for the safe provision of anesthesia in magnetic resonance units 2019.
Anesthesia. 2019;74(5):638–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/anae.14578.
Central Venous and Arterial Access
for Children 28
Neil Chambers and Yu-Ping Chen
This chapter focuses on advanced vascular access techniques in children, and

assumes that the reader is familiar with these techniques in adults. The intraosseous
route is recommended for emergency resuscitation if peripheral IV access cannot be
obtained, and both of these routes are discussed elsewhere in this book.
28.1 Central Venous Access in Children
Central venous access is challenging in children compared to adults because of their

small-sized central veins, proximity to major structures and variation in their ana-
tomical position. The success rate is lower and there are more complications com-
pared to adults. Anesthesia or sedation is usually required for their insertion in
children.
Ultrasound guidance and careful positioning of the child and equipment are
important for insertion. The ultrasound probe, syringe and needle are held stabilized
against the child’s body and equipment is positioned so there is no need to move or
look away from the child or ultrasound screen. The child’s vein is small, superficial,
mobile and easily collapsed by the needle so aspiration of blood is sometimes only
seen when the needle is withdrawn. Arterial puncture is difficult to detect, espe-
cially in infants with cyanotic heart disease. Pressure transduction is the best tech-
nique to distinguish between vein and artery.
The risk of local complications with central venous catheter (CVC) insertion
is higher in children than adults, primarily due to the proximity of structures.
Central venous anatomy may vary, especially in children with congenital heart
N. Chambers (*) · Y.-P. Chen

e-mail: Neil.Chambers@health.wa.gov.au; Yu-ping.Chen@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_28
466 N. Chambers and Y.-P. Chen
disease who are more likely to have a left-sided superior vena cava. Children,
like adults, are at risk of infection while their CVC is in situ. The smallest diam-
eter catheter with the minimum number of ports required reduces the risk of
infection, as well as thrombosis of the vein. Although antimicrobial-impregnated
catheters are sometimes recommended for adults, there is no firm evidence to
support their use in children. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not needed at the time of
insertion. Routine central catheter replacement is not generally recommended for
children in critical care.
28.1.1 Position of the Catheter Tip
Correct positioning of the catheter tip reduces the risk of perforation of the vein wall
or cardiac chamber, migration into other veins, and thrombosis or thrombophlebitis
from the drugs being infused. The optimal position is in the lower third of the supe-
rior vena cava (SVC) or at the SVC-right atrium junction, but above the pericardial
sac. The ideal tip position on fluoroscopy or chest X-ray is debated, however current
best practice is to place the tip no more than two vertebral bodies below the carina
(this position allows for the parallax error of the X-ray beam (Fig. 28.1). Technologies
using ECG or ultrasound to confirm the correct tip placement are either not avail-
able in pediatric sizes or are not adequately validated.
All catheter tips should be positioned parallel to the vein wall to minimize the
risk of perforation and thrombophlebitis. Catheters inserted on the right side are
naturally more parallel to the SVC wall but catheters inserted on the left side need
to be carefully positioned in the inferior third of the SVC to be parallel and not
sticking into the wall of the SVC (Fig. 28.2).
Fig. 28.1 Desired tip

position on chest X-ray for
central catheters in T1 vertebra
children is 1–2 vertebral
bodies below the carina
T6 vertebra
Cardiac-mediastinal
junction
28 Central Venous and Arterial Access for Children 467
a b
R IJV L IJV R IJV L IJV
left
left subclavian
subclavian v
v
SVC SVC
Fig. 28.2 (a) The distal part of right-sided catheters is usually parallel to the SVC wall. (b) The
distal part of left-sided catheters can push against the vein wall and perforate the SVC (dashed
line). Advancing the catheter so the tip is in the correct distal position ensures the distal part of the
catheter is parallel to the SVC wall (solid line)
28.2 Internal Jugular Vein CVC
The internal jugular vein (IJV) is often used in children for CVC insertion because
it has the lowest risk of complications. The vein is more variably sized, smaller and
closer to the carotid artery in children compared to adults. Its position relative to the
carotid artery may vary—it is most commonly antero-lateral and partly overlapping
the carotid artery. The amount of overlap may increase when the head is rotated to
the side. It is completely lateral to the carotid artery in less than a quarter of chil-
dren, and occasionally it is even medial to the carotid. It is usually at a depth of less
than 1 cm, and is only about 5 mm in diameter in infants.
28.2.1 Technique
A shoulder roll extends the child’s neck and allows better access. The head is turned
slightly so the needle will be clear of the chin. A head-down tilt usually has minimal
effect on the size of the IJV in infants but reduces the risk of venous air embolism.
Maneuvers to increase the diameter of the vein are not usually required. Simulated
valsalva is probably the most effective. When it is combined with liver pressure and
head-down tilt, the vein size increases about 65%. The effect of these maneuvers
can be observed on ultrasound to assess any benefit.
Most commonly, a high approach to the IJV is used with the needle insertion lat-
eral to the carotid pulsation at the level of the cricoid. The advancing needle can
compress the vein, and blood is often aspirated only as it is being withdrawn. After
entering the vein with the needle, the guide wire is passed gently to avoid perforating
the vein. The J-tip of the wire has a curve larger than the vein diameter of infants and
will either traumatize the vein or not advance into the vein. To overcome this problem,
the stiffer, straight end of the wire may be inserted, or a short soft straight wire fol-
lowed by a catheter long enough to act as a conduit into a larger, distal part of the vein
for the J-wire. The length of the catheter inserted depends on the size of the child—
4–5 cm for a right IJV insertion in a neonate, a little longer when inserted on the left
side. The smallest 2-lumen catheter currently available is 4F and 5 cm long.
Tip
The length of catheter to insert (in cm) for the right IJV (high approach)
equals one tenth of the child’s height.
The external jugular vein is an unreliable route for central access because it has
valves and an angled course that usually prevents a guidewire or catheter advancing.
It can be useful however, for peripheral venous access.
28.3 Subclavian Vein CVC
Subclavian vein catheters have a higher risk of pneumothorax and arterial puncture
during insertion. However, they are popular postoperatively because they are more
comfortable and better tolerated by awake children, and less likely to kink with head
movement. They may be preferable in trauma cases when urgent access is required
but the neck needs to remain in a neutral position or is in a cervical collar. Subclavian
insertion is also easier than IJV insertion using local anesthesia in the older, awake
child. Although they are associated with a lower infection rate, they have a higher
thrombosis and occlusion rate compared to internal jugular catheters.
28.3.1 Technique
The right subclavian approach may be preferable to avoid injury to the thoracic duct
on the left. For insertion, the child is positioned with the head in a neutral position.
The landmark-based infraclavicular approach is similar to adults with needle inser-
tion at the midclavicular point where the clavicle bends sharply, aiming the needle
medially and slightly cephalad towards the contralateral shoulder or sternal notch.
Inserting the needle too far laterally increases the risk of pneumothorax. The guide-
wire should be relatively straight after insertion to avoid kinking when dilating the
vein. Tips to achieve this include a slight laterally and inferiorly placed skin punc-
ture with minimal skin traction and then advancing needle behind clavicle in a con-
sistent direction. Real-time ultrasound guidance assists successful cannulation in
less time, and reduces the risk of inadvertent subclavian artery puncture and pneu-
mothorax. With the supraclavicular approach, the subclavian vein is accessed more
medially where it joins the internal jugular vein to form the brachiocephalic vein.
This approach was less popular in the past due to the greater risk of pneumothorax,
however real-time ultrasound may reduce the risk of such complications and
increase the safety of this approach.
Keypoint
Subclavian catheters have several advantages over IJV catheters in children.
The IJV route, however, is most commonly used in children to reduce the
risks of arterial puncture and pneumothorax.
28.4 Femoral Venous and Arterial Catheters
The femoral vein and artery are frequently used when cannulation attempts else-
where have failed, particularly in infants. It has a low risk of complications at the
time of insertion and is a good choice for the occasional operator needing good IV
access urgently. A roll is placed under the hips to bring the leg into a neutral position
and the leg externally rotated. The needle is inserted 1–2 cm below the inguinal liga-
ment, using ultrasound guidance. A normal length IV cannula is not suitable because
patient movement shifts it out of the vessel, and various types of longer catheters are
available. The catheter size should be 20G or smaller in the femoral vein and 4F in
babies. Venous thrombosis is more common in young infants, especially if large
diameter catheters are used. Femoral venous catheter tips should terminate in the
inferior vena cava. They do not accurately measure central venous pressure, although
trends in the recorded value can be useful. Migration of the catheter tip into the
spinal venous plexus is a concern, and a lateral abdominal X-ray is taken to exclude
this (the catheter tip should be anterior to the vertebral bodies). Transient venous
congestion of the leg occasionally occurs, and requires close observation and some-
times exchange for a smaller catheter or removal of the catheter. Femoral arterial
catheters can cause limb and intestinal ischemia—limb ischemia develops in 25%
of neonates if a 20G cannula is used.
Note
Femoral lines have few complications at insertion, however thrombosis and
limb ischemia are concerns in neonates and infants.
28.5 Umbilical Catheters
Catheters inserted into the umbilical vein or artery are usually inserted by pediatri-
cians using a cut down technique. The vessels can be cannulated in the first 3–5 days
of life, but are constricted and thrombosed after that time. Umbilical artery catheters
may cause emboli to the legs, intestinal ischemia and renal artery thrombosis, but
overall are very safe. The tip of umbilical artery catheters is kept below the level of
the renal arteries to minimize complications.
28.6 Longer-Term Central Venous Access Devices (CVAD)
Central venous devices in children provide secure access and protect vessels from
thrombophlebitis caused by antibiotics and other irritant therapies. CVAD’s include
Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters (PICC lines), short central lines inserted
into the jugular or subclavian vein and tunneled under the skin, and surgically
inserted long lines (Infusaport, Broviac, Hickman and others) (Table 28.1). They all
have in common a catheter tip in a central position in the inferior third of superior
vena cava or at the cavo-atrial junction.
28.6.1 PICC Lines
PICC lines are inserted in a peripheral vein but the tip is positioned in a large, cen-
tral vein less likely to be affected by irritant IV agents. They are often used in chil-
dren to avoid multiple, traumatic peripheral IV insertions, but this compassionate
indication needs to be balanced with the higher likelihood of complications in chil-
dren as well as the probable need for general anesthesia. They are suitable for infants
and children who need antibiotics or parenteral nutrition (TPN) for 2 weeks or lon-
ger, and are also used in some preterm neonates for TPN and drugs. Another advan-
tage of PICC lines is they facilitate discharge from hospital by allowing IV therapy
at home. Oncology patients usually require longer-term lines such as the Infusaport,
or tunneled cuffed CVADs such as the Broviac® or Hickman® line.
PICC lines are usually inserted in the arm. The basilic vein on the medial side of
the upper arm is one of the best sites for insertion in children (Figs. 28.3 and 28.4).
Insertion in the middle third of the upper arm allows the child to freely move their
elbow and improves the function and patency of the PICC line. The catheter tip is
Table 28.1 Types of central venous access devices and their typical duration of use, problems and
advantages
CVAD Comment
Non-tunneled IJV or Short term device, infection risk after 1 week suitable for
Subclavian CVC 1 week of treatment
Tunneled, uncuffed CVAD Medium term device, infection risk after 2 weeks
(e.g. IJV or subclavian
PICC Medium term device, suitable for 4–8 weeks of therapy.
Large proportion fail before end of therapy
Tunneled, cuffed CVAD Long term device, suitable for several months of therapy;
(e.g. Broviac, Hickman) often used in oncology children. Low failure rate
Infusaport Long term device, implanted, lowest risk of infection, may
remain in situ many years. Often used in oncology children or
children requiring long term IV access (e.g. hemophilia)
Fig. 28.3 Schematic of

veins in right arm. The subclavian v
basilic vein in the medial
side of the upper arm is
one of the best veins to use clavipectoral Lateral border of first
as it has the most direct fascia rib
route into the axillary vein
and thorax. The cephalic axillary v
vein is commonly used but brachial v (and
the catheter may catch at artery)
the clavipectoral fascia or
at the valve where it joins basilic v
the axillary vein. The pair cephalic v
of brachial veins beside the
brachial artery can be median cubital v
accessed but with the risk
of arterial puncture
Fig. 28.4 Schematic

ultrasound image of
anterior mid-upper arm brachial
vv basilic v
showing basilic vein clear
of other vessels, and
brachial veins adjacent to brachial a
the brachial artery
Lateral Medial
also most likely to advance to a central location when inserted in the basilic vein due
to its more direct route to the axillary vein. Although almost any vein can be used
for insertion, there are problems with some insertion points: the cubital fossa is
commonly used, but elbow movement is restricted and damages the catheter.
Similarly, insertion in the distal forearm or leg exposes the catheter to movement
and environmental contamination.
28.6.1.1 Technique
In young children, PICC lines are usually inserted under sedation or general anes-
thesia and positioned using fluoroscopy. The smallest diameter catheter should be
used to reduce the risk of subclavian or axillary vein thrombosis (3F in children, and
2F in neonates). The vein chosen should be at least three times the diameter of the
catheter. The very fine 2F catheter is too small for fluid boluses or blood products,
and may rupture with injection pressure. It is not suitable for intraoperative use and
routine blood sampling.
The required length of the catheter is measured either externally on the surface
of the child or more accurately by positioning a measured guide wire under fluoros-
copy. The catheter is cut to length before insertion. Some PICC catheters include a
‘stiffening’ wire within the catheter to aid catheter manipulation and visibility dur-
ing fluoroscopy. This wire must not be cut or damaged when shortening the cathe-
ter: there have been many reports of embolization of the cut wire. Insertion using
fluoroscopy allows accurate positioning of the tip. If fluoroscopy is not available, a
predetermined length catheter is inserted and its position checked with a chest
X-ray. If this is done once the child is awake, repositioning of the catheter may not
be possible.
The commonest problem during insertion is difficulty advancing the catheter.
Changing the arm position, applying traction to the arm, or removing the stiffening
wire and flushing with saline while advancing the catheter may help to advance the
catheter. If the catheter is stopping at the clavipectoral fascia, applying infraclavicu-
lar pressure may be useful, but it may indicate vein stenosis from a previous PICC or
spasm of the vein. Some proceduralists negotiate difficult, tortuous venous anatomy
with guide wires under fluoroscopic control, then railroad the catheter over the wire.
The tip of the PICC should be in lower third of the SVC or at the junction of the
SVC and right atrium. Catheters not in this position are more likely to cause venous
thrombosis or infection, occlude earlier and are less likely to function for the length
of time needed. If the catheter cannot be placed in this position, the risk of accepting
a more peripheral position is balanced against the risks repeating the insertion. The
position of the tip changes with arm movement—the catheter tip moves inferiorly
(distally) another 1–2 cm when the arm is brought from an abducted position down
to the side of the body with the elbow fixed.
Note
The tip location affects the rate of complications. Catheter tips that are not
correctly located are more likely to fail and increase morbidity.
28.6.2 Complications of CVADs
Although early complications related to insertion are uncommon, later complica-

tions and problems are very common (Table 28.2). These include accidental
removal, thrombosis, occlusion and leakage around the insertion site. A fibrin sheath
often forms within the lumen of the catheter and prevents aspiration of blood sam-
ples while still allowing flushing. This sheath may contribute to occlusion or throm-
bosis of the catheter. Thrombolysis of clotted, blocked catheters appears safe and
effective at restoring catheter patency. The consequence of these complications is
some catheters, particularly in younger children, do not remain in place for the
planned duration of treatment and may need replacing.
Complications are more common if the catheter tip is not central—4% if central,
28% if not and includes an eight times increased risk of thrombosis. Thrombosis of
Table 28.2 Complications Complications of CVADs

preventing completion of the Thrombosis of catheter or central vein
planned duration of treatment Accidental removal
Leakage
Inability to aspirate blood
Occlusion
Perforation of heart/pericardial tamponade
Infection
Fracture of catheter, embolism or knotting
Thrombophlebitis at insertion site
the subclavian vein occurs in about 4% of children with a PICC line, but is symp-
tomatic in only about one third of cases. Thrombosis is reduced by using a small
diameter PICC, which keeps the catheter-to-vein diameter ratio small. Line infec-
tion depends on patient factors such as age, illness type and severity; and catheter
factors such as insertion site, type of catheter type, urgency of placement, tunneling
and tip position.
A structured central line service, usually nurse-led, decreases complications and
re-insertion rates. A coordinated approach includes selecting the most appropriate
CVAD for each child, overseeing the care of the line, managing complications, and
involvement in the timing of removal or replacement. These are some of the simple
but important interventions that ensure the most appropriate line is placed in a
timely fashion that achieves the patient’s therapeutic and management goals.
28.7 Arterial Lines
Arterial line insertion may be technically difficult in infants and small children.
Transillumination can be helpful in neonates, and real-time ultrasound improves the
success rate in children of any age. The catheter inserted is often relatively large
compared to the artery in neonates, and distal ischemia is a major concern. The
radial, brachial and femoral arteries are the most commonly used sites. The ulnar
artery is generally not recommended in children. The brachial artery can be used in
neonates bigger than about 2 kg, but it is used only if more distal arteries can’t be
cannulated as there is poor collateral circulation and an increased risk of ischemia.
Brachial arterial lines are best placed using a short cannula to avoid obstructing col-
lateral vessels. A 22G cannula is most commonly used in babies and children, but
some prefer a 24 g cannula for all sites in newborns. Securing and splinting of arte-
rial lines need to provide secure fixation and protection and allow visual inspection
of distal perfusion and skin at insertion point.
28.8 Cutdowns
Venous or arterial cutdowns can be used as a last resort by those skilled at the tech-
nique. They should not be used for routine insertion.
Review Question
1. A 3 year old child has osteomyelitis of the tibia and IV antibiotics for at least 2
weeks. It is difficult to obtain peripheral IV access in the child. You are asked to
help with IV access. Discuss the options for treatment and access in this child.
Further Reading
Amerasekera SSH, et al. Imaging of the complications of peripherally inserted central venous
catheters. Clin Radiol. 2009;64:832–40. An article about PICC insertion in adults, but a very
good discussion of anatomy and complications.
Baskin KM, et al. Cavoatrial junction and central venous anatomy: implications for central venous
access tip position. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008;19:359–65.
Bodenham A, et al. Association of anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland—safe vascular access
2016. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:573–85.
Connolly B, et al. Fluoroscopic landmark for SVC-RA junction for central venous catheter place-
ment in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2000;30:692–5.
Connolly B, et al. Influence of arm movement on central tip location of peripherally inserted cen-
tral catheters (PICCS). Pediatr Radiol. 2006;36:845–50.
Gibson F, Bodenham A. Misplaced central catheters: applied anatomy and practical management.
Br J Anesth. 2013;110:333–46. Detailed discussion of central venous anatomy, and anatomical
variants causing central line misplacement.
Gnannt R, et al. Variables decreasing tip movement of peripherally inserted central catheters in
pediatric patients. Pediatr Radiol. 2016;46:1532–8.
Lamperti M, et al. International evidence-based recommendations on ultrasound-guided vascular
access. Intensive Care Med. 2012;37:1105–17.
Menendez JJ, et al. Incidence and risk factors of superficial and deep vein thrombosis associated
with peripherally inserted central catheters in children. J Thromb Haemost. 2016;14:2158–68.
Schindler E, et al. Ultrasound for vascular access in pediatric patients. Pediatr Anesth.
2012;22:1002–7.
Sharp R, et al. The catheter to vein ratio and rates of symptomatic venous thromboembolism in
patients with a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC): a prospective cohort study. Int J
Nurs Stud. 2015;52:677–85.
Souza Neto EP, et al. Ultrasonographic anatomic variations of the major veins in paediatric
patients. Br J Anaesth. 2014;112:879–84.
Troianos CA, et al. Guidelines for performing ultrasound guided vascular cannulation: recom-
mendations of the American Society of Echocardiography and the Society of Cardiovascular
Anesthesiologists. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24:1291–318.
The Child at Risk: Child Protection
and the Anesthetist 29
Craig Sims and Dana Weber
Anesthetists may encounter children who have been physically or sexually abused.
There are ethical and legal obligations to protect the child in this circumstance. The
safety of the child is paramount and overrides all other considerations. Surgeons,
nurses and all other health workers have the same legal obligation to report sus-
pected child abuse. They should have training in child protection and be aware of
the arrangements for child protection in their own hospitals. Although doctors have
obligations to maintain patient confidentiality, the legal obligations to report sus-
pected child abuse over ride confidentiality considerations. Modern societies have
specific legislation dealing with these obligations, such as the 2004 Children’s Act
in the United Kingdom and state-based legislation in Australia. New Zealand does
not yet have legislation for mandatory reporting of suspected child abuse.
29.1 Detection of Abuse
The anesthetist may be the first person to notice the signs of child abuse, either as
part of the preoperative assessment or in theater. Alternatively, the anesthetist may
be present when the surgeon or nursing staff notice signs, and rarely a child may
disclose abuse to the anesthetist. Anesthetists involved in resuscitation or intensive
care may also notice signs of abuse (Table 29.1).
Certain characteristics of the child’s parents and social circumstances increase
the risk of child abuse, and these are listed in Table 29.2. However, suspicion is usu-
ally raised due to the child’s type of injury, a discrepancy between the injury and the
explanation of how it occurred, or the type of injury relative to the child’s age. There
is also often a delay in seeking treatment. Traumatic injuries in young children not
C. Sims (*) · D. Weber

e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au; dana.weber@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_29
476 C. Sims and D. Weber
Table 29.1 Situations when the anesthetist may encounter possible child abuse
Situations when the anesthetist may be involved with suspected child abuse
Notices signs at preoperative assessment or in theater
Is present when surgeon or nursing staff discover signs
A child needs resuscitation or intensive care management with head injury or other injury
without adequate explanation
A child may disclose abuse to anesthetist
Provides anesthesia for forensic examination of a child who is suspected of having been abused
Table 29.2 Risk factors for child abuse Risk factor

Poor social circumstances, social
isolation, poverty, child neglect
Parental alcohol or drug abuse
History of family violence or previous
abuse
Single parent, stepfather living with child
Table 29.3 Clinical signs that may indicate child abuse, depending on the child’s age and history
of how the injury occurred
Signs of abuse
Significant bruising, especially in children too young to walk
Fractures in children too young to walk, rib fractures, multiple fractures or long bone fractures
in young children
Cigarette burns or bite marks
Subdural hematoma and retinal hemorrhages in infants
Injuries in inaccessible places such as neck, ear, hands, feet and buttocks
Intra-oral trauma, damage to frenulum, especially in children too young to walk
Genital or anal trauma
Trauma without adequate reason for its occurrence
Multiple injuries of different ages
Delayed presentation
yet walking are unusual and are considered suspicious. For example, a fractured
arm in a school aged child could quite plausibly be due to an accident, but a mid-
shaft fracture of the humerus in a child aged less than 3 years is highly suggestive
of abuse. Similarly, fractured ribs are very unusual in children in the absence of
major trauma or an underlying bone abnormality.
Bruising is common in all children and so is less specific of abuse, but wide-
spread bruising in a child too young to walk, or in unusual places on the body would
support other evidence of abuse. Infants are at risk of abuse from often young, over-
tired and inexperienced parents who cannot deal with the baby’s crying. ‘Shaken
baby syndrome’ has long been recognized and consists of subdural hematoma, reti-
nal hemorrhages and encephalopathy. Other injuries that strongly suggest abuse are
listed in Table 29.3.
29 The Child at Risk: Child Protection and the Anesthetist 477
Keypoint
Child abuse is suspected by considering the age of the child, the type of inju-
ries, the reported mechanism of injury and the social circumstances of the
child. Any one sign by itself is rarely diagnostic.
29.2 Obligations of Health Care Workers
Health care workers, including anesthetists, are obliged to report their suspicions
of child abuse (Table 29.4). Pediatricians are the group of doctors most commonly
involved in suspected child abuse and are likely to have the most experience. It is
therefore useful for the anesthetist to discuss any concerns with the Duty
Pediatrician in a hospital. Alternatively, every children’s hospital has a child pro-
tection unit from which advice can be obtained. Social Services can also be
approached directly or by the pediatrician. The child may need to stay in hospital
for his or her protection.
Consent needs to be obtained from the parent or guardian for anything more than
a visual inspection of suspected injuries. Consent for surgery and anesthesia does
not give consent for examination in relation to suspected child abuse. Parents (and
the child if he or she is old enough and it is appropriate) should always be informed
of the suspicions, except in rare cases where this is not in the best interest of the
child. Consent for further examinations would usually be obtained by the pediatri-
cian. If the parent or guardian is not available or refuses consent, then medical
administration is contacted and legal advice sought. In cases of child sexual abuse,
pediatricians with specific expertise in child sexual abuse and forensic examination
are required. Colposcopy, photography and forensic sampling under anesthesia may
be carried out in these cases.
Table 29.4 Obligations of the anesthetist when Obligations of the anesthetist

caring for children Act in the best interests of child
Be aware of the child’s rights to
protection
Respect the child’s right to
confidentiality
Contact experienced
pediatrician, social worker or
Social Services if child abuse is
suspected
Be aware of local child
protection mechanisms
Be aware of parent’s rights.
478 C. Sims and D. Weber
Review Question
1. A 4 year old boy weighing 15 kg presents for day surgery repair of a left inguinal
hernia for which you plan general anesthesia and a caudal block. He is well and
has no significant past history. When you position him for the caudal block, you
notice some bruises on his legs and buttocks.
(a) What pattern of bruising would be suspicious in this child?
(b) List the clinical features that would arouse suspicion that physical child
abuse has occurred
(c) What should the anesthetist do if they suspect child abuse has taken place?
Further Reading
Child protection and the anaesthetist: safeguarding children in the operating theatre. Royal College
of Anaesthetists. 2014. https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/document-store/child-protection-and-the-anaes-
thetist. Accessed July 2019.
Melarkode K, Wilkinson K. Child protection issues and the anaesthetist. Cont Educ Anaesth Crit
Care Pain. 2012;12:123–7.
Winterton PM. Child protection and the health professional: mandatory responding is our duty.
Med J Aust. 2009;191:246. An editorial that makes some good points about the issue.
Pediatric Intensive Care
30
Daniel Alexander
30.1 Recognition of the Seriously Ill Child
History, examination and judicious investigation will direct assessment of the pediatric
patient. This process is easier for the anesthetist familiar with physiology in the young.
However, there are several clear indicators of the critically ill infant. These are alertness
and interaction, breathing, circulation and fluid balance over the preceding 24 h.
Seriously ill children look tired or weak, do not resist examination or procedures such
as IV insertion and are often pale or dusky. They are likely to be tachypneic, tachy-
cardic and with signs of respiratory failure, cardiac failure, or both. The critically ill
infant may also have a previously unrecognized congenital disorder. These and other
conditions that should be considered in a critically unwell infant are listed in Table 30.1.
It is always wise to listen to the parent or caregivers who know their child best and
are often able to detect changes from normal for their child. They can be of particular
help with children who have complicated histories. ‘Red flags’ in the history include
apnea, bilious vomiting (intestinal obstruction), seizures, intermittent abdominal pain
and leg drawing (intussusception), rash (meningococcemia) and episodes of color
change. Examination should assess the overall appearance of the child, vital signs
including blood pressure (normal values Table 30.2), the adequacy and effectiveness of
breathing, and the adequacy of cardiac output. Perfusion of the peripheries is especially
helpful in assessing circulation, as blood pressure is maintained until late in illness.
Tip
There is little to lose by resuscitating a child whom in hindsight didn’t need it,
but there is much to be lost in a delay.
D. Alexander (*)
Paediatric Critical Care Unit, Perth Children’s Hospital, Nedlands, WA, Australia
e-mail: Daniel.Alexander@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_30
480 D. Alexander
Table 30.1 Conditions to Diagnoses to consider in the

always consider in the critically ill child
critically ill infant Sepsis (Group B Streptococcus,
Meningococcus, UTI, Meningitis)
Duct dependent congenital cardiac
lesions (Coarctation, HLHS)
Gut obstruction (volvulus,
malrotation, intussusception)
Metabolic disorders
Non-accidental injury
HLHS Hypoplastic Left Heart
Syndrome
Table 30.2 Normal ranges Heart rate Respiratory rate

for heart rate and respiratory Age (beats/min) (breaths/min)
rate <30 days 110–170 30–60
6 months 100–160 30–40
1 year 100–150 30–40
2 years 95–140 25–30
4 years 90–130 25–30
6 years 80–120 20–25
8 years 80–120 20–25
10 years 80–110 15–20
12 years+ 60–100 15–20
Expected systolic blood pressure = 80 + (age in
years × 2) mmHg
A child who looks critically unwell (hypoxic, mottled, grey, poorly perfused,
drowsy), is bradycardic and relatively hypoventilating has already reached the
point of decompensation and is about to arrest. If ever there is doubt about the need
to mask ventilate in this situation, the answer is a resounding “Yes!”. If ever there
is doubt about the need to perform chest compressions, the answer will most likely
be “Yes”, (and it probably needed to be started a couple of minutes earlier).
Keypoint: Detecting the Seriously Ill Child

Alertness and interaction
Breathing: rate, effort and saturation
Circulation: heart rate and perfusion
Relative hypoventilation and bradycardia can be ominous
Fluid balance
30.2 Recognition of the Deteriorating Child
Early recognition of the deteriorating child followed by prompt and effective action
can minimize events such as cardiac arrest, and may reduce the level of intervention
required to stabilize the child. The evidence base for recognition and response
30 Pediatric Intensive Care 481
systems for the deteriorating child is still developing. Changes in the child’s obser-
vations often occur 8–96 h before events such as cardiorespiratory arrest or
unplanned admission to intensive care. Several tools have been developed to recog-
nize the deteriorating child, most of which plot physiological observations in a
graphical form to display trends. Graphical documentation is recommended because
changes over time are easier to recognize.
The most important method to detect a child who is deteriorating is regular mea-
surement, documentation and review analysis of observations. Standard observa-
tions include respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, heart rate, blood pressure,
temperature and level of consciousness. The importance of monitoring blood pres-
sure is often overlooked in institutions unfamiliar with dealing with critically unwell
children. Other observations (such as seizure activity or BSL) may also be relevant
for particular children.
Failure to respond to therapy may also indicate relative deterioration despite
unchanged physiological parameters. For example, a child with severe upper airway
obstruction who does not respond to multiple epinephrine (adrenaline) nebuliza-
tions and steroids may require intensification of management.
30.3 Intervention and Stabilization Before Transfer
After recognizing the child who is seriously ill or deteriorating, treatment is

begun or increased to avoid cardio-respiratory arrest and to facilitate recovery.
Most pediatric health care systems operate within a centralized model, with
advice available from on call pediatric intensivists in specialized centers. Whilst
anesthetists are well equipped to treat seriously ill children, early consultation
with these centers ensures the appropriate interventions and transfer of patients.
Management may be influenced by geographical and logistical considerations.
For example, a child with acute severe asthma in an isolated rural hospital may
be more safely managed locally with intravenous steroids, aminophylline and
continuous salbutamol inhalation than with intubation, ventilation and transfer
by aeromedical retrieval.
Several problems commonly occur during transfer to pediatric intensive care
units. These problems are hypoventilation, hypoxemia, hypotension, hypoglycemia,
hypothermia, unrecognized seizures, and lack of attention to cerebral perfusion
pressure. Every patient needs at least one well-secured peripheral intravenous,
intraosseous or central access. If transfer is expected to take some time, a second
access site should be considered.
If the patient is ventilated, the endotracheal tube needs to be the correct size and
well placed. If possible an X-ray should be taken after any intubation to ensure
optimal position (neither endobronchial nor too high that may risk dislodgement).
On chest x-ray the tip of the ETT should sit in the mid trachea, below the clavicular
heads and well clear of the carina. The endotracheal tube needs to be of a size that
there is not an excessive leak and ventilation can be assured. A cuffed ETT is prefer-
able in most situations and highly desirable if high inspiratory pressures are antici-
pated. Cuffed ETT are routinely used in most critical care areas. They have the
482 D. Alexander
Keypoint
Common problems during transfer to PICU are hypoventilation, hypoxemia,
hypotension, hypoglycemia, hypothermia, unrecognized seizures, and inade-
quate cerebral perfusion pressure.
benefits of not needing to ‘up-size’ the ETT because of an excessive and unmanage-
able leak, and protection from airway soiling. Nasal ETTs are less mobile than oral
tubes and are preferred by many units. Prolonged nasal intubation in adults may
cause sinusitis, but this is not a problem in children. However, a secure, well placed
oral ETT is perfectly acceptable and more straightforward to insert (See Chap. 18
Dental Anesthesia, Sect. 18.1).
30.4 Specific Conditions
30.4.1 Croup
Tracheolaryngobronchitis (croup) is a viral infection causing inflammation and nar-

rowing of the upper airway. It is usually caused by parainfluenza (type 1 and 2) although
other viruses such as rhinovirus, influenza A and B, adenovirus, and respiratory syncy-
tial virus can produce a similar clinical picture. Young children have small upper air-
ways and so are more at risk of respiratory obstruction than older children. Croup is a
common reason for admission to pediatric intensive care. Often there is a history of a
prodromal illness and ‘seal-bark’ cough. Stridor is high pitched and initially inspira-
tory, but as obstruction worsens it becomes biphasic and at rest. Stridor is absent when
the obstruction and respiratory distress worsen. Cyanosis in air is seen just before respi-
ratory arrest. Using supplemental oxygen to treat a child who has upper airway obstruc-
tion removes desaturation and cyanosis as markers of deterioration. For this reason,
supplemental oxygen is given with caution and in an area of high acuity.
Croup is diagnosed after other conditions have been excluded. A differential
diagnosis includes epiglottitis, bacterial tracheitis, angioedema, foreign body and
retropharyngeal abscess. At times croup will present with an element of reactive
lower airway disease (‘Crasthma’ or ‘wheezy croup’). It is difficult to determine if
a child has croup or epiglottitis. Children with croup have a hoarse voice (laryngo),
cough (bronchitis) and are not systemically unwell despite having viremia and a
high fever. Children with epiglottitis are septic and don’t cough (Table 30.3).
Some children who present with croup have underlying tracheal stenosis from
previous neonatal intubation. These children should be identified beforehand
because they can be problematic in medical management and at intubation due to
their already narrowed trachea. They may have a history of symptoms even before
the episode of croup.
Treatment for mild croup is with oral steroid, and hospital admission may not be
required. Oral steroids are effective in less than 1 h. Severe croup with signs of
Table 30.3 Comparison between signs and symptoms of croup and epiglottitis
Croup Epiglottitis
Common illness of childhood Rare
Viral etiology Bacterial etiology
Hoarse voice Sit forward and drool
Cough No cough
Not systemically unwell Septic and look unwell
Fever Fever
Vocal cords usually easily visualized May be very difficult to visualize cords
Table 30.4 Steps in treatment of child with croup causing upper airway obstruction
Treatment of severe croup
Oxygen (being aware that may mask signs of deterioration)
Nebulized epinephrine (adrenaline) 1% 0.05 mL/kg made to 4 mL with 0.9% saline or 0.5 mL/
kg 1:1000 neat (max 6 mL)
Dexamethasone 0.6 mg/kg (max 12 mg) iv, IM or oral
or prednisolone 4 mg/kg oral stat then 1 mg/kg 8 hourly
or budesonide (nebule) 2 mg stat
Intubation if threatened airway; worsening sternal recession, restlessness, cyanosis in air or a
silent chest
Table 30.5 Indicators used to decide if child with croup requires intubation
Signs indicating intubation needed in child with croup
Worsening respiratory distress—accessory muscle use, sternal recession, tracheal tug,
intercostal recession
Child restless or tiring
Cyanosis while breathing air
Note that ABG’s are not used
airway obstruction is treated with steroids, observation in an appropriate environ-

ment and nebulized epinephrine (adrenaline) for acute obstruction while waiting for
the steroids to take effect (Table 30.4). Intubation is required in children with
impending total airway obstruction, worsening sternal recession, restlessness, cya-
nosis in air or a silent chest (Table 30.5). Intubation is required in less than 0.5% of
all children presenting with croup. An arterial blood gas sample is not indicated as
it will distress the child and worsen the condition. The decision to intubate is based
on clinical signs.
Most children with croup are straightforward to intubate. The vocal cords are
readily seen, and the problem is with selecting an ETT that is small enough to pass
through the cricoid ring with overlying edematous mucosa, but large enough to
permit easy suctioning and reduce the risk of occlusion from secretions.
Inhalational anesthesia in a controlled environment is preferable. If there is a sug-
gestion of an alternate diagnosis such as epiglottitis, then consider the presence of
a clinician able to provide a surgical airway in the advent of can’t intubate, can’t-
oxygenate situation. Selection of the uncuffed ETT size is generally two half-
sizes smaller than an age appropriate size (for example a 2 year old child who
484 D. Alexander
would normally require a 4.5 mm ETT would be intubated with a 3.5 mmID ETT).
Croup is an unusual situation nowadays in that an UNcuffed ETT is desirable.
Longer than usual uncuffed ‘croup tubes’ are available for older children needing
intubation.
Note
Acute upper airway obstruction in children:
Croup; epiglottitis, retropharyngeal abscess; bacterial tracheitis, angioedema,
foreign body.
The majority of children with croup who require intubation have lower respira-
tory parenchyma disease (bronchitis) with reduced lung compliance and significant
secretions. Despite this, the majority are easily managed with an uncuffed ETT.
30.4.2 Epiglottitis
Epiglottitis is a bacterial infection that causes the epiglottis and adjacent larynx to
swell and occlude the airway. It is rare since the introduction of the highly effica-
cious Hemophilus influenza B vaccination program. It now usually occurs only in
the unvaccinated or as consequence of a Group A streptococcus infection, and rarely
in the immunocompromised such as post-varicella, oncology children and those on
immunomodulation therapies. It may also be caused by burns and chemical inges-
tion. It is vital to recognize epiglottitis as it can cause a ‘can’t-intubate, can’t-
oxygenate’ scenario. Epiglottitis should be considered as a diagnosis in children
with acute upper airway obstruction.
Children with epiglottitis have a short history of fever and sore throat and are unwell
and septic. They have a low-pitched biphasic stridor and sit forward in a ‘tripod’ posi-
tion, refusing to swallow. They don’t cough and there is no preceding viral prodromal
illness. Once identified, children with epiglottitis should be managed as having a pre-
carious airway with the potential for sudden obstruction. They should be allowed to
keep sitting up in their position of comfort, as lying down may result in total obstruc-
tion. Interventions are minimized as distressing the child may trigger obstruction.
Definitive control of the airway is obtained in an optimal environment with gaseous
induction, maintenance of spontaneous ventilation and ENT presence. These children
can be very difficult to intubate. The epiglottis is easily seen, but it is cherry red, swol-
len and may completely obscure the glottic opening. It can be very difficult to know
where to pass the ETT, and sometimes the only clue is seeing a few bubbles under the
epiglottis as the child exhales. Laryngeal pressure may help obtaining a view of the
cords, and sometimes the ETT just has to be passed up and behind the epiglottis blindly,
gently trying to feel where the glottic opening is. An ETT 0.5 mm smaller than usual is
used. Once intubation has occurred, the epiglottis is swabbed, blood cultures taken and
appropriate antibiotics such as a third-generation cephalosporin begun.
30.4.3 Bronchiolitis
Bronchiolitis represents inflammation of the distal respiratory tract. It is com-

monly cause by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) though can be caused by other
viruses (rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza). Occasionally no virus is isolated.
Bronchiolitis results in a large number of PICU admissions each year. Most chil-
dren with bronchiolitis have a mild illness and are nursed at home or in a hospital
ward. Older children with these viruses have a milder illness. Small children are
at increased risk because of the small diameter of their airways. Infants less than
3 months, former preterm infants and children with co-morbidities such as chronic
lung disease or cardiac lesions are the most likely to require admission and escala-
tion to respiratory support.
Infants with bronchiolitis present with increasing respiratory difficulty. They
have a preceding viral illness followed by tachypnea, cough and poor feeding.
Examination reveals features of respiratory distress and fine lung crepitations.
About 20% of infants present with apneas alone, but develop lung crepitations over
the next 12 h.
Management is supportive, with oxygen and fluids. Oral feeds are deferred
during periods of respiratory distress, and often antibiotics are commenced after
a limited septic screen. Nasopharyngeal aspirates are often sent to confirm RSV
status, although this is not universal practice and is probably most useful only for
cohorting purposes. The respiratory stimulant caffeine may have a place in the
management in those who present primarily with apneas. A clinical trial of bron-
chodilators or steroids may be justified if there is a strong family history of atopy,
though the evidence for this approach is conflicting. Respiratory support is given
if clinically warranted. This support starts with high flow humidified oxygen, then
non-invasive respiratory support such as nasal CPAP, followed by intubation and
ventilation. The criteria for intubation and ventilation are broadly similar to those
for croup.
30.4.4 Acute Severe Asthma
Asthma is common and can occasionally become life-threatening if not managed

appropriately. With aggressive early medical management, it is rare for an asthmatic
child to require ventilatory support. All efforts should be made to avoid ventilation
as it is carries risks of hemodynamic changes at induction and then complications
from positive pressure ventilation.
Keypoint
Ventilation of the child with acute severe asthma carries risks of hemody-
namic changes at induction and then complications from positive pressure
ventilation.
486 D. Alexander
Most children with exacerbations of asthma have a prior history of asthma or a

family history of atopy. Often a trigger for the exacerbation is identified—either
allergens or viral. Children with a mild exacerbation will respond to bronchodilator
therapy given through a spacer device and a short course of oral steroids. Children
with a severe exacerbation who are hypoxic should have salbutamol delivered as a
nebulization with oxygen (8 L/min) and IV steroids. Bronchodilators are escalated
according to clinical necessity (Table 30.6). Frequent salbutamol nebulizations are
escalated to continuous nebulizations if required, then to intravenous salbutamol
therapy. Intravenous aminophylline and magnesium also have a role in treatment of
severe asthma though there is conflicting evidence. In general, any child requiring
more than four hourly salbutamol treatments should be an inpatient in a hospital and
anyone requiring hourly bronchodilator therapy should be considered for intensive
care management.
In critical situations, it should be remembered that epinephrine (adrenaline) is a
potent bronchodilator. Intramuscular or subcutaneous epinephrine (0.01 mL/kg
1:1000 epinephrine) at a time of crisis may be life-saving and grant extra time to
prepare for emergency airway management.
Intubation should be contemplated only with extreme respiratory fatigue and
respiratory failure as it is carries significant risk. Cardiovascular decompensation
at induction is predictable and should be pre-empted with aggressive fluid resus-
citation before induction and resuscitation drugs available. Ketamine is the drug
of choice for induction because of its bronchodilator properties and relative car-
diovascular stability. After intubation, high inspiratory pressures are required to
achieve adequate tidal volumes. Goals for ventilation are tidal volumes of
approximately 8 mL/kg with an expiratory time long enough to avoid air
Table 30.6 Escalating management of severe asthma

Treatment Details
Oxygen Subnasal, Hudson or non-rebreather mask to maintain
SaO2 > 96%
Salbutamol Nebulized 5 mg made to 4 mL with 0.9% saline 20 min × 3 doses
Ipratropium Nebulized 250 μg given with salbutamol × 3 in first hour then 6
hourly
Steroids IV hydrocortisone 4 mg/kg 6 hourly
Intensify (or decrease treatment) sequentially as required
Hourly Salbutamol Give hourly salbutamol as above
Half Hourly Salbutamol Give half hourly as above
Continuous Salbutamol Continuous nebulized undiluted 0.5% salbutamol delivered with
oxygen 8 L/min
Aminophylline Load with 10 mg/kg over 1 h, if not on regular
(will require dedicated line) Then consider continuing 6 mg/kg every 6 h intravenously if
effective
Intravenous Salbutamol Add salbutamol infusion 0.5–10 μg/kg/min
(will require dedicated line) (Salbutamol 3 mg/kg in 50 mL 5% dextrose, 1 mL/h = 1 μg/kg/
min, consider loading 5 μg/kg/min for 1 h if not received
significant inhaled therapy beforehand)
Magnesium sulfate 0.2 mL/kg 50% magnesium sulfate over 1 h (beware hypotension)
Mechanical ventilation Fluid bolus, ketamine induction, muscle relaxant
trapping. Normocapnea is not essential initially. After intubation, aggressive

bronchodilator therapy is continued. Although nebulized salbutamol can be
delivered to an intubated child with an adaptor, IV therapy is better at this stage.
The management of acute severe asthma is also covered in Chap. 8, Crisis
Management, Sect. 8.4.
30.4.5 Meningococcal Sepsis
Neisseria meningitidis exists in 13 serogroups with 6 serotypes associated with

disease (A, B, C, W, X and Y). Historically A, B and C accounted for most dis-
ease burden internationally, although the pattern of distribution has changed dra-
matically with the introduction of immunization programs for five serotypes (A,
B, C, W and Y). The organism is carried in the nasopharynx in 5–10% of most
populations, and becomes invasive opportunistically. The incubation period is
from 2 to 10 days with the prodromal illness often of a flu-like illness. Septic
shock due to Neisseria meningitidis can be a devastating disease if not appreci-
ated early and treated aggressively. Mortality from meningococcal septic shock
is as high as 40%.
The classical presentation is in a previously healthy child who becomes unwell
and septic with a non-blanching rash. Unfortunately, other presentations are
common. Many children are not unwell in the early phases of the disease and
may be too young to express myalgia or headache to their parents. Up to 25% of
children do not have a rash on presentation, or if the rash is present, it may be
polymorphic or blanching. To compound this, children are able to maintain blood
pressure by increasing systemic vascular resistance and heart rate (having a rela-
tively fixed stroke volume). Because of this and despite being unwell, they lack
hemodynamic compromise until late, and then decompensate quickly with bra-
dycardia, hypotension and arrest. Examination of an unwell child includes
inspection for a rash and thorough and repeated examination for adequacy of
circulation. Tachycardia, hypotension, poor capillary refill time, evidence of
peripheral vasoconstriction (cold hands and feet) and end organ insufficiency
(tachypnea, oliguria, raised lactate) should prompt vigorous resuscitation. It can-
not be overstated that a robust blood pressure in isolation is not a reassuring
observation. Any shocked child is given supplemental oxygen and the adequacy
of breathing assessed. Intravenous (or intraosseous) access needs to be achieved
without delay.
Keypoint
Sick children can maintain a normal blood pressure until late, then decompen-
sate quickly with bradycardia, hypotension and arrest. There is a high risk of
cardiovascular collapse when inducing anesthesia to intubate a child.
488 D. Alexander
The diagnosis is confirmed with blood cultures or a positive PCR (polymerase

chain reaction). Lumbar puncture is contraindicated because the patient may have
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Antibiotics are given urgently and
although blood cultures are preferably taken beforehand, treatment is not delayed
for this reason. If there is a delay in obtaining vascular access, intramuscular antibi-
otics is an alternative option.
Rapid resuscitation with 20 mL/kg 0.9% saline is followed by an assessment of
response. Fluid challenges are repeated as clinically indicated. When 40–60 mL/kg of
fluid has been given, other management strategies should be considered as well.
Albumin 4%, inotropes (dopamine, norepinephrine or epinephrine) and mechanical
ventilation maybe indicated, usually in consultation with intensive care. Hypoglycemia,
hypocalcemia and coagulopathy often occur in meningococcemia and must be cor-
rected early. Contact tracing and public health measures will need addressing on con-
firmation of the diagnosis.
Note
The importance of vigorous fluid resuscitation in the face of meningococcal
septic cannot be overstated. Aggressive resuscitation and reassessment of car-
diovascular adequacy is the key to a good outcome, with many children requir-
ing 80–120 mL/kg of fluid resuscitation in the first hour of arrival to PICU.
30.4.6 Status Epilepticus
Seizures may result from many processes including febrile convulsions, idiopathic
seizure disorder, ingestion, changes to anti-epileptic medications, metabolic distur-
bances, trauma and CNS infection (Table 30.7). Brief seizures are generally well
tolerated in the absence of cardiovascular or metabolic compromise, but if pro-
tracted they cause metabolic and permanent brain changes (encephalomalacia).
Seizures of any cause should be quickly controlled, hypoxia and hypoglycemia
avoided and cerebral perfusion (blood pressure) optimized. After approximately
40 min, the seizures should be terminated by induction and intubation with thiopen-
tone or propofol (Fig. 30.1).
Many children with epilepsy or recurrent febrile convulsions have an action plan
and may have received treatment by parents or paramedics on the way to hospital.
This treatment commonly includes rectal diazepam, intranasal or buccal midazolam
or clonazepam. On occasion families are supplied paraldehyde that is administered
rectally at the onset of seizures. All of these should be taken into account when
assessing the child.
Once intubated effort must be made to ensure the patient stays free of seizures. This
can be achieved by loading with additional anticonvulsants (a second agent—phenytoin,
phenobarbitone and levetiracetam) or midazolam infusion. Occasionally a thiopentone
Table 30.7 The commonest Common causes of status

causes of status epilepticus in epilepticus in children
children Idiopathic (epilepsy)
Febrile convulsion
Tumour
Trauma
Infection (meningitis, encephalitis)
Metabolic (hypoglycaemia,
hyponatremia, hypocalcaemia)
Fig. 30.1 Emergency Oxygen, lateral position,

management of seizures in ensure adequate breathing
a child and CVS state, BSL
Vascular access?
YES NO
Diazepam 0.25 mg/kg Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg rectal

or midazolam 0.15 mg/kg or midazolam 0.15 mg/kg
or clonazepam 0.25 mg buccal/IM or clonazepam
(NOT per kg) 2–3 drops sublingual
5 min 10 min
Diazepam 0.25 mg/kg Diazepam 0.5 mg/kg rectal

or midazolam 0.15 mg/kg or midazolam 0.15 mg/kg
or clonazepam 0.25 mg buccal/IM or clonazepam
(NOT /kg) 2–3 drops sublingual
5 min 10 min
Phenytoin 20 mg/kg IV/IO with

Rectal paraldehyde 0.3 ml/kg
ECG monitoring
diluted with olive oil and given
or phenobarbitone 20 mg/kg
immediately
or levetiracetam 30 mg/kg
20 min
Rapid sequence induction and

intubation
Consider differentials: CNS
infection, ingestion, metabolic,
trauma
infusion is required, but this requires central access and often leads to an inotropic
requirement. If possible, ongoing muscle relaxation should be avoided to ensure recur-
rent seizures are detectable. If the clinical condition requires ongoing paralysis or there
are concerns about ongoing seizures, then an EEG monitoring should be used.
490 D. Alexander
30.4.7 Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)
DKA is characterized by the triad of hyperglycemia (blood glucose >11 mmol/L),

metabolic acidosis (venous pH < 7.3 or bicarbonate <15 mmol/L) and increased
total body ketone concentration. This triad of metabolic derangement is caused by
insulin deficiency and the effects of counter-regulatory hormones. This may happen
in a newly diagnosed diabetic, a known diabetic with an inter-current illness or
(most commonly) a known diabetic with missed insulin doses.
First presentation of diabetes may be heralded by a history of polydipsia, poly-
uria and unexplained weight loss. Early recognition may avoid development of the
acidosis. With progression, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pains are common.
Lethargy, drowsiness, an acute confusional state or loss of consciousness can occur.
Occasionally there is a family history of diabetes or other autoimmune endocri-
nopathy. Dehydration is usually present with deep, rapid breathing (Kussmaul).
Lethargy, drowsiness or altered consciousness can be present with more established
ketoacidosis. A venous blood gas will show metabolic acidosis with respiratory
compensation, hyperglycemia and ketonemia.
Initial management should follow the lines of all unwell patients—ensure adequacy
of airway, oxygen supplementation and 10 mL/kg 0.9% saline if there is evidence of
circulatory insufficiency. Insulin is begun after fluid resuscitation and diagnosis.
The goals of therapy in DKA are:
• The correct of dehydration. The degree of dehydration is usually overestimated

as there is a coexisting catabolic state with wasting. Rehydration after the initial
fluid resuscitation is done slowly, and usually over a 24–48 h period to avoid
cerebral edema. Normal saline (0.9%) is used initially to account for mainte-
nance and deficit, and a dextrose-containing solution used as serum blood sugar
levels normalize.
• To correct acidosis, reverse ketosis and restore normal blood glucose level.
Insulin is started usually as an infusion at 0.1 Unit/kg/h (maximum 5 Unit/h),
although intermittent subcutaneous insulin is an option.
• To avoid hypokalemia as metabolic acidosis resolves. Although there is hyperka-
lemia initially, there is underlying potassium depletion and hypokalemia will
develop as the acidosis is corrected. Potassium will need to be supplemented and
the levels monitored. Cardiac monitoring is required if the child is receiving
>0.4 mmol/kg/h of potassium).
• To avoid complications of therapy. Cerebral edema is a recognized cause of
death. Neurological observation should be conducted frequently in the rehydra-
tion phase of a child managed for DKA. Hypoglycemia or hypokalemia are
risks of initial therapy. To adequately monitor for these complications may
require nursing in a high acuity area with a dedicated access point for frequent
blood gas analysis.
Review Questions
1. You are called to the emergency department to assist in the assessment and resus-
citation of an unwell 2 year old boy. He has had a fever for 24 h and has become
increasingly lethargic. This morning he has developed a non-blanching rash. On
examination he is pale, poorly perfused and is disinterested in his surrounds. His
heart rate is 195 bpm and blood pressure 120/50 mmHg with an appropriate size
cuff. A lactate obtained by an arterial stab before your arrival is 8 mmol/L. The
resident has not been able to obtain intravenous access.
(a) Discuss your approach to this situation, in particular outlining priorities of
management.
(b) Comment on the blood pressure measurement.
2. The ward resident asks you to attend to a 4 year old child currently an inpatient on
the pediatric ward. She had been admitted to the ward earlier in the evening with a
2 day history of a barking cough and a 6 h history of increasing stridor. She was
admitted with a diagnosis of croup and was given a dose of oral steroids before
admission to the ward 8 h ago. She has become increasingly agitated with a bipha-
sic stridor. She is working hard to breathe. Her oxygen saturation before oxygen
therapy was 92%, but now is fully saturated with a Hudson mask at 6 L/min.
(a) Outline your approach to management of this child’s airway issues.
(b) Comment on the use of oxygen therapy in this child.
3. You have intubated a child for ongoing ICU care. Where is the best position for
the tip of the ETT— not too high and not too low, but where? What is the best
method to ensure correct depth of the ETT?
Further Reading
Gilpin D, Hancock S. Referral and transfer of the critically ill child. BJA Educ. 2016;16:253–7.
Lampariello S, et al. Stabilization of critically ill children at the district general hospital prior to
intensive care retrieval: a snapshot of current practice. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95:681–5.
McDougall RJ. Paediatric emergencies. Anaesthesia. 2013;68(S1):61–71.
Virbalas J, Smith L. Upper airway obstruction. Pediatr Rev. 2015;36:62–72. A good review of
croup, epiglottitis and tracheomalacia.
Yager P, Noviski N. Shock. Pediatr Rev. 2010;31:311–9.
A Selection of Clinical Scenarios
31
Dana Weber and Craig Sims
This chapter contains several hypothetical clinical situations that are discussed in
detail to show some management options and why one option might be better than
others. It will also be useful for readers preparing for the short answer question sec-
tion of the exams. Although the questions are answered in an exam style, the answers
are longer than would be expected in the usual short-answer format, and not every
detail would be needed to score well in an exam.
31.1 n 8 Month Old, 10 kg Infant Presents for Laparotomy

A
After a Failed Attempt at Reducing an Intussusception
with a Barium Enema
(i) Describe and justify your perioperative fluid management

These infants are often unwell and hypovolemic from vomiting, bowel
losses and rectal bleeding, and may be septicemic. Hypotension at induction is
a concern, and I would ensure the infant has received 10–30 mL/kg of 0.9%
saline or Hartmanns (CSL) fluid during resuscitation before induction. The
response to every bolus would be assessed to guide further fluid resuscitation.
5–10 mL/kg fluid boluses could be given over 15–30 min using an infusion
pump if available or by manually infusing using a three-way tap and 10 mL
syringe as a ‘piston-pump’ (see Chap. 5, Sect. 5.4.4).
During anesthesia and surgery, any blood or fluid loss would be replaced
with isotonic fluid such as Hartmanns. Ongoing maintenance fluid for a lapa-
rotomy is around 10 mL/kg/h, and this would be given in addition to any losses.
Fluid status would be assessed by monitoring heart rate, BP, urine output, the
D. Weber · C. Sims (*)

e-mail: dana.weber@health.wa.gov.au; craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_31
494 D. Weber and C. Sims
plethysmographic or arterial trace variation with ventilation and arterial blood

gases to monitor the pH, bicarbonate and lactate concentrations. The hemoglo-
bin level would also be regularly measured, and the decision to transfuse depen-
dent on (i) hemoglobin concentration, (ii) the likelihood of further blood loss
during surgery, and (iii) the infant’s cardiovascular stability. This infant does not
need any glucose intraoperatively because gluconeogenesis is effective in an
infant of this age and surgical stress is likely to trigger a hyperglycemic response.
Post operatively, the infant will have no oral intake. The basic maintenance
rate for IV fluids for this infant is 4 mL/kg/h, or 40 mL/h. Although there is
likely to be an increase in ADH secretion and fluid retention postoperatively,
there will also be extravascular space losses into the peritoneal cavity, and pos-
sibly blood loss. It would therefore be reasonable to increase the maintenance
rate to 50 mL/h to allow for this and frequently assess fluid status based on
observations, urine output and peripheral perfusion. The infant will need glu-
cose postoperatively while fasting. A suitable fluid needs to be a salt-rich iso-
tonic fluid containing glucose, such as 5% dextrose with saline 0.9%. Hypotonic
fluids such as 2.5% dextrose with 0.45% saline may cause hyponatremia and
should be avoided in this clinical scenario. Daily measurement of plasma elec-
trolytes will be needed while the infant is on IV fluids.
(ii) At the completion of surgery, the hemoglobin is measured at 70 g/L. Would
you transfuse this infant?
This is a low hemoglobin, and around the ‘transfusion trigger’ for children
of 70–80 g/L. If the infant was previously well without cardiorespiratory dis-
ease, has stable blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate and perfusion with urine
output 10 mL/h and no ongoing blood loss, transfusion can be avoided. The Hb
needs to be measured regularly to ensure it is not falling.
(iii) In what circumstances would it be reasonable to provide continuous epi-
dural analgesia for postoperative pain relief in this child?
Epidural analgesia would be reasonable if the infant does not appear septic
and has stable observations. The anesthetist must be trained and skilled at epi-
dural insertion in smaller infants and postoperative ward staff must be trained
and familiar with the management of epidurals in infants.
31.1.1 Further Commentary
Part (i) of the question asks only about perioperative fluid management. In an exam,
no marks would be scored for mentioning induction technique. If it had been asked
however, induction would include the fluid boluses discussed above, a modified
rapid sequence induction, and a technique to prevent hypotension at induction. Such
a technique might be fentanyl 1–2 μg/kg, allowing time for this to take effect to
reduce the induction dose of propofol to about 2 mg/kg, or using ketamine 1–2 mg/
kg for induction.
See Chap. 15 Sect. 15.11 about intussusception, and Chap. 5 Sects. 5.3 and 5.4
about IV fluids.
31 A Selection of Clinical Scenarios 495
31.2 Girl Who Has Just Turned 9 Years Old and Weighs
A
26 kg Is Scheduled for Laparoscopic Appendicectomy.
She Has a 36-h History of Abdominal Pain and Nausea,
and Has an IV Line In Situ
(i) Describe your induction technique, including airway management.

This child is at risk of aspiration and will need a modified rapid sequence
induction and endotracheal intubation. The formula for cuffed ETT size sug-
gests 3.5 + 9/4 = 5.75 mmID ETT. I would choose to use a 5.5 mmID ETT,
since rounding up to a size 6 mm ETT may result in the cuff catching at the
cricoid ring.
Induction technique: Ensure preparation of equipment and drugs and
confirm there is a skilled assistant who is familiar with the application of
cricoid pressure in children. If there is concern the child is dehydrated or
hypovolemic, a 10 mL/kg bolus of Hartmanns would be given before
induction.
I would use a modified rapid sequence induction with preoxygenation, fen-
tanyl 0.5–1 μg/kg and propofol 4–5 mg/kg, followed by rocuronium 0.6 mg/
kg, application of cricoid pressure and gentle mask ventilation with a high
concentration of sevoflurane (4–6%) while monitoring blood pressure. After
2–3 min, or guided by a nerve stimulator assessing paralysis, intubation would
be performed with the cuff of the ETT passed just beyond the vocal cords.
After checking for ETCO2 and bilateral air entry, the assistant can release cri-
coid pressure.
(ii) During intubation, there is a good view of the vocal cords, but a 5.5 mmID
and then a 5.0 cuffed ETT will not pass beyond the vocal cords. What will
you do?
The first step would be to ensure the vocal cords are relaxed either clinically
or by using a nerve stimulator to confirm muscle relaxation peripherally. Next
I would choose a 5.0 UNcuffed ETT. A 4.5 mm cuffed ETT could be used
instead, but the internal diameter is small and resistance high in a child of this
age. All intubation attempts would be performed gently to avoid airway trauma.
Dexamethasone 8–12 mg would be given to reduce the likelihood of airway
edema and stridor after extubation, and an ENT review arranged postop. If an
ETT even smaller then 5 uncuffed or 4.5 cuffed were needed for intubation,
then edema causing critical airway narrowing and obstruction would become a
concern, and keeping the child intubated postop until an urgent ENT review
would probably be best.
(iii) Intubation was achieved with a 5.0 mmID uncuffed ETT and surgery was
uneventful. A mildly inflamed, non-perforated appendix was removed.
How will you ensure the child is comfortable postop?
A multimodal approach to analgesia would be appropriate, with intraopera-
tive analgesia including morphine 4–5 mg (0.1–0.2 mg/kg), IV paracetamol
390 mg (15 mg/kg), parecoxib 15 mg (0.6 mg/kg) and local anesthetic infiltra-
tion to the laparoscope port sites with 8.5 mL of ropivacaine 0.75% (2.5 mg/kg
maximum dose). Ondansetron 4 mg would reduce postoperative nausea and

vomiting. The child is likely to tolerate oral fluids soon after surgery, and oral
analgesia could be used. Oral paracetamol and ibuprofen could be given regu-
larly, and oral oxycodone 2–4 mg 6 hourly as required. Isotonic IV fluids
would be continued until the child is drinking adequate amounts.
There are many possible ways of anesthetizing this child for this procedure, but the
question has asked for the technique I would use. The answer needs to reflect the
reasons for the method chosen. A modified rapid sequence induction (RSI) was used
for this child. The classic RSI is an adult technique that cannot be brought across
and used in children. It includes a predetermined dose of induction agent immedi-
ately followed by suxamethonium and then apnea until intubation. It includes the
risks of hypoxia, awareness, and a hurried, traumatic intubation. Important factors
leading to aspiration are insufficient anesthesia, coughing, and straining during
induction or intubation. The hurried nature of RSI does not ensure the absence of
these factors.
Gentle mask ventilation is safe during cricoid pressure, does not inflate the stom-
ach and prevents apnea and hypoxia. Because mask ventilation is performed before
intubation, there is no need to obtain a rapid paralysis, and a standard dose of
rocuronium can be used. Children also benefit from a faster onset of relaxants.
Over-pressuring with a high concentration of sevoflurane enhances muscle relax-
ation and prevents awareness (because the brain concentration of sevoflurane will
be lower than the inspired concentration over the short time of induction). Monitoring
of relaxation to determine the time of intubation is optimal, but it may not always be
possible to apply the monitor before induction, and it is difficult to apply once the
assistant is busy performing cricoid pressure.
Cricoid pressure was used for this child. There has been debate about the effec-
tiveness of cricoid pressure, particularly since it can make intubation more difficult.
Although some have abandoned its use, it is still a common part of anesthesia and
reasonable to persist with at this stage. However, it should be lessened or removed
if there is mask ventilation is difficult or of intubation is difficult.
Sometimes the bulky, low pressure high volume cuff of the ETT gets held up at
the cricoid ring during intubation, and one size smaller than expected needs to be
used. In this child however, a 5.0 tube won’t pass either. This is the correct size ETT
for a 6 or 7 year old, and it is unusual that it won’t pass in a 9 year old. A cautious
approach to intubation is needed to avoid severe stridor and upper airway obstruc-
tion after surgery. Dexamethasone is given to reduce edema at the cricoid, and this
is particularly important in young children who already have a small airway diam-
eter. A small concern about dexamethasone for the scenario patient is the concurrent
appendicitis and any possible immunosuppression it might cause.
See also Chap. 1, Sect. 1.6.3 about rapid sequence induction, Chap. 4 Sect. 4.7.1
about cuffed endotracheal tubes, and Chap. 9 Sect. 9.3 about analgesics.
31.3 12 Year Old Girl Is Admitted for a Diagnostic

A
Gastroscopy
(i) Describe your anesthetic technique for this child.

After preoperative assessment and obtaining informed consent from the par-
ent and assent from the girl, induction would be performed in an area with suit-
able equipment, monitoring and skilled assistance.
After either inhalational or IV induction, anesthesia would be maintained
with bolus doses of propofol containing alfentanil 25 μg/mL. Dosing would be
adequate to provide unconsciousness, immobility, and to suppress upper airway
reflexes while avoiding excessive amounts causing apnea. Equipment to sup-
port respiration would be immediately available.
(ii) On arrival in theater, she is anxious and upset. She tells you she doesn’t
want the procedure anymore. Her mother is present in theater and insists
you go ahead with the anesthetic. How would you proceed in this scenario?
She is having an elective procedure which could be rescheduled if required,
though this has implications for the family’s and health care facility’s time and
use of resources. Although she might be less anxious on another day, simply
rescheduling may not improve the situation next time.
She is younger than the legal age to consent or withhold consent, and the parent
is able to decide for her at this age. Although she is an older child at 12 years of
age, she is unlikely to be Gillick-competent because of her extreme anxiety affect-
ing her reasoning—any long-term desire of hers to have the procedure and obtain
a diagnosis of her condition is overwhelmed by her acute anxiety and short-term
desire to avoid anesthesia and the procedure. She is too old to restrain, and to do so
would be extremely upsetting for her, her mother and all staff present.
The first step would be a discussion with her about the reasons for her anxi-
ety. At this age, children often fear awareness, death or pain. Discussion with
her and her mother about her fears may be enough for her to regain her confi-
dence and cooperation. Nevertheless, induction of anesthesia is a stressful time
for any person, and she may also benefit from premedication such as oral mid-
azolam 0.5 mg/kg to a maximum of 15 mg given 30 min before induction.
If these steps weren’t successful, rescheduling of the gastroscopy could be
considered after discussion with the proceduralist about its urgency. The child
could be taught coping skills by a psychologist in the interim. A premed given
in a planned manner at the next admission, before her anxiety has escalated,
may also be more effective.
See also Chap. 1, Sect. 1.4 about consent and Gillick competency, and Chap. 27,
Sect. 27.6 about endoscopy.
31.4 2 Year Old Child Is Scheduled for Rigid Bronchoscopy

A
and Possible Removal of an Inhaled Foreign Body
(i) How is the diagnosis of an inhaled foreign body made in young children?
History: The caregiver may witness the child choking on an object. There is
usually a sudden onset of symptoms including cough, wheeze or stridor. If the
foreign body is large and lodges high in the respiratory tract (larynx or tra-
chea), the child may have sudden onset of choking, breathlessness, cyanosis or
stridor. Some cases may be subtle with cough, persistent chest infections or
wheeze and can be difficult to differentiate from other common pediatric respi-
ratory conditions, such as croup, asthma and pneumonia.
Examination may be normal, but may reveal tachypnea, wheeze or absent
breath sounds on the affected side, or in more severe cases, cyanosis or respira-
tory distress.
Investigations: A chest X-ray is often normal, as most foreign bodies are
radiolucent. It may show atelectasis or consolidation from blockage of a bron-
chus. The expiratory chest X-ray classically shows hyperinflation of the
affected side, due to the foreign body acting as a ball valve and trapping gas
distally, but this is uncommon. CT scanning sometimes shows a foreign body
but may also delay diagnosis. Sometimes bronchoscopy must be performed to
exclude an inhaled foreign body.
(ii) The child has a cough and quiet expiratory stridor, but has no respiratory
distress and is otherwise well. SpO2 breathing air is 97%. Outline your
anesthesia technique and the rationale for it.
I would begin by discussing the surgeon’s planned technique for bronchos-
copy, the plan for anesthesia, and how we will communicate about ventilation
and the airway during the bronchoscopy. After ensuring there is skilled assis-
tance and preferably a second anesthetist, an inhalational induction with sevo-
flurane in 100% oxygen would be performed. This allows a gradual onset of
anesthesia, and allows the airway patency and the ability to gently assist venti-
lation to be assessed. Using 100% oxygen during induction preoxygenates the
child.
After induction and insertion of an IV catheter, a bolus of propofol 1–2 mg/kg
would be given to suppress laryngeal reflexes, direct laryngoscopy performed and
the vocal cords and trachea sprayed with 2% lidocaine 3 mg/kg using an atomizer
spray device. Fentanyl 0.5 μg/kg would be given incrementally (avoiding apnea)
to supplement anesthesia. Mask anesthesia would then continue until bronchos-
copy begins.
I would choose to use a pediatric T-piece circuit for this procedure because
it is lightweight when attached to the bronchoscope and allows rapid changes
in the inspired concentration of volatile agent. I can also assess lung compli-
ance if there are problems with ventilation in this small child more readily with
the T-piece than with a circle circuit.
When the surgeon is ready to begin bronchoscopy, the face mask would be
removed, the bronchoscope inserted and the anesthetic circuit connected to the
side arm of the ventilating bronchoscope. I would give 4–6% sevoflurane in
4–6 L/min of 100% oxygen during the procedure. Propofol boluses 1–2 mg/kg
would be given to quickly deepen anesthesia if required. If the child was
breathing spontaneously without coughing and remaining immobile, anesthe-
sia would continue while monitoring the adequacy of ventilation and depth of
anesthesia. If the child seemed inadequately anesthetized with either coughing,
movement or breath-holding, anesthesia would be deepened with sevoflurane
and propofol, and gentle ventilation.
When the surgeon removes the eyepiece of the bronchoscope, I would stop
ventilation and temporarily turn off the sevoflurane to reduce theatre pollution.
If the procedure is difficult or prolonged, dexamethasone 0.5–0.6 mg/kg
could be considered to reduce edema at the cricoid that might be caused by
passage of the bronchoscope—this could be discussed with the ENT sur-
geon performing the procedure. IV fluids would be given because the child
will not be able to drink until 60 min after the vocal cords were sprayed with
lidocaine.
At the end of the procedure when the bronchoscope is removed, the face-
mask would be reapplied and the child placed in the left lateral position. I
would give oxygen and remain with the child monitoring them until awake.
(iii) List the possible causes of hypoxemia during rigid bronchoscopy
The bronchoscope within a mainstem bronchus or beyond (only one lung
being ventilated)
Anesthesia inadequate with coughing, bucking, abdominal-wall rigidity
Prolonged apnea or hypoventilation
The foreign body shifting to block a mainstem bronchus, the trachea or the
larynx
Atelectasis of the lung
Measurement error
Equipment problems
Some would use TIVA for these cases, and this is particularly useful for difficult,
prolonged procedures during which the window of the bronchoscope is removed
frequently and for prolonged periods. A small dose of fentanyl supplements propo-
fol and volatile anesthesia, but the dose must be cautious to avoid apnea or hypoven-
tilation. Some would use alfentanil instead. Some others would use remifentanil or
ketamine with propofol.
See also Chap. 17 for discussion of alternatives during bronchoscopy—sponta-
neous or controlled ventilation, volatile or intravenous anesthesia.
31.5 ou Are to Anesthetize a 3.5 kg Neonate

Y
for Laparotomy. Justify the Endotracheal Tube
You Would Use for This Neonate
This neonate (first 30 days) weighs 3.5 kg and therefore likely to be near term, and
not preterm.
I would use a size 3 mmID microcuff ETT with the cuff inflated at or below
20 cmH2O. If it does not easily pass the subglottis, I would use a 3 mmID UNcuffed
ETT.
This ETT was chosen because it has a high volume, low pressure cuff and there
is evidence it is safe in this age group. Compared with an uncuffed ETT, there will
be no leak, PEEP can be applied without difficulty and the ETCO2 and tidal volumes
can be measured more accurately. Lower fresh gas flow rates can be used and pol-
lution with anesthetic gases leaking around the ETT is avoided. The size of the ETT
is more likely to be correct at the first attempt compared to an uncuffed ETT, so
there will be less tube changes and possible complications from the changes. The
smaller internal diameter of the cuffed ETT will increase resistance compared to the
larger uncuffed ETT for this age, but this would not be an issue because ventilation
will be used during anesthesia.
The laparotomy will be associated with changes in abdominal tension and lung
compliance, and a cuffed ETT may allow better control of ventilation with changes
in compliance. The laparotomy may be associated with a regurgitation and aspira-
tion risk, and the cuffed ETT might provide better protection than an uncuffed ETT.
You could write a paragraph justifying an uncuffed ETT if you chose that instead.
See Chap. 4 Sect. 4.7.2 and Chap. 14 Sect. 14.9.4.
31.6 6 Year Old Boy with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

A
(DMD) Presents for Emergency Open Reduction
and Fixation of His Fractured Tibia. He Is Usually Well
and Active, and Has Been Taking Oral Prednisolone
for More Than 1 Year. He Last Ate 12 h Ago
(i) What are the concerns for anesthesia for this boy?
The anesthetic concerns are:
(i) Suxamethonium is contraindicated in DMD as it may cause rhabdomyol-
ysis and hyperkalemic cardiac arrest.
(ii) There are many reports of volatile anesthetic agents triggering rhabdomy-
olysis in DMD.
(iii) He is taking long-term steroids for the management of his muscular dys-
trophy, and may need steroid cover.
(iv) He has a chronic medical condition, is likely to have a lot to do with hos-
pitals, and may be wary and anxious of medical procedures.
(v) Emergency surgery is planned, and there is a risk of aspiration during
anesthesia. However, the fasting duration is acceptable.
(ii) Are there any investigations you would like to perform before anesthesia
and surgery?
Routine electrolytes and hemoglobin levels are unlikely to be helpful. The
creatine kinase could be measured, but will be elevated and will not contribute
to any decisions about anesthesia. Children with Duchenne muscular dystro-
phy can develop cardio-respiratory problems, but this child is active and young,
and unlikely to have developed these problems yet.
(iii) Outline your anesthetic technique for him
Could use spinal or epidural anesthesia for this procedure—potential
problems:
• Managing the child’s anxiety while performing the block and during
surgery,
• Dealing with inadequate analgesia from the block
• Possibility of hurriedly converting to general anesthesia during surgery
• Not accustomed with technique in children
• More familiar with general anesthesia, and would choose this but avoid
volatile anesthetic agents and maintain anesthesia with propofol.
Technique would include:
• Prepare anesthetic machine by removing the vaporizer.
• Premedication with oral midazolam 0.3–0.5 mg/kg 30 min before induc-
tion, to reduce anxiety and facilitate IV insertion (since inhalational induc-
tion after a failed IV insertion is not possible).
• IV induction with propofol 4–5 mg/kg, depending on the effect of the premed
on the child (premed will reduce the dose of propofol needed for induction).
• Size 2.5 LMA to avoid muscle relaxant.
• Maintain anesthesia with nitrous oxide in oxygen and propofol infusion
starting at 15 mg/kg/h, reducing to 12–13 mg/kg/h after 15 min, then 11 mg/
kg after another 15 min, and 10 mg/kg thereafter (Macfarlane regimen),
depending on depth of anesthesia and response to surgery.
• BIS monitor because IV anesthesia has a greater risk of awareness; careful
monitoring of clinical depth.
• Steroid cover with IV hydrocortisone will be needed for the surgical stress
response. It would be appropriate to seek advice from pediatric endocrinol-
ogy about this. In the interim, hydrocortisone 2.5 mg/kg (maximum 50 mg)
would be given during surgery.
• Analgesia with morphine 0.1 mg/kg, IV paracetamol 15 mg/kg, and infiltra-
tion of the wounds with local anesthetic.
• Ondansetron IV and Hartmanns IV fluid
• Oral paracetamol and ibuprofen postoperatively
• Depending on extent of surgery, oral opioids (oxycodone 0.1 mg/kg) or IV
PCA morphine.
(iv) You have attempted to insert an IV cannula to induce anesthesia 3 times
but have not succeeded. The child is upset and fearful. What will you do?
It would be reasonable to ask another anesthetist for help with the IV
Nitrous oxide during attempted insertion
Give another oral premed, such as ketamine and try again when premed is
effective
Induce anesthesia with IM ketamine 5 mg/kg
See Chap. 12 Sect. 12.2.3 about muscular dystrophy.
Further Reading
Simpson RS, Van K. Fatal rhabdomyolysis following volatile induction in a six year old boy with
Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2014;42(1):805–7.
Taylor IN, Kenny GNC, Glen JB. Pharmacodynamic stability of a mixture of propofol and alfent-
anil. Br J Anaesth. 1992;69:168–71.
Glossary of Syndromes and Diseases
32
Charlotte Jorgensen
This glossary briefly outlines some conditions that may be encountered as part of a
busy pediatric practice. The list is not complete, as other conditions are covered
within the various chapters. For this reason, details about specific conditions are
best accessed using the main index at the rear of the book.
Acyl CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiencies (Also Fatty Acid Oxidation Disorders)

Mitochondrial enzyme defects affecting
fatty acid metabolism with a buildup of
toxic substances and over-utilization of
peripheral glucose. Medium chain acyl-
CoA dehydrogenase deficiency
(MCADD), VLCADD and LCHCADD
are the most problematic for anesthesia.
Risk of hypoglycemia and metabolic
crisis with high fat diet or poor oral
intake. Avoid prolonged fasting, suxa-
methonium and propofol infusion.
Consider 10% dextrose.
ADEM Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis.
Frequently has a history of preceding
infection or vaccination. Affects myelin
and white matter leading to visual loss,
C. Jorgensen (*)
e-mail: Charlotte.Jorgensen@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_32
504 C. Jorgensen
weakness, loss of coordination and

altered consciousness associated with
rapid onset fever. Single episode in con-
trast to MS, which is recurring.
Adrenogenital Syndrome Inherited autosomal recessive disorder
affecting cortisol production by the
adrenal glands with a compensatory
increase in pituitary secretion of adreno-
corticotropin. The results are abnormal
cortisol or aldosterone synthesis and an
increase in androgen production causing
ambiguous genitalia in female infants,
precocious sexual development in
males, premature closure of growth
plates, glucose and electrolyte disorders
and blood pressure changes.
Apert Syndrome Autosomal dominant abnormality of
first branchial arch causing premature
closure of cranial sutures, midface hypo-
plasia, choanal atresia, cleft palate,
fusion of cervical spine (mainly C5-C6)
and syndactyly. May have associated
cardiac and renal abnormalities as well
as intellectual impairment due to mega-
locephaly, hypoplasia of white matter
and agenesis of the corpus callosum.
Obstructive sleep apnea is present in
50% and there may be an increased inci-
dence of upper airway obstruction at
induction, which is mostly overcome by
routine maneuvers.
Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita AMC is a physical diagnosis involving
multiple joint contractures, possibly due
to congenital myopathy before birth.
Contractures may affect neck and mouth,
and may affect respiratory function
directly or by causing scoliosis.
Ataxia-Telangiectasia Autosomal recessive disorder with pro-
gressive neurological impairment and
early onset of cerebellar ataxia, telangi-
ectasia and variable immune deficiency
and predisposition to malignancy.
Hypersensitive to medical radiation.
32 Glossary of Syndromes and Diseases 505
Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome Macroglossia, visceromegaly and hypo-

glycemia from insulin-like growth fac-
tor. Associated with omphalocele and
diaphragmatic eventration in neonates.
Increased risk of Wilms tumor and hep-
atoblastoma. Must receive glucose
while fasting.
CHARGE Syndrome Syndrome consisting of coloboma of
the eyes, heart defects, choanal atresia,
developmental delay, intellectual
impairment, genitourinary anomalies
and ear anomalies. These children are
frail with multiple abnormalities.
Cardiac defects and poor respiratory
reserve most problematic for
anesthesia.
Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus is highly conta-
gious and will spread via respiratory
droplets or direct contact. Patients are
infectious from 2 days before the rash
appears until all blisters have crusted.
Exposed patients should be isolated
from 8 to 21 days after the exposure.
Chromosome 22q11.2 Deletion
(DiGeorge) Syndrome The most common microdeletion
(approximately 1:4000) causing pheno-
typically similar disorders including
DiGeorge and Velocardiofacial syn-
dromes with cardiac disease, hypopara-
thyroidism, immunodeficiency mainly
related to T cell changes, autoimmune
disease, intellectual impairment and
psychiatric disorders including ADHD,
anxiety and psychosis in adults. Facial
abnormalities such as micrognathia and
cleft palate may cause airway
difficulties.
Cornelia De Lange Syndrome Rare genetic disorder with IUGR, short
stature, moderate to severe intellectual
disability, gastro-intestinal problems
and malformations mainly affecting the
upper limbs. Distinctive facial features
include arched eyebrows which meet in
506 C. Jorgensen
the middle, low set ears and widely

spaced teeth. May be associated with
microcephaly, micrognathia, cleft pal-
ate, diaphragmatic hernia and cardiac
abnormalities.
Cri-du-Chat Syndrome Characterized by a high-pitched, cat-
like cry. Micrognathia and abnormal lar-
ynx. Hypotonia, severe intellectual
disability. Cardiac defects common.
Crouzon Syndrome Inherited in an autosomal dominant pat-
tern, although over half are new muta-
tions. Abnormality of first branchial
arch causing underdevelopment of the
midface with craniosynostosis, exoph-
thalmos, hypertelorism, hydrocephalus,
Chiari type I malformation and hind-
brain herniation. The upper cervical ver-
tebrae may be fused occasionally. When
the mandible size is normal and there
are no neck issues, mask fit may be awk-
ward but intubation is usually
straightforward.
Cystic Hygroma Congenital benign multiloculated lesion
of lymphatics which can occur any-
where in the body, but typically occurs
in the neck, where it may cause signifi-
cant airway problems.
Dandy-Walker Malformation Hypoplasia of the cerebellar vermis
with expansion of the fourth ventricle
and hydrocephalus. Causes raised intra-
cranial pressure, intellectual impair-
ment, developmental delay with signs of
cerebellar dysfunction, and central
respiratory disorders.
Di George Syndrome See chromosome 22q11.2 deletion
syndrome.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder A disorder caused by in-utero alcohol
exposure. Diagnosis is complex.
Features include abnormal facies,
microcephaly, poor motor skills, intel-
lectual disability, attention deficit and
hyperactivity, regulation of affect, fail-
ure to thrive and cardiac defects.
Fragile X Syndrome Chromosomal disorder causing progres-

sive intellectual impairment and behav-
ioral problems, with approximately one
third having features of Autism
Spectrum Disorder. Seizures in 5–15%.
Freeman-Sheldon Syndrome A rare congenital contracture syndrome
with myopathy affecting the facial, limb
and respiratory muscles. Also called
Whistling Face Syndrome. Features
include microstomia, micrognathia,
microglossia, hypertelorism and joint
contractures particularly of the hands
and feet. Anesthetic concerns include
difficult airway due to small mouth and
jaw, and postoperative respiratory com-
plications. Although there have been
case reports of MH in some children
with Freeman Sheldon, there is no
genetic link or association.
Galactosemia Disorder of galactose metabolism. Type
1 most common and most severe.
Untreated causes failure to thrive, hypo-
glycemia, hepatic failure, coagulopathy
and seizures. May be associated with
sepsis, developmental delay and devel-
opment of cataracts. Types 2 and 3 are
associated with less problems.
Glandular Fever (Infectious
Mononucleosis) Epstein-Barr virus infection common in
teenagers. Incubation period is
30–50 days. Associated with fever, sore
throat, lethargy, lymphadenopathy and
splenomegaly, although 50% do not
develop symptoms. May also have a
rash, jaundice and abdominal pain from
enlarged liver and spleen. May last for
weeks to months. Infectious period may
last months after the infection and some
become carriers. No need to isolate
patients. Spread is via saliva and respi-
ratory droplets.
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
Deficiency X-linked enzyme deficiency causing
hemolysis after certain triggers. Most
patients are asymptomatic with normal
508 C. Jorgensen
or near-normal Hb. Some present with

neonatal jaundice or hemolytic crisis in
response to infection or oxidative
agents.
Triggers include fava beans (broad
beans), fava bean pollen, sulfonamides,
nitrofurans, quinolones, antimalarials,
aspirin, methylene blue and other drugs.
Propofol, volatile agents and opioids are
safe. A rare subgroup of children have
chronic hemolysis in the absence of
trigger agents, and paracetamol cannot
be used in this subgroup.
Glycogen Storage Diseases Disorders of glycogen metabolism and
storage. Different types vary in severity
and each require unique management.
Fasting causes hypoglycemia, and
each patient will know their tolerable
fasting time. Older children usually able
to fast overnight. These children should
be first on list, have blood glucose moni-
tored, and receive 10% dextrose
4–5 mL/kg/h if any doubt about ability
to fast.
Type 1. Glucose-6-phosphatase defi-
ciency and unable to convert glycogen
to glucose. Glycogen accumulates in
liver, kidneys and small intestines.
Associated with hypoglycemia, lactic
acidosis and hyperuricemia.
Type 2. (Pompe’s disease). Glycogen
infiltration causes macroglossia and
potential airway difficulty.
Type 3. Glycogen debranching
enzyme deficiency. Associated with
muscle weakness and cardiomyopathy.
Type 4. Branching enzyme defi-
ciency causing formation of abnormal
glycogen leading to cirrhosis of the liver
and fibrosis of cardiac and skeletal
muscle.
Goldenhar Syndrome Also known as Facio- Auriculo-
Vertebral sequence. A defect of the
branchial arches leads to a small, asym-
metrical mandibular hypoplasia, small
or absent ear, and cervical spine abnor-

malities. May also have intellectual
impairment and cardiac defects. Airway
may be difficult due to asymmetrical
mandibular hypoplasia and cervical
fusion. As the severity of the jaw defor-
mity increases, so does the difficulty in
intubation. The difficulty is not affected
by which side the deformity is on, and
may worsen with age.
Hand Foot and Mouth Disease Coxsackie virus infection, causing
blisters on the hands, feet, in the mouth
and nappy area. Generally mild and in
children younger than 10 years. Most
adults are immune from previous
infection. Spread is via direct contact,
respiratory droplets and feces. The
blisters last 7–10 days are infectious
until they all dry out, although the
virus may be shed in the feces for a
further 2 weeks.
Henoch Schonlein Purpura Most common vasculitis in childhood.
Unknown etiology but half have a his-
tory of recent upper respiratory tract
infection. Associated with widespread
purpura, arthralgia, abdominal pain and
renal involvement.
Homocystinuria Disorder of methionine metabolism.
Most common type is associated with
lens dislocation, thromboembolism
events and osteoporosis. May have
developmental delay. Risk of hypogly-
cemia with fasting. Avoid nitrous oxide.
Impetigo (‘School Sores’) Staphylococcus aureus or pyogenes skin
infection mainly of the face, hands and
feet. Commonly affects children but can
occur at any age. The open sores are
highly contagious, spreading via direct
contact or touched surfaces such as toys,
clothes, towels etc. Typically clears up
in 7–10 days with topical antibiotics and
personal hygiene.
Kawasaki Disease Second most common vasculitis in
childhood. Unknown etiology. May
cause cardiac and cerebral ischemia
510 C. Jorgensen
from aneurysm formation, despite early

treatment with IV immunoglobulin.
Klippel-Feil Syndrome Congenital condition characterized by
short neck, low posterior hairline and
restricted cervical spine movement sec-
ondary to fused vertebrae. May be asso-
ciated with other anomalies. Airway
may be difficult.
Lipidosis Lysosomal storage disease. Includes
Tay-Sachs, Leigh Syndrome, Gaucher,
Niemann-Pick, Fabry and Krabbe dis-
ease. Associated with hepatomegaly and
developmental delay. Avoid lactate con-
taining fluids and large doses of
propofol.
Measles Viral illness with a red and slightly
raised rash associated with mild to
severe constitutional symptoms.
Complications include pneumonia
(20%) and encephalitis. Infectious
period is 24 h before rash until 4 days
afterwards. Usually lasts 10 days.
Methylmalonic acidemia (MMA) One of the organic acidurias. Abnormal
methylmalonic acid metabolism causes
metabolic acidosis with or without
hyperammonemia. Associated with
encephalopathy, hypotonia, develop-
mental delay, hepatomegaly, hypogly-
cemia, recurrent vomiting and
dehydration. Avoid nitrous oxide and
fasting. Some concerns about large
doses of propofol.
Molluscum Contagiosum Common viral skin infection causing
small raised spots with a central dimple.
Mainly affects children, as adults have
been exposed previously. Most heal
within months without treatment.
Spread is by direct contact, pool water,
bath toys and towels.
Mumps Viral illness associated with fever and
swollen salivary glands. May cause
encephalitis and myocarditis. Spread is
by respiratory droplets and infectious
period is 7 days before onset of symp-
toms until 8 days afterwards. However,
one in three are asymptomatic but still

infectious.
Noonan Syndrome Short stature, flattened midface, webbed
neck and micrognathia, although the
airway is usually not difficult. Mild
intellectual disability, cardiac defects
(particularly pulmonary stenosis) and
coagulopathy.
Osteogenesis Imperfecta Inherited abnormality in collagen pro-
duction leading to extremely fragile
bones. Multiple genetic causes forming
five clinical subtypes. Type I is the mild-
est and commonest, and is non-deform-
ing with blue sclera. Severe forms are
associated with scoliosis, short stature,
midface hypoplasia, pointed jaw and
abnormally formed teeth. Care is
required with intubation, positioning
and use of tourniquets. Hyperthermia
during anesthesia is common, but not
associated with MH. Bisphosphonate
therapy is the mainstay of fracture
prevention.
Phenylketonuria Disorder of metabolism of phenylala-
nine to tyrosine that causes irreversible
brain damage unless managed with a
diet low in phenylalanine. No specific
anesthetic implications if asymptomatic
and on correct diet.
Prader-Willi Syndrome Abnormality of chromosome 15 causing
hypotonia, hypogonadism, intellectual
disability, erratic emotions and out-
bursts, short stature, hyperphagia and
early morbid obesity. Sleep apnea,
respiratory and cardiac problems sec-
ondary to morbid obesity. See www.
pws.org.au.
Rett Syndrome Severe neurodevelopmental disorder in
females only. Onset after age 1 year
with regression of language skills, loss
of purposeful hand movements, hypoto-
nia, autistic behavior, deceleration of
head growth and seizures. May have
associated cardio-respiratory
abnormalities.
512 C. Jorgensen
Reye’s Syndrome Rare, acute encephalopathy and fatty

degeneration of the liver (first described
by Reye in Australia in 1963). Cause is
unknown, but typically preceded by a
viral infection. An association with
aspirin when used to treat symptoms of
a viral illness lead to avoidance of aspi-
rin in children. Underlying fatty acid
oxidation disorder increases the risk.
Roseola Very common mild viral illness associ-
ated with a fine, raised, red rash and
high fever in children usually aged
between 6 months and 3 years. Can be
confused with measles or rubella.
Infectious period is before symptoms
start. Main complication is febrile
convulsions.
Rubella (German measles) Viral illness associated with a distinc-
tive red rash, lymphadenopathy and
coryzal symptoms. Usually mild.
Associated with high risk of miscarriage
or congenital abnormalities if infected
during first trimester of pregnancy.
Infectious period is 7 days before rash
appears until at least 4 days after rash.
Russell-Silver Syndrome
(Silver-Russell Dwarfism) Growth retardation in utero and after
birth combined with normal head cir-
cumference, triangular face and asym-
metry of limbs, body or face. Other
features may include micrognathia that
may be severe enough to affect intuba-
tion, feeding problems, lack of subcuta-
neous fat, a propensity for hypoglycemia
and developmental delay. Rare cases are
associated with cardiac defects. See
https://www.healthline.com/health/
russell-silver-syndrome.
Sturge-Weber Syndrome Neurocutaneous angiomas (‘portwine
stains’), typically in the trigeminal dis-
tribution. Leptomeningeal angiomas
may cause seizures, focal deficits,
developmental delay and learning disor-
ders. Angiomas in pharynx or larynx
may cause obstruction and require
treatment, or can be traumatized during

airway instrumentation. Airway angio-
mas are more likely if multiple angio-
mas are present or in the ‘beard area’ of
the face.
Tourette Syndrome Involuntary motor and vocal tics, some-
times associated with obsessive-
compulsive disorder or ADHD.
Treacher Collins Syndrome Genetic dysmorphogenesis of the first
and second branchial arches. Associated
with downward slanting eyes, colo-
boma, micrognathia, cleft palate, mac-
rostomia, hypoplastic zygoma and
abnormalities of the ear with conductive
hearing loss. May have very difficult
airway, and despite the laryngopharynx
having an abnormal funnel-shape, the
LMA is often effective. The airway
becomes more difficult with age.
Turner syndrome Chromosomal XO, thus only affecting
females. Associated with short stature,
hypoplasia of cervical vertebrae,
webbed neck, broad chest and gonadal
dysgenesis. Cardiac abnormalities occur
in a third, mainly bicuspid aortic valve
and coarctation of the aorta. May also
be associated with renal and endocrine
abnormalities, midface hypoplasia,
micrognathia and learning disabilities.
VACTER(L) Association Vertebral anomalies, Anal atresia,
Cardiac defects, Tracheo-Esophageal
fistula, Renal and Limb anomalies.
Anesthetic considerations mainly relate
to the cardiac and tracheal abnormali-
ties. Most commonly encountered in
neonates for tracheo-esophageal fistula
repair. See www.vacterl-association.
org.uk.
Velocardiofacial Syndrome See 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.
Whooping Cough (Pertussis) Highly contagious bacterial respiratory
infection caused by bordetella pertussis.
In adolescents and adults, it causes
coryzal symptoms followed by cough
lasting up to 3 months. Can be life
threatening in young children, elderly
514 C. Jorgensen
and immunocompromised patients.

Complications include pneumonia, sei-
zures and hypoxic cerebral ischemia
secondary to coughing fits. Spread is via
respiratory droplets. Infectious period is
likely the first 3 weeks from symptoms
starting.
Williams syndrome Spontaneous deletion of 26–28 genes on
chromosome 7. Characterized by devel-
opmental delay with well-developed
verbal skills, highly sociable personal-
ity, hypercalcemia and elfin-like facies
with wide mouth, full lips and small
chin. Cardiac abnormalities are the
major problem and include supravalvu-
lar aortic stenosis, pulmonary stenosis
and coronary artery abnormalities mak-
ing these children high risk for cardiac
arrest during anesthesia, even when
completely asymptomatic.
See https://williams-syndrome.org/
what-is-williams-syndrome.
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome Primarily affects males. Immune defi-
ciency, microthrombocytopenia with or
without bleeding abnormality, eczema,
and increased risk of autoimmune disor-
ders. Overlapping signs and symptoms
and same genetic cause as X-linked
thrombocytopenia and severe congeni-
tal neutropenia. See www.ghr.nlm.nih.
gov/condition=wiskottaldrichsyndrome
.
Short-Answer Questions from Past
FANZCA and FRCA Examinations 33
Craig Sims
Listed below are the pediatric anesthesia short-answer questions that have been
recently asked in the Australasian and UK Fellowship exams at the time of printing.
The questions are listed in the chronological order in which they were set.
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance received in the preparation of this sec-
tion from the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists. Questions are
reproduced with permission from the Australian and New Zealand College of
Anaesthetists, January 2019.
We would also like to gratefully acknowledge the assistance received from The
Royal College of Anaesthetists in the United Kingdom.
Percentages shown in brackets indicate allocation of marks for that part of the
question.
∗ Indicates the question was asked more than once during this time period.
33.1 FANZCA Short-Answer Questions 2014–2018
1. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of using the paediatric circle system
and the Jackson-Rees modification of Ayre’s T-piece (Mapleson F) for anaesthe-
sia in a 15 kg child.∗
• 23.3% and later 70.8% of candidates passed this question.
C. Sims (*)
Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management, Perth Children’s Hospital, Nedlands, WA,
Australia
e-mail: craig.sims@health.wa.gov.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4_33
516 C. Sims
2. An 8 week old baby is scheduled for an inguinal hernia repair on your list at a
local general hospital tomorrow.
(a) Outline the important issues when providing anaesthesia care for this baby.
(70%)
(b) Justify your decision to proceed with surgery at the local general hospital.
(30%)
• 45.8% of candidates passed this question.
3. A 3 year old child requires an adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnoea.
• Outline and justify your peri-operative management plan.
4. A 6-week-old term baby weighing 4.0 kg requires pyloromyotomy for pyloric
stenosis.
• How would you assess the baby’s hydration status? (50%)
• Detail and justify your resuscitation regimen. (50%)
• 80% of candidates passed this question.
5. A 2-year-old boy scheduled for hypospadias repair is found to have a precordial
murmur. Justify your decision to proceed.
6. Describe the anatomy relevant to performing a caudal block in a 2-year-old male.
7. Describe your assessment of a 4-year-old child who has been rescued from a
house fire.
• Editor’s note: This question asks for assessment, not management
33.2 FRCA Short-Answer Questions 2014–2018
(a) List the normal anatomical features of young children (<3 years old) which
may adversely affect upper airway management. (35%)
(b) Which airway problems may occur due to these anatomical features? (30%)
(c) Outline how these problems are overcome in clinical practice. (35%).
65% of candidates passed this question.
ditor’s note: The Examiner’s report indicated a table with columns such as
E
‘Anatomical feature’, ‘Problem’ and ‘Managed by’ was an acceptable way to answer
this question. A table is also a good way to answer questions about the advantages
and disadvantages of something.
33 Short-Answer Questions from Past FANZCA and FRCA Examinations 517
1. A 5 year-old child presenting for day case dental surgery under general anaes-
thesia is found to have a heart murmur that has not been documented
previously.
(a) What features of the history (5 marks) and examination (5 marks)
might suggest that the child has a significant congenital heart disease
(CHD)?
(b) If the murmur is caused by an atrial septal defect (ASD) what ECG findings
would you expect? (2 marks)
(c) Which imaging modalities might be used in the assessment of the ASD (2
marks) and what specific additional information may be obtained? (2
marks)
(d) List the current national guidelines regarding prophylaxis against infective
endocarditis in children with CHD undergoing dental procedures. (4
marks)
• 39.1% of candidates passed this question
2. A 5 year-old boy with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is listed for dental
extractions as a day case.
(a) What constitutes ASD (1 mark) and what are the key clinical features? (6
marks)
(b) List the important issues when providing anaesthesia for dental extractions
in children. (6 marks)
(c) Give the specific problems of providing anaesthesia for children with ASD
and outline possible solutions. (7 marks)
• Editor’s note: ‘part b’ refers children in general, not just those with
ASD.
3. You are called to the Emergency Department to see a 2 year-old child who
presents with a 4-h history of high temperature and drowsiness. On examina-
tion there is prolonged capillary refill time and a non-blanching rash. A pre-
sumptive diagnosis of meningococcal septicaemia is made.∗
(a) What are the normal weight, pulse rate, mean arterial blood pressure and
capillary refill time for a child of this age? (4 marks)
(b) Define appropriate resuscitation goals for this child (2 marks) and outline
the management in the first 15 min after presentation. (7 marks)
(c) After 15 min, the child remains shocked and is unresponsive to fluid. What
is the most likely pathophysiological derangement in this child’s circula-
tion (2 marks) and what are the important further treatment options? (5
marks)
• 56.9% and later 64.2% of candidates passed this question
• Editor’s note: Be careful not to answer part c in the answer of part b.
518 C. Sims
4. You have anaesthetised a 5-year-old boy for manipulation of a forearm fracture.

During the operation you notice that he has multiple bruises on his upper arms
and body that you think may indicate child abuse.
(a) Which other types of physical injury should raise concerns of abuse in a
child of this age? (6 marks)
(b) What timely actions must be taken as a result of your concerns? (7 marks)
(c) List parental factors (5 marks) and features of a child’s past medical history
(2 marks) that are known to increase the risk of child abuse.
5. A 5-year-old child with Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) is scheduled for
adenotonsillectomy.
(a) List the cardiovascular (2 marks), airway/respiratory (5 marks) and neuro-
logical (3 marks) problems that are associated with this syndrome in chil-
dren and are of relevance to the anaesthetist.
(b) What are the potential problems during induction of anaesthesia and initial
airway management in this patient? (6 marks)
(c) What are the possible specific difficulties in the postoperative management
of this child? (4 marks)
6. A 12-week-old male baby presents for a unilateral inguinal hernia repair. He
was born at 30 weeks gestation (30/40).
(a) What are the specific perioperative concerns in this baby? (11 marks)
(b) What are the options for anaesthesia? (4 marks)
(c) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of general anaesthesia for this
baby. (5 marks)
7. A 5-year-old boy presents for a myringotomy and grommet insertion as a day
case. During your pre-operative assessment you notice that he has a nasal
discharge.*
(a) List the features in the history (5 marks) and examination (6 marks) that
would potentially cause an increased risk of airway complications?
(b) Why would it be inappropriate to cancel the operation? (6 marks)
(c) What social factors would prevent this child being treated as a day case?
(3 marks)
8. An 8 year old child is scheduled for an elective right femoral osteotomy due to
impending dislocation of the hip. She has severe cerebral palsy.
(a) What is cerebral palsy? (3 marks)
(b) List typical clinical features of severe cerebral palsy, with their associated
anaesthetic implications. Do this for the central nervous system (3 marks),
33 Short-Answer Questions from Past FANZCA and FRCA Examinations 519
respiratory system (2 marks), musculoskeletal system (3 marks) and gas-

trointestinal system (2 marks).
(c) What are the expected problems in providing adequate postoperative anal-
gesia in this patient? (2 marks)
(d) Outline a management plan to optimise analgesia in this patient. (5 marks)
9. You are asked to assess a 15kg 4-year-old child who is scheduled for a strabis-
mus (squint) correction as a day case procedure.
(a) List the anaesthetic considerations of this case, with regards to: age of the
patient (4 marks), day case surgery (3 marks) and type of surgery. (4 marks)
(b) During the operation, the patient suddenly develops a profound bradycar-
dia. What is your immediate management of this situation? (2 marks)
(c) What strategies would you employ to reduce postoperative nausea and
vomiting (4 marks) and postoperative pain? (3 marks)
Index
A ketamine, 209
Abdominal tumors, 330 morphine, 205–206
neuroblastoma, 331 oxycodone, 207–208
Wilms tumor, 330 tramadol, 208–209
Achilles tendon, 376 opioid toxicity and adverse effects,
Achondroplasia, 282–283 management of, 213–215
Activated partial thromboplastin time opioid withdrawal, 215–216
(APPT), 276 pain assessment, 199–201
Active smoking, 249 pain management after ambulatory day
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis case surgery, 216
(ADEM), 503–504 paracetamol
Acute lymphatic leukemia (ALL), 444 intravenous administration, 203
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), 444 metabolism, 202
Acute Pain and Complex Pain Service, 218 oral administration, 203
Acute pain management rectal administration, 203
acute pain service, 218 toxicity of, 204
alpha 2 agonists, 209–210 tricyclic antidepressants, 210
analgesics, practical use of Acute severe asthma, 485–487
continuous, nurse-controlled Acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiencies, 503
opioid infusions, 211–212 Additives to regional anesthesia, 223
intermittent IV ward morphine ADEM, see Acute disseminated
bolus protocols, 211 encephalomyelitis
oral analgesia, transition from Adenoidectomy
parenteral, 213 with tonsillectomy, 336
PACU, analgesia management, analgesia, 342–344
210–211 anesthesia technique, 338–342
PCA, 213 antiemetics and dexamethasone, 344
chronic pain services and services, 218 OSA, 337–338
gabapentenoids, 210 postoperative care after tonsillectomy,
management strategies 344–346
non-pharmacological strategies, 201 without tonsillectomy, 346–347
pharmacological strategies, 201–202 Adenotonsillectomy, 391, 516
melatonin, 210 Adrenaline, 224, 441, 457, 483
neonatal pain, 216–217 Adrenogenital syndrome, 504
NSAIDs, 204–205 Advanced Life Support (ALS)
opioids algorithm, 160
buprenorphine, 209 anti-arrhythmic drugs, 163
codeine, 207 automated external defibrillators, 162
fentanyl, 206–207 non-shockable rhythms, 161
hydromorphone, 207 shockable rhythms, 161–162

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19246-4
522 Index
Airway angiomas, 513 mask airway and ventilation

Airway heating and humidification, 147 airway maneuvers, 83
Airway loss, during routine tonsillectomy continuous positive airway pressure,
hypoxia and absent ETCO2 waveform, 190, 86–87
191 difficult facemask ventilation, 87–88
laryngospasm, 190 face masks, 82–83
lost ventilation, management of, 192 hand position, 84–85
mechanical problem, 190 head position, 83–84
suxamethonium, 191, 192 oral and nasal airways, 85–86
Airway management, 421, 430 tracheostomy tubes, 101
anatomy upper airway obstruction
infants vs. children, 78 site of, 82
larynx and cricoid cartilage, 79–80 symptoms and signs, 81–82
nasal breathing, 78–79 Airway obstruction, 354, 358, 407
pharyngeal airway, 79 tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 341–342
assessment, 80–81 Alfentanil, 425
difficult mask ventilation Allopurinol, 446
can’t intubate, can’t oxygenate, 110–112 Allowable blood loss, 128, 129
facial syndromes, 106, 107 Alpha 2 agonists, 209–210
fiberoptic intubation, 109–110 ALS, see Advanced Life Support
functional causes, 106, 107 American Academy of Pediatrics and NICE, 456
inhalational induction, 107 Aminophylline, 481, 486
LMA, 108 Amitriptyline, 210
unexpected difficult intubation, 107–109 Analgesia, 374, 375, 380
videolaryngoscopes, 109 Analgesic drugs, 201
endotracheal tubes Anaphylaxis, 169–170
cuffed tubes, 91–93 Anesthesia complications
oral and nasal preformed tubes, 96 aspiration, 20
suction catheters, 97 awareness, 20
uncuffed tubes, 93–96 croupy cough/inspiratory stridor, 18–19
extubation, 99–101 deep vein thrombosis, 19–20
high flow nasal oxygen (THRIVE), 112 laryngospasm, 20–21
intubation mechanical prophylaxis, 19
vs. LMA in neonates and small infants, post extubation stridor, 18–19
97–98 postoperative nausea and vomiting, 17–18
without muscle relaxants, 98–99 venous thromboembolism, 19–20
laryngoscopes Anesthesia-related mortality, 2
MacIntosh blade, 91 Anesthetic agents
Miller blade, 90 antiemetics
Storz CMAC and McGrath dexamethasone, 50
videoscopes, 91 droperidol, 50–51
laryngospasm ondansetron, 49–50
clinical presentation, 103 promethazine, 51
definition, 101 clonidine, 48
jaw thrust and CPAP with oxygen, 103 dexmedetomidine, 49
mechanism, 102–103 drug dose in children
propofol, 103–104 age, 28
risk factors, 101–106 pharmacokinetic changes, 28–30
sequelae, 106 size, 27–28
suxamethonium, 104–106 drug errors, 32
LMA and supraglottic airway devices fentanyl, 41–42
classic and classic-style LMA, 88–89 inhalational agents
removal, 89–90 isoflurane and desflurane, 41
second generation, 89 minimum alveolar concentration, 37–38
Index 523
neurotoxicity, 39–40 neonatal anesthesia

nitrous oxide, 38–39 monitoring for, 293
sevoflurane, 40–41 prevention strategies, 292
speed of induction, 37 risk factors, 291–292
IV induction agents obstructive or central apnea, 254, 337
ketamine, 36–37 postoperative, 318, 417
propofol, 33–36 propofol, 34
licensure of drugs, 31–32 Apnea Hypopnea Index (AHI), 255
local anesthetic creams, 32–33 Appendicectomy
midazolam, 48 laparoscopic, 182, 495
muscle relaxants pediatric general surgery, 323
atracurium, 46 Arndt endobronchial blocker, 400, 401
cisatracurium, 46 Arnold-Chiari malformation, 417
in neonate, 44 Arrhythmia, 390, 422
pharmacokinetic changes, 43–44 Arterial lines, 473
reversal of relaxants, 47–48 Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita
rocuronium, 46–47 (AMC), 504
suxamethonium, 45–46 Aspiration, 20
vecuronium, 46 Asthma, 485–487
remifentanil, 42–43 intubation and complication prevention, 194
Anesthetist effects, 3 management, 194
Anorexia nervosa, 274–275 monitoring, 192, 193
Anterior mediastinal mass oxygen and assess lung compliance, 193
consequences of, 448–449 respiratory disease, 242–243
induction, 450–451 bronchospasm treatment, 245–246
investigations, 449–450 intraoperative management, 244–245
Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS), 233, 234 preoperative treatment, 244
Anticholinergic agents, 355, 422 Ataxia-telangiectasia, 504
Anticonvulsants, 415 Atopy, 242
Antiemetics Atrial septal defect (ASD), 384, 517
dexamethasone, 50 Atrial surgery, 390
droperidol, 50–51 Atropine, 422, 457
ondansetron, 49–50 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
promethazine, 51 (ADHD)
tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 344 chronic disease, 272
Anti-microbial efficiency, 141–142 clonidine, 48
Antimicrobial-impregnated catheters, 466 continuing/withholding medication, 272
Anxiety, 442, 497 prevalence, 272
child’s anxiety level, 60, 61, 67, 68, 355, Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), 272–274, 517
374, 445, 501 Automated external defibrillator (AED), 157
induction AVPU scoring system, 433
of anesthesia, 55–56 Awareness, 20
consequences, 56–57
effective distraction, 61
hypnosis, 65 B
parental presence at induction, 64–65 Bacteremia, 392
pharmacological premedication, 61–64 Balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), 319
psychological preparation, 58–60 Balloon dilatation of esophagus, 461
reassurance and empathic statements, 60 Ball valve effect, 354
ANZCA Guidelines regarding sedation, 365 Barbiturates, 459
Apert syndrome, 504 Barium enema, 493–494
APGAR score, 176–177 Basic Life Support (BLS) algorithms, 157–159
APLS and “Best Guess” methods, 163 Becker’s muscular dystrophy, 263, 264
Apnea Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, 306, 505
524 Index
Behavioral management Branching enzyme deficiency, 508

anxiety at induction Breathing circuits
of anesthesia, 55–56 circle circuit, 140–141
consequences, 56–57 deadspace, 135–136
effective distraction, 61 resistance, 136
hypnosis, 65 T-piece circuit
parental presence at induction, 64–65 advantages, 138–139
pharmacological premedication, 61–64 disadvantage, 139–140
psychological preparation, 58–60 evolution, 136
reassurance and empathic statements, 60 rebreathing and fresh gas flow,
day of surgery 137–138
child-centered communication, 66 Breathing filters
child’s anxiety level, 68 anti-microbial efficiency, 141–142
child’s developmental stage, 66 filter deadspace and resistance, 141
minimal behavior management, 65, 66 Bronchial hyper-reactivity, 90, 242
preoperative, 67–68 Bronchiolitis, 249, 485
signs, 68 Broncho-alveolar lavage, 361
legal and ethical issues, 74 Bronchodilator therapy, 486, 487
practical management Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), 290
distraction strategies, 70–71 respiratory disease, 250–251
inhalational induction, 72–73 Bronchoscopy
intravenous induction, 71–72 fiberoptic bronchoscopy, 361–362
restraint and therapeutic holding, 73–74 inhaled foreign bodies, 354
steal induction, 73 removal of foreign bodies in children
techniques, 69–70 vs. adult, 355
Benzodiazepine, 459 anesthetic issues for, 356
Biphasic stridor, 359 controlled ventilation, 356, 357
Bleeding intravenous/inhalational
after tonsillectomy, 347–348 induction, 356
critical protocols, 130–132 MAD sprayer, 356
post-operative, 347 maintenance of anesthesia, 358–359
post-tonsillectomy, 186, 187 spontaneous ventilation, 356, 357
Bleomycin, 445 stridor in children, assessment of
Blocked lacrimal ducts, 423 anesthetic technique, 360–361
Blood pressure, 303 biphasic stridor, 359
Blood transfusion, 6–7, 379 causes of, 359
allowable blood loss, 128, 129 expiratory stridor, 359
critical bleeding and massive blood Hopkins rod telescope, 359
transfusion, 130–132 inspiratory stridor, 359
doses of blood products and tranexamic types of, 351
acid, 129–130 fiberoptic bronchoscope, 354
hemoglobin falls, 128 Hopkins rod telescope, 353
neonatal blood transfusion, 132–133 optical grasper, 353
Blow-by technique, 460 Storz ventilating bronchoscope,
Blunt trauma, 430 352–353
chest wall, 427 Bronchospasm, 190, 244–246
head, 415 Broselow tape, 163, 429
Body fluid composition Broviac® line, 470
blood volume at ages, 115, 116 Bruising, 476
coagulation changes, 116 Budesonide, 243, 483
hemoglobin, 115–117 Bupivacaine, 222, 223
physiologic changes, 115, 116 Buprenorphine, 209
Botulinum neurotoxin, 260 Burn encephalopathy, 438
Bradycardia, 164–165, 422 Burn injuries
Index 525
airway assessment, 439 stopping resuscitation, 166

anesthesia and pain relief for, 441 ventricular fibrillation, 155
assessment of, 438–439 Cardiac defects, 283, 285, 310, 388
fluid management in, 439–441 Cardiac disease, antibiotic prophylaxis with,
physiology of, 438 370–371
psychosocial issues, 442 Cardiac tamponade, 156, 164
type of injury, 437–438 Cardiopulmonary bypass, 451
Button batteries, ingestion of, 461 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR),
157–158
Cardiorespiratory assessment, 378
C Cardiovascular system, 287–288, 392
Cancer Caudal analgesia, 317
anterior mediastinal mass Caudal block, 320
consequences of, 448–449 Caudal epidural blockade
induction, 450–451 anatomical difficulties, 227–228
investigations, 449–450 complications and safety, 228–229
chemotherapeutic agents local anesthetic agents and doses
corticosteroids, 444 for, 228
cytarabine, 444 needles for, 228
intrathecal methotrexate, 444 technique, 226–227
mucositis, 446 Central nervous system radiotherapy, 444
stem cell transplant, 446 Central venous access devices (CVAD)
toxicity, 445 catheter tip, position of, 466–467
tumor lysis syndrome, 445–446 complications of, 472–473
incidence of, 443 CVC insertion, complications, 465–466
radiotherapy, 446–447 PICC lines, 470–472
short oncology procedures, anesthesia for types of, 470
anesthesia techniques, 447–448 ultrasound guidance, 465
patient welfare, 447 Central venous catheter (CVC) insertion
Can’t intubate, can’t oxygenate (CICO), complications, 465–466
110–112 internal jugular vein, 467–468
Capillary permeability, 438 subclavian vein catheters, 468–469
Cardiac arrest Cerebral edema, 490
advanced life support Cerebral metabolic oxygen consumption
algorithm, 160 (CMRO2), 412
anti-arrhythmic drugs, 163 Cerebral oxygen saturation (cSO2), 152
automated external defibrillators, 162 Cerebral palsy (CP), 259–260, 376, 518
non-shockable rhythms, 161 anesthesia management, 260–261
shockable rhythms, 161–162 post-operative care, 261
anaphylaxis, 169–170 Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP),
BLS algorithms, 157–159 411–413, 415–417
bradycardia, 164–165 Cervical spine, 283–285
causes of, 155 Cervical spine clearance
child choking, management, 168–169 clinical assessment, 435
children’s weight, 163 decision-making assessment tool, 435
due to fluid/blood loss, 155 immobilization technique, 435
emergency vascular access, 166–168 indications for C-spine
fluid maldistribution, 155 immobilization, 434
hypoxia, 164–165 non-accidental injuries, 434
parental presence during resuscitation, 165 SCIWONA, 436
perioperative, 156 steps for, 435
post-resuscitation care, 165 upper cervical spine, 434
pulseless ventricular tachycardia, 155 CHARGE syndrome, 505
reversible causes, 163–164 CHD, see Congenital heart disease
526 Index
Chemoprophylaxis, 276 Chronic hypoxia, 391

Chemotherapeutic agents Chronic infection, 253
corticosteroids, 444 Chronic lung disease, 250–251
cytarabine, 444 Circle circuit, 140–141
intrathecal methotrexate, 444 Cisplatin, 445
mucositis, 446 Cleft lip repair, anesthesia for, 405–408
stem cell transplant, 446 Cleft palate repair, anesthesia for, 405–406
toxicity, 445 anesthetic issues for infants, 407
tumor lysis syndrome, 445–446 maxillary nerve blocks, 407
Chemotherapy, 444 opioid analgesia, 408
Chiari malformation, 417, 418 pharyngoplasty, 408, 409
Chickenpox, 505 series of procedures, childhood and early
Child abuse, detection of, 475–477 adulthood, 408
bruising, 476 surgical repair, 406
clinical signs, 476 Clinical scenarios, selection of
risk factors for, 476 diagnostic gastroscopy, 497
Child at risk, child protection and anesthetists duchenne muscular dystrophy, 500–502
abuse, detection of, 475–477 laparoscopic appendicectomy, 495–496
bruising, 476 cricoid pressure, 496
clinical signs, 476 gentle mask ventilation, 496
risk factors for, 476 induction technique, 495
health care workers, obligations of, 477 intraoperative analgesia, 495–496
Chloral hydrate, 459 vocal cords, 495
Chordee, 320 laparotomy, 493–494
Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion (DiGeorge) epidural analgesia for postoperative
syndrome, 505 pain relief, 494
Chronic cyanosis, 390 ETT, 500
Chronic disease hemoglobin measurement, 494
ADHD, 272 perioperative fluid management, 493–494
anorexia nervosa, 274–275 rigid bronchoscopy, 498–499
autism spectrum disorder, 272–274 anesthesia technique, 498–499
cerebral palsy, 259–260 hypoxemia, causes of, 499
anesthesia management, 260–261 inhaled foreign body, 498
post-operative care, 261 Clonidine, 408
diabetes acute pain management, 209–210
minor surgery in afternoon, 271 Clubbing and peripheral edema, 392
minor surgery in morning, 270 Club foot, 376
prevalence of, 270 Cochlear implant, 336
latex allergy, 276 Codeine, 207
MPS, 267–268 Cohen® blocker, 400
muscle disease, 262 Complications, 17
categories of, 262–263 Compartment syndrome, 375
malignant hyperthermia, 265–267 Complete fracture-displacements, 373
metabolic and mitochondrial myopa- Compound muscle action potential (CMAP), 378
thies, 266 Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH), 307–309
muscle biopsy, anesthesia Congenital heart disease
for, 266–267 atrial septal defect, 384
muscular dystrophy, 263–264 classification of, 381, 382
rhabdomyolysis with Eisenmenger syndrome, 388
suxamethonium, 263 Fontan procedure
obesity, 271 management goals in anesthesia, 387
sickle cell disease, 268–269 modified Blalock-Taussig shunt, 386
anesthesia, 269 pulmonary vascular resistance, 386
screening for, 269 obstructive lesions, 388
vWD, 275–276 perioperative approach
Index 527
arrhythmias, 390 caused by, 482

cyanosis, 390–391 definition, 482
heart failure, 389 indicators used to, 483
infective endocarditis prophylaxis, signs and symptoms of, 483
391–392 stridor, 482
no residual sequelae, reparative surgery treatment for, 482, 483
with, 389 Croupy cough/inspiratory stridor, 18–19
palliative procedures, 389 Crouzon syndrome, 506
pulmonary hypertension, 390 Cuffed endotracheal tubes, 439, 481,
residual sequelae, reparative surgery 495, 500
with, 389 CVAD, see Central venous access devices
special concerns, 391 Cyanosis, 390–391, 482
surgical correction, 389 Cyanotic heart disease, 151, 383
type of disease, anesthetic implications, Cyclophosphamide, 445
388–389 Cystic fibrosis (CF)
preoperative assessment anesthesia and, 253–254
coagulation studies, 393 epithelial defect causes, 251
echocardiography, 393 lung disease. progression of, 252
exercise tolerance, 392 manifestations of, 252
incidental murmur, 393 proactive medical treatment, 252
pediatric ECG, 394 Cystic hygroma, 506
physical examination, 392 Cytarabine, 444
shunting of blood between systemic and Cytochrome P450 CYP2E1, 204
pulmonary circulations Cytochrome P450 enzymes, 221
duct-dependent heart disease, 383–384
left-to-right shunts, 381–382
right-to-left shunts, 383 D
Tetralogy of Fallot, 385–386 Dacrocystorhinostomy, 423
ventricular septal defect, 384 Dandy-Walker malformation, 506
Congenital heart disease (CHD), 516, 517 Daunorubicin, 445
Congenital lung malformations, 397, 398 Day surgery
Congenital syndromes discharge criteria, 21–22
achondroplasia, 282–283 postoperative fever, 22–23
Robin sequence, 281–282 suitability, 21
trisomy 21 unplanned overnight hospital
anesthetic implications, 283 admission, 22
cardiac defects, 285 Deadspace, 135–136
cervical spine and anesthesia, 283–285 Deeper sedation, 455
obstructive sleep disorder, 285 Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), 19–20
Conscious sedation, 365 Dental abscesses, 368, 369
Consent, 5–7 Dental extraction, 368–370
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), Dental procedures, 365
86–87 antibiotic prophylaxis with cardiac disease,
Controlled ventilation, 356, 357 370–371
Cornelia de Lange syndrome, 505–506 dental extraction, 368–370
Corticosteroids, 444 nasal endotracheal intubation, 366–368
Coxsackie virus infection, 509 restorative dental treatment, 370
CPP, see Cerebral perfusion pressure Desflurane, 41
Craniectomy, 418 Desmopressin (DDAVP), 276
Craniopharyngioma, 415 Deteriorating child, recognition of, 480–481
Craniosynostosis repair, 409 Dexamethasone, 50, 358, 370, 415, 423, 444,
Cricoid pressure, 496 446, 483, 495, 496, 499
Cri-du-chat syndrome, 506 tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 344
Critical respiratory events, 2 Dexmedetomidine, 379, 408, 459–460
Croup acute pain management, 209
528 Index
Diabetes Eczema, 242

minor surgery in afternoon, 271 Edema, 358, 369
minor surgery in morning, 270 Eisenmenger syndrome, 382, 388
prevalence of, 270 Elective right femoral osteotomy, 518
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), 490 Electrical burns or crush injuries, 439
Diagnostic gastroscopy, 497 Emergence delirium, 15
Diazepam, 260, 376, 488 Emergency vascular access, 166–168
Diclofenac, 205, 343, 345 Endobronchial blockers, 400–401
Difficult mask ventilation Endobronchial intubation, 322, 400
can’t intubate, can’t oxygenate, 110–112 Endotracheal intubation, 339–340, 429
facial syndromes, 106, 107 Endotracheal tube (ETT), 360, 366–368, 409,
fiberoptic intubation, 109–110 414, 430, 450, 481–483, 495, 496
functional causes, 106, 107 cuffed tubes
inhalational induction, 107 advantages and disadvantages, 91–92
LMA, 108 in clinical situations, 92
unexpected difficult intubation, 107–109 common design problems, 93
videolaryngoscopes, 109 internal diameter, 92
Di George syndrome, 506 Microcuff® brand, 92
Digital methods, 163 sizes, 92, 93
Disseminated intravascular coagulation oral and nasal preformed tubes, 96
(DIC), 488 suction catheters, 97
Dissociative sedation, 459 uncuffed tubes
DMD, see Duchenne muscular dystrophy depth of insertion, 95
Dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) excessive leak around, 95–96
landmark-based technique, 235–236 no leak around, 95
ultrasound-guided technique, 236 size, 94–95
Double-lumen tubes (DLT), 399 Epidural analgesia, 494, 501
Down’s syndrome, 518 Epidural clonidine, 261
Doxorubicin, 445 Epiglottitis
Droperidol, 50–51 definition, 484
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), ETT, 484
263, 264, 500–502 signs and symptoms of, 483
Duct-dependent heart disease, 383–384 Epilepsy, 488
Dysphoria, 459 Epinephrine, 359, 441, 457, 483
Dysplasia, procedures for, 375 Epstein-Barr virus infection, 507
ETT, see Endotracheal tube
Excitatory phenomena, 40
E Exomphalos, 306–307
Ear, nose and throat (ENT) surgery Expiratory stridor, 359
adenoidectomy without tonsillectomy, External-ventricular drain (EVD), 415
346–347 Extubation tonsillectomy and
anesthesia, ear surgery adenoidectomy, 342
cochlear implant, 336 Eyes under general anesthesia (EUA), 422
myringoplasty and tympanoplasty, 336
myringotomy and tubes, 335–336
bleeding after tonsillectomy, 347–348 F
lingual tonsillectomy, 347 Face masks, 82–83
neck abscesses, 348–349 Facial dysmorphic features, 5
tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 336 Facial syndromes, 106, 107
analgesia, 342–344 Facio-auriculo-vertebral sequence,
anesthesia technique, 338–342 see Goldenhar syndrome
antiemetics and dexamethasone, 344 Fascia iliaca block, 236–237
OSA, 337–338 Fatty acid oxidation disorders, see Acyl CoA
postoperative care after tonsillectomy, dehydrogenase deficiencies
344–346 Femoral arterial catheters, 469
Index 529
Femoral nerve block, 237, 376 anesthesia and analgesia techniques used
Femoral venous catheter, 469 for, 374
Fentanyl, 41–42, 413, 459, 494, 498, 499 compartment syndrome, 375
acute pain management, 206–207 general anesthesia, 374–375
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, 506 Fragile X syndrome, 507
Fiberoptic bronchoscopy, 354, 361–362 Freeman-Sheldon syndrome, 507
Fiberoptic intubation, 109–110, 268 Front of neck access (FONA), 187
Fine-bore nasogastric tube, 327
FLACC scale, 200
Fluid management G
during anesthesia Gabapentenoids, 210
glucose-containing fluids, 122–123 Gabapentin, 210
hypoglycemia, risk factors, 122, 123 Galactosemia, 507
one-way antireflux valves, 124 Gastric outlet obstruction, 324, 328, 329
three-way tap and extension, 124 Gastro-duodenoscopy, 460
volume of fluid, 123 Gastroschisis, 306–307
blood transfusion General anesthesia, 374–375, 406, 444, 450, 516
allowable blood loss, 128, 129 vs. sedation, 454–456
critical bleeding and massive blood Genetic dysmorphogenesis, 513
transfusion, 130–132 Gillick competency test, 6
doses of blood products and tranexamic Glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis), 507
acid, 129–130 Glasgow Coma Score, 433
hemoglobin falls, 128 Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 29
neonatal blood transfusion, 132–133 Glucose-containing fluids, 122–123
body fluid composition Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
blood volume at ages, 115, 116 deficiency, 507–508
coagulation changes, 116 Glycemic control, 416
hemoglobin, 115–117 Glycogen debranching enzyme deficiency, 508
physiologic changes, 115, 116 Glycogen storage diseases, 508
colloids, 133 Goldenhar syndrome, 508–509
electrolyte problems Gore-tex graft, 386
hyperkalemia, 128 Greenstick fractures, 373, 427
hypokalemia, 128 Grommet insertion, 516, 518
hyponatremia, 127 Gross Motor Function Classification System
intravenous fluid requirements (GMFCS), 259
maintenance fluids, 121
ongoing losses, 121
replacement of existing deficits, 119–120 H
in neonates, 125–126 Hand foot and mouth disease, 509
postoperative fluids, 125 Head injuries, 433
preoperative fasting Heart failure, 389
clear fluids, 117 Helium-oxygen mixture, 196
milk, 117–118 Helix Weight Estimation Tool, 163
solids, 118 Hematopoietic effects of chemotherapy, 444
unusual foods, 118–119 Hemoglobin S (HbS), 268
Fluid management in burns, 439–441 Hemophilus influenza B vaccination, 484
Fluid warmers, 147–148 Henoch Schonlein Purpura, 509
Flumazenil, 457 Herniotomy
5-fluorouracil, 445 pediatric general surgery, 315–316
Fontan procedure, 389, 391 airway management, 317
management goals in anesthesia, 387 analgesia, 317
modified Blalock-Taussig shunt, 386 children, anesthesia, 316
pulmonary vascular resistance, 386 general/regional anesthesia, 316
Forced air warmer, 145–146 postoperative apnea, 318
Forearm fractures, 517 unilateral, 233
530 Index
Hickman® line, 470 inhalational induction, 328

High-flow nasal oxygen, 196 maintenance, 328
High frequency oscillatory ventilation modified rapid sequence induction,
(HFOV), 308 327–328
High performance liquid chromatography pathophysiology, 323–325
(HPLC), 269 postoperative care, 328, 329
Homocystinuria, 509 surgery, 327
Hopkins rod telescope, 353, 359 Infective endocarditis prophylaxis, 391–392
Hp dislocation, procedures for, 375 Infusions, 212
Hurler syndrome, 267 Inguinal hernia repair, 515
Hyaline membrane disease (HMD), 250, 297 Inhalational agents
Hydrocephalus, 417 isoflurane and desflurane, 41
Chiari malformation, 418 minimum alveolar concentration, 37–38
ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt neurotoxicity, 39–40
insertion, 418 nitrous oxide, 38–39
Hydromorphone, 207, 211 sevoflurane, 40–41
Hypercarbia, 422 speed of induction, 37
Hypercyanotic spell, 385 Inhalational and intravenous anesthetics, 412
Hyperglycemia, 416 Inhalational induction, 11–12, 72–73, 107,
Hyperkalemia, 128, 164 328, 356, 374, 384
Hyperoxia, 298 Inhaled agents, 458
Hypnosis, 65 Inspiratory stridor, 359
Hypoglycemia, 122, 123, 294, 490, 503 Internal jugular vein (IJV), 467–468
Hypokalemia, 128, 490 Intracranial pressure (ICP), 411–413,
Hyponatremia, 127 415–418, 433
Hypospadias repair, 320, 516 Intranasal fentanyl, 209, 459
Hypotension, 415, 430, 431, 493 Intraocular pressure (IOP), 422, 425
Hypothermia, 14, 164, 261, 429 Intraosseous (IO) access, 166–168
Hypovolemia, 164, 431 Intrathecal methotrexate, 444
Hypoxemia, 401, 402, 499 Intravenous access
Hypoxia, 164–165, 354, 415, 422 assistance, 8, 10
equipment, 10–11
positioning of awake child, IV
I access, 8, 9
Ibuprofen, 205, 496 venipuncture, 8–9
ICP, see Intracranial pressure Intravenous induction, 12, 71–72, 356, 383
Idiopathic scoliosis, 377, 379 Intravenous/intranasal fentanyl, 459
iGel®, 89 Intubation
IJV, see Internal jugular vein vs. LMA in neonates and small infants,
Iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerve block, 97–98
233, 234 neonatal anesthesia, 301–302
Impetigo (‘School Sores’), 509 tracheo-esophageal fistula, 312
Inadvertent femoral nerve block, 233 Intussusception, 329–330
Incidental murmur, 393 Ipratropium, 486
Induction Isoflurane, 41
advantages and disadvantages, 11 IV induction agents
inhalational, 11–12 ketamine, 36–37
intravenous, 12 propofol
neonatal anesthesia, 300 after inhalational induction, 36
rapid sequence induction, 12–14 clinical use, 33–34
tracheo-esophageal fistula, 311 manual propofol infusions, 35–36
Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, 323 pharmacokinetics, 33
assessment and preparation, surgery, propofol infusions syndrome, 34–36
325–327 target controlled infusions, 35
Index 531
J jaw thrust and CPAP with oxygen, 103

Jackson-Rees modification of Ayre’s T-piece mechanism, 102–103
(Mapleson F), 515 propofol, 103–104
risk factors, 101–106
sequelae, 106
K suxamethonium, 104–106
Kawasaki disease, 509–510 Latex allergy, 276
Ketamine, 36–37, 209, 380, 413, 422, 446, L-bupivacaine, 222, 223
459, 486, 494, 499, 502 Left-to-right shunts, 381–382, 390, 391
Klippel-Feil syndrome, 510 Length-based methods, 163
Leptomeningeal angiomas, 512
Leukemia, 443, 447
L Lidocaine, 356, 376
Laminectomy, 418 Lingual tonsillectomy, 347
Landmark-based technique, 235–236 Lipidosis, 510
Laparoscopic appendicectomy, 495–496 LMA, see Laryngeal mask airway
cardiovascular collapse during, 182 Local anesthesia, 370, 376
anaphylactic cause, 184 Loose teeth, 5
breathing issues, 182 Lower extremity blocks
causes of, 183 fascia iliaca block, 236–237
cognitive aids, use of, 185 femoral nerve block, 237
communication and ability to saphenous block, 237
communicate, 185 sciatic nerve block, 237–238
hemorrhage, management of, 186 Lumbar epidural blockade, 229–230
leadership and follower-ship, 185 Lumbar puncture, 488
people and roles, 186 Lymphomas, 447, 448
role allocation, 185–186
undiagnosed cardiac defects, 183
clinical scenarios, selection of, 495–496 M
cricoid pressure, 496 MacIntosh blade, 91
gentle mask ventilation, 496 Magnesium, 486
induction technique, 495 Magnesium sulfate, 486
intraoperative analgesia, 495–496 Malignant hyperthermia (MH), 262, 265–267
vocal cords, 495 diagnosis, 265
Laparoscopic surgery, 321 management of, 265, 266
anesthesia management, 322–323 testing, children, 265
physiological effects, 321–322 Manual in line stabilization (MILS), 435
Laparotomy, 493–494 Mask airway and ventilation
epidural analgesia for postoperative pain airway maneuvers, 83
relief, 494 continuous positive airway pressure, 86–87
ETT, 500 difficult facemask ventilation, 87–88
hemoglobin measurement, 494 face masks, 82–83
perioperative fluid management, 493–494 hand position, 84–85
Laryngeal mask airway (LMA), 340, 369, 370, head position, 83–84
374, 421, 423, 460 oral and nasal airways, 85–86
Laryngomalacia, 359, 360 Massive transfusion in children, 432
Laryngoscopes Measles, 510
MacIntosh blade, 91 Mechanical prophylaxis, 19
Miller blade, 90 Meconium-stained liquor, 176
Storz CMAC and McGrath videoscopes, Melatonin, 210
91 Meningococcal sepsis, 487–488
Laryngospasm, 20–21, 355, 356, 360, 460 Meningococcal septicaemia, 517, 518
clinical presentation, 103 MEP, see Motor evoked potentials
definition, 101 Metabolic myopathies, 266
532 Index
Metered dose inhalers (MDI), 243 butyrylcholinesterase (plasma

Methotrexate, 445 cholinesterase) deficiency, 45
Methoxyflurane, 458 dosage and administration, 45
Methylmalonic acidemia (MMA), 510 masseter spasm, 46
Midazolam, 459, 501 side effects, 45
Miller blade, 90 vecuronium, 46
Minimal and moderate sedation, 455 Muscle spasms, 261
Minimum alveolar concentration (MAC), 37–38 Muscular dystrophy, 379
Mitochondrial myopathies, 266 Myelotoxicity, 445
Mitomycin, 445 Myocardial hypertrophy, 388
Modified Aldrete/Steward scores, 17 Myringoplasty, 336
Modified Blalock-Taussig shunt, 384, 386 Myringotomy, 516, 518
Modified Parkland Formula, 440 Myringotomy and tubes (M&T), 335–336
Modified rapid sequence induction, 327–328
Molluscum contagiosum, 510
Monitoring N
capnography N-acetylcysteine (NAC), 204
cyanotic heart disease, 151 NAI, see Non-accidental injury
fresh gas entrainment, 151 Naloxone, 457
leak around, 149–150 NAPQI, 204
small, rapid tidal volumes, 149, 150 Nasal endotracheal intubation, 366–368
T-piece, 151 Nasogastric tube, 440
depth of anesthesia monitors, 152 Nasopharyngeal airway, 407
near infrared spectroscopy, 152–153 National X-ray Utilization Study
pulse oximeter, 148–149 (NEXUS), 435
temperature, 152 Nausea and vomiting (PONV), 423, 424
transcutaneous CO2 monitoring, 151–152 Near infrared spectroscopy
Morphine, 205–206, 346, 495, 501 (NIRS), 152–153
Motor block, 231 Nebulized adrenaline, 196
Motor evoked potentials (MEP), 378, 379 Neck abscesses, 348–349
Mucoperiosteal flaps, 406 Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), 305–306
Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), 267–268 Neisseria meningitidis, 487
Mucosal atomizer device (MAD) sprayer, 356 Neonatal airway, 289
Mucositis, 446 Neonatal anesthesia, 3, 287
Mumps, 510–511 assessment, 299–300
Muscle biopsy, 266–267 blood pressure, 303
Muscle disease, 262 cardiovascular system, 287–288
categories of, 262–263 CDH, 307–309
malignant hyperthermia, 265–267 fluid and glucose requirements, 293–294
metabolic and mitochondrial glucose requirements, 294
myopathies, 266 neonatal blood, 294–295
muscle biopsy, anesthesia for, 266–267 fluid management, 303–304
muscular dystrophy, 263–264 gastroschisis and exomphalos, 306–307
rhabdomyolysis with suxamethonium, 263 induction, 300
Muscle relaxants intubation, 301–302
atracurium, 46 malrotation and subsequent volvulus,
cisatracurium, 46 304–305
in neonate, 44 NEC, 305–306
pharmacokinetic changes, 43–44 neonatal airway, 289
reversal of relaxants pharmacology, 295–296
neostigmine, 47 postoperative care, 304
sugammadex, 48 prematurity
rocuronium, 46–47 RDS, 297–298
suxamethonium ROP, 298
Index 533
respiratory system Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

airway and respiratory mechanics, 290 (NSAIDs), 380
apnea and, 291–293 Acute pain management, 204–205
lung development, 289–290 tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 343
respiration control, 290–291 Noonan syndrome, 511
temperature, 295, 300 Normocapnea, 487
tracheo-esophageal fistula Nortriptyline, 210
anesthetic management, 311 Nuclear medicine scans, 462
H-type variant, 310
induction, 311
intubation, 312 O
maintenance, 312–313 Obesity
Repogle tube, 310 definition, 271
variants of, 309 OSA, 254
ventilation, 302–303 Obstructive lesions, 388
Neonatal blood transfusion, 132–133 Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), 81, 516
Neonatal pain pathways, 216–217 respiratory disease, 254
Neonatal resuscitation at birth anesthetic implications, 255–256
airway, 173 diagnosis, 254–255
APGAR score, 176–177 tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, 337–338
breathing, 173–174 trisomy 21, 285
causes of death, 170 OCR, see Oculocardiac reflex
circulation, 175 Oculocardiac reflex (OCR), 421–423
drugs, 175 Office-based sedation, 365
equipment, 172 OLV, see One-lung ventilation
ETT sizes, 172 Ondansetron, 49–50, 423, 496, 501
fetal circulation with PDA and foramen One-hand technique, 158–159
ovale, 170, 171 One-lung ventilation (OLV), 397, 398
flow diagram, 173, 174 contraindications for, 398, 399
initial assessment, 173 double-lumen tubes, 399
meconium-stained liquor, 176 endobronchial blockers, 400–401
oxygen during resuscitation, 174–175 endobronchial intubation, 400
oxygen saturation, 171–172 hypoxemia, causes and management of, 402
pneumothorax, 176 indications for, 398, 399
risk factors, 172 Ophthalmic surgery
Nephroblastoma, 330 airway management, 421
Nerve fibers, 222 eyes under general anesthesia, examination
Neural tube defects, 417 of, 422
Neuraxial blocks, 225–226 oculocardiac reflex, 421–422
caudal epidural blockade, 226–229 penetrating eye injury, 424–425
lumbar epidural blockade, 229–230 strabismus surgery, 423–424
postoperative epidural infusions, 230 tear duct surgery, 423
sacral epidural blockade, 229 Opioid analgesia, 374, 408
spinal anesthesia, 230–232 Opioids, 379, 380, 423, 424, 501
thoracic epidural blockade, 230 buprenorphine, 209
Neuroblastoma, 331 codeine, 207
Neurocutaneous angiomas, 512 fentanyl, 206–207
Neurological injury, 225 hydromorphone, 207
Neuromuscular disease, 377, 379 ketamine, 209
Neurotoxicity, 39–40 morphine, 205–206
Nitrous oxide, 38–39, 322, 458, 501 oxycodone, 207–208
Non-accidental injury (NAI), 434 tramadol, 208–209
burn injury pattern in, 438 withdrawal, 215–216
indicators of, 437 Optical grasper, 353, 360
534 Index
Oral and nasal airways, 85–86 Patient, surgical and anesthetist factors, 2
Oral sedation, 447 Pediatric brain tumors
Oral steroids, 243 assessment, 413–414
Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate (OTFC), 209 induction, 414
Organization of services, 3–4 maintenance, 414–415
Orthodontic plates, 406 types of, 413
Orthopedic surgery in children Pediatric general surgery
cerebral palsy, 376 abdominal tumors, 330
dysplasia, procedures for, 375 neuroblastoma, 331
forearm fractures, emergency anesthesia for Wilms tumor, 330
anesthesia and analgesia techniques appendicectomy, 323
used for, 374 circumcision, 319–320
compartment syndrome, 375 herniotomy, 315–316
general anesthesia, 374–375 airway management, 317
hip dislocation, procedures for, 375 analgesia, 317
scoliosis children, anesthesia, 316
anesthesia techniques, 379 general/regional anesthesia, 316
anesthetic considerations for, 377 postoperative apnea, 318
blood loss, 379 hypospadias repair, 320
idiopathic, 377 infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, 323
lung changes, 377 assessment and preparation, surgery,
postoperative management, 380 325–327
preoperative assessment for surgery, inhalational induction, 328
378–379 maintenance, 328
spinal cord monitoring, 378 modified rapid sequence induction,
surgical approach, 377–378 327–328
slipped upper femoral epiphysis pathophysiology, 323–325
(SUFE), 376 postoperative care, 328, 329
talipes equino varus, procedures for, 376 surgery, 327
Osteogenesis imperfecta, 511 intussusception, 329–330
Overhead radiant heaters, 145–146 laparoscopic surgery, 321
Oxycodone, 346, 496 anesthesia management, 322–323
acute pain management, 207–208 physiological effects, 321–322
pyeloplasty, 331–332
surgery, 319
P testis, torsion of, 319
PACU with stridor tongue tie, division of, 320–321
causes, 195 umbilical hernia repair, 321
high-flow nasal oxygen, 196 undescended testis and orchidopexy, 319
management, 195 ureteric reimplantation, 331
monitor, 194, 195 Pediatric intensive care
prevention, strategies, 196 deteriorating child, recognition of,
Pain assessment tools (PAT), 199, 200 480–481
Paracetamol, 495, 496, 501 intervention and stabilization before
intravenous administration, 203 transfer, 481–482
metabolism, 202 seriously ill child, recognition of, 479–480
oral administration, 203 specific conditions
rectal administration, 203 acute severe asthma, 485–487
toxicity of, 204 bronchiolitis, 485
Paradoxical air embolism, 384 croup, 482–484
Parecoxib, 495 diabetic ketoacidosis, 490
Passive smoking, 249 epiglottitis, 484
Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), 288, 393 meningococcal sepsis, 487–488
Patient controlled analgesia (PCA), 213 status epilepticus, 488–489
Index 535
Pediatric maintenance, 14 Pneumothorax, 176, 468

Pediatric neuroanesthesia Polycythemia, 337, 391
anatomy, 411 Polysomnography, 255
hydrocephalus, 417 Pompe’s disease, 508
Chiari malformation, 418 Posterior fossa surgery, 415
ventriculoperitoneal shunt Posterior fossa tumors, 414
insertion, 418 Post extubation stridor, 18–19, 101
neural tube defects, 417 Postoperative epidural infusions, 230
pediatric brain tumors Postoperative nausea and vomiting
assessment, 413–414 (PONV), 17–18
induction, 414 Prader-Willi syndrome, 511
maintenance, 414–415 Prednisolone, 483
types of, 413 Pregabalin, 210
pharmacology, 412–413 Prematurity effects
physiology, 412 RDS, 297–298
traumatic brain injury ROP, 298
intracranial pressure, Preoperative assessment, 4–5
control of, 416–417 Pressure-controlled ventilation, 142–144
phases, 415 Pressure support ventilation, 145–146
Pediatric Proseal LMA® (PLMA), 89 Primary tonsillar hemorrhage, 186–187
Pediatric recovery induction, 188–189
cause of agitation, 15 large post-tonsillectomy bleed,
discharge from recovery, 17 management of, 189
emergence delirium, 15, 16 preparation, 187–188
oxygen dependence, 17 Promethazine, 51
Pediatric trauma, 429 Propofol, 271, 296, 356, 358, 413, 422, 423,
Penetrating eye injury, 424–425 425, 448, 460, 461, 495, 497–499,
Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters 501, 508
(PICC lines), 470–471 after inhalational induction, 36
Peripheral nerve regional anesthesia, 238 clinical use, 33–34
Peripheral vasoconstriction, 431 manual propofol infusions, 35–36
Pertussis, 513–514 pharmacokinetics, 33
Pharmacological premedication propofol infusions, 34–35
advantages and disadvantages, 61, 62 propofol infusion syndrome, 36
clonidine, 63 target controlled infusions, 35
dexmedetomidine, 63 Propofol infusion syndrome, 36, 415
ketamine, 63–64 Pulmonary disease, 253
midazolam, 61–63 Pulmonary function, 253
Pharyngeal flap, 408 Pulmonary hypertension, 377, 384, 388, 390
Pharyngoplasty, 408, 409 Pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT), 155
Phenylketonuria, 511 Pyeloplasty, 331–332
PICC lines, see Peripherally inserted central Pyloric stenosis, 516
catheters lines Pyloromyotomy, 516
Plastic surgery, 417
cleft lip repair, anesthesia for, 405–408
cleft palate repair, anesthesia for, 405–406 R
anesthetic issues for infants, 407 Radiotherapy, 446–447
maxillary nerve blocks, 407 Ramstedt pyloromyotomy, 327
opioid analgesia, 408 Rapid sequence induction (RSI), 12–14, 496
pharyngoplasty, 408, 409 Rasburicase, 446
series of procedures, childhood and Rectus sheath block
early adulthood, 408 regional anesthesia, 234–235
surgical repair, 406 Refeeding syndrome, 275
craniosynostosis repair, 409 Regional analgesia, 375
536 Index
Regional anesthesia, 221 anesthetic implications, 255–256

additives to, 223 diagnosis, 254–255
anterior abdominal wall, blocks of passive and active smoking, 249
iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerve URTI, 246
block, 233, 234 anesthesia management, 248–249
rectus sheath block, 234–235 anesthesia risks, 247
TAP block, 235 reasons to proceed, 248
complications, 224 whether decision, 248
minor complications, 225 Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS),
neurological injury, 225 297–298
overdose and systemic toxicity, 224 Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 246
visceral structures, injury to, 225 Respiratory system
DPNB airway and respiratory mechanics, 290
landmark-based technique, 235–236 apnea and, 291–293
ultrasound-guided technique, 236 lung development, 289–290
local anesthetic agents, pharmacology of, respiration control, 290–291
221–223 Restorative dental treatment, 370
lower extremity blocks Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), 298
fascia iliaca block, 236–237 Rett syndrome, 511
femoral nerve block, 237 Return of spontaneous circulation
saphenous block, 237 (ROSC), 165
sciatic nerve block, 237–238 Reye’s syndrome, 512
neuraxial blocks, 225–226 Rhabdomyolysis, 263
caudal epidural blockade, 226–229 Right-to-left shunts, 383
lumbar epidural blockade, 229–230 Rigid bronchoscopy, 352, 498–499
postoperative epidural infusions, 230 anesthesia technique, 498–499
sacral epidural blockade, 229 anesthetic technique for, 355, 358
spinal anesthesia, 230–232 hypoxemia, causes of, 499
thoracic epidural blockade, 230 inhaled foreign body, 498
peripheral nerve and wound catheters, 238 Robin sequence, 281–282
ultrasound guidance, 224 Ropivacaine, 222, 223, 376, 495
upper extremity blocks, 232 Roseola, 512
Remifentanil, 42–43, 358, 379, 413, 499 ROTEM, 432
Renal dysfunction, 205 Routine tonsillectomy, airway loss during
Repogle tube, 310 hypoxia and absent ETCO2 waveform,
Respiration, 290–291 190, 191
Respiratory care, 261 laryngospasm, 190
Respiratory depression, 206 lost ventilation, management of, 192
Respiratory disease, 241 mechanical problem, 190
asthma, 242–243 suxamethonium, 191, 192
bronchospasm treatment, 245–246 Rubella (German measles), 512
intraoperative management, 244–245 Russell-Silver syndrome, 512
preoperative treatment, 244
bronchial hyper-reactivity, 242
bronchiolitis, 249 S
chronic lung disease and bronchopulmo- Sacral epidural blockade, 229
nary dysplasia, 250–251 Safety, 1–3
cystic fibrosis Salbutamol, 486, 487
anesthesia and, 253–254 inhalation, 481
epithelial defect causes, 251 nebulizations, 486
lung disease. progression of, 252 Saphenous (adductor canal) block, 237
manifestations of, 252 Scald injuries, 437
proactive medical treatment, 252 Sciatic nerve block, 237–238
OSA, 254 Scoliosis
Index 537
anesthesia techniques, 379 Spina bifida, see Neural tube defects

anesthetic considerations for, 377 Spinal anesthesia, 230–232
blood loss, 379 Spinal cord injury without radiographic
idiopathic, 377 abnormality (SCIWONA), 436
lung changes, 377 Spinal ischemia, 378, 379
postoperative management, 380 Spirometry, 379
preoperative assessment for surgery, Spontaneous ventilation, 360, 398, 450
378–379 advantages, 356, 357
spinal cord monitoring, 378 disadvantages, 356, 357
surgical approach, 377–378 stridor, assessment of, 360, 361
Scoring systems, 17 tracheo-esophageal fistula, 313
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network Squint surgery, see Strabismus surgery
(SIGN), 456 SSEP, see Somatosensory evoked potentials
Scrotal infiltration, 233 Status epilepticus, 488–489
Sedation Steal induction, 73
agents for Stem cell transplant, 446
dexmedetomidine, 459–460 Steroids, 446, 481, 482, 485, 486, 501
inhaled agents, 458 Storz CMAC and McGrath videoscopes, 91
intravenous or intranasal fentanyl, 459 Storz ventilating bronchoscope,
ketamine, 459 352–353, 355, 360
oral agents, 459 Strabismus surgery, 423–424
contraindications to, 456 Stridor, 482
vs. general anesthesia, 454–456 in children, 358
good sedation practice, principles of anesthetic technique, 360–361
assessment, 456 biphasic stridor, 359
competent personnel, 457–458 causes of, 359
documentation, 458 expiratory stridor, 359
fasting, 457 Hopkins rod telescope, 359
minimizing the amount, 457 inspiratory stridor, 359
monitoring, equipment and PACU with
personnel, 457 causes, 195
recovery, 458 high-flow nasal oxygen, 196
for MRI, 461–462 management, 195
nuclear medicine scans, 462 monitor, 194, 195
remote location, 453 prevention, strategies, 196
safe sedation, 454 Sturge-Weber Syndrome, 512–513
for upper endoscopy Subclavian vein catheters, 468–469
balloon dilatation of esophagus, 461 Subluxation, 285
button batteries, ingestion of, 461 Subsequent volvulus, 304–305
gastro-duodenoscopy, 460 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 156
LMA, 460 Supratentorial tumors, 413, 414
Seizures, 488–489 Suxamethonium, 191, 192, 263, 379, 425, 430,
Seriously ill child, recognition of, 479–480 438, 441, 457, 496
Sevoflurane, 40–41, 495, 496, 499 butyrylcholinesterase (plasma cholinesterase)
Sickle cell disease, 268–269 deficiency, 45
anesthesia, 269 dosage and administration, 45
screening for, 269 masseter spasm, 46
Sickledex test, 269 side effects, 45
Silver-Russell Dwarfism, 512
Slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE), 376
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP), T
378, 379 Tachycardia, 431
Speed of induction, 37 Talipes equino varus, procedures for, 376
SPICA cast, 375 Target controlled infusions (TCI), 35
538 Index
TBI, see Traumatic brain injury Tranexamic acid (TXA), 407, 432
T cell (Hodgkin’s) lymphomas, 448 Transcatheter technique, 391
Tear duct surgery, 423 Transcutaneous CO2 monitoring (TcCO2),
Tension pneumothorax, 164 151–152
Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), 383, 385–386, 391 Transdermal fentanyl, 209
‘Tet spell,’ 385, 386 Transversus abdominus plane (TAP) block, 235
Thiopentone, 488 Trauma
Throat pack, 368 causes of, 429
Thoracic epidural blockade, 230 cervical spine clearance
Thoracic surgery clinical assessment, 435
anesthesia maintenance, 401–402 decision-making assessment tool, 435
congenital lung malformations, 397, 398 immobilization technique, 435
indications for, 397, 398 indications for C-spine
one-lung ventilation, 397, 398 immobilization, 434
contraindications for, 398, 399 non-accidental injuries, 434
double-lumen tubes (DLT), 399 SCIWONA, 436
endobronchial blockers, 400–401 steps for, 435
endobronchial intubation, 400 upper cervical spine, 434
indications for, 398, 399 head injuries, 433
postoperative management, 402 initial management
thoracotomy/thoracoscopy, 397 airway, 430
two-lung ventilation, 397 breathing, 430
Thoracoscopy, 397 circulation, 430–432
Thrombocytopenia, 445 intubation and ventilation, indications
Thromboembolic phenomena, 164 for, 430
TOF, see Tetralogy of Fallot non-accidental injury, 437
Tongue tie division, 320–321 normal values for physiological variables,
Tonsillectomy 427, 428
adenoidectomy without ENT surgery, types of injury, 428–429
346–347 Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
ENT surgery, 336 intracranial pressure, control of, 416–417
analgesia, 342–344 phases, 415
anesthesia technique, 338–342 Treacher Collins syndrome, 513
antiemetics and dexamethasone, 344 Tricyclic antidepressants, 210
OSA, 337–338 Trisomy 21
postoperative care after tonsillectomy, anesthetic implications, 283
344–346 cardiac defects, 285
Tourette syndrome, 513 cervical spine and anesthesia, 283–285
T-piece circuit obstructive sleep disorder, 285
advantages, 138–139 See also Down’s syndrome
disadvantage, 139–140 Tumor lysis syndrome, 445–446
evolution, 136 Turner syndrome, 513
rebreathing and fresh gas flow, 137–138 Two-finger technique, 158
Tracheo-bronchomalacia, 449 Two-handed technique, 158
Tracheo-esophageal fistula Two-lung ventilation, 397
anesthetic management, 311 Two-thumb (hand-encircling) technique, 158
H-type variant, 310 Tympanoplasty, 336
induction, 311
intubation, 312
maintenance, 312–313 U
Repogle tube, 310 Ultrasound, 224, 236
variants of, 309 Umbilical catheters, 469–470
Tracheolaryngobronchitis, see Croup Umbilical hernia repair, 321
Tramadol, 208–209 Uncuffed ETT, 484, 495, 500
Index 539
Undescended testis and orchidopexy, 319 Ventricular septal defect (VSD), 381, 382,
Unexpected difficult intubation, 107–109 384, 386
Unilateral inguinal hernia repair, 518 Ventriculoperitoneal (VP)
Univent® tube (Fuji), 400 shunt insertion, 417, 418
Upper airway obstruction, 195, 483 Vertebral anomalies, Anal atresia, Cardiac
Upper endoscopy defects, Tracheo-Esophageal fistula,
balloon dilatation of esophagus, 461 Renal and Limb anomalies
button batteries, ingestion of, 461 (VACTER(L)) Association, 513
gastro-duodenoscopy, 460 Vesicoureteric reflux, 331
LMA, 460 Vibratory (Still’s) murmur, 393
Upper extremity blocks, 232 Video Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery
Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), 246 (VATS), 397
anesthesia management, 248–249 Videolaryngoscopes, 109
anesthesia risks, 247 Videolaryngoscopy, 285
reasons to proceed, 248 Vitamin K, 295
whether decision, 248 Volume-controlled ventilation, 144–145
Ureteric reflux, 331 Von Willebrand disease (vWD), 275–276
Ureteric reimplantation, 331 VSD, see Ventricular septal defect
V W
Vaccinations, 23 Warming devices
Varus de-rotational osteotomy (VDRO), 375 airway heating and humidification, 147
Velocardiofacial syndromes, 505, 513 fluid warmers, 147–148
Venous air embolism, 378, 415 forced air warmer, 145–146
Venous/arterial cutdowns, 473 overhead radiant heaters, 145–146
Venous thromboembolism (VTE), 19–20 warming mattress, 147
Venous thrombosis, 469 Warming mattress, 147
Ventilation-perfusion mismatch, 356, 377, 398 Weight-based clearance, 30
Ventilators Wheezing, 242
features, 142 Whistling face syndrome, 507
neonatal anesthesia, 302–303 Whooping cough (Pertussis), 513–514
pressure-controlled ventilation, 142–144 Williams syndrome, 514
pressure support ventilation, 145–146 Wilms tumor, 330
volume-controlled ventilation, 144–145 Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, 514
Ventilator tubing, 414 Wound catheters, 238
Ventricular fibrillation (VF), 155

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What are some of the current issues discussed in pediatric anesthesia?

What are some of the current issues discussed in pediatric anesthesia?

What are some techniques discussed to reduce perioperative respiratory complications in children?

What are some techniques discussed to reduce perioperative respiratory complications in children?

A Guide to Pediatric

ISBN 978-3-030-19245-7 ISBN 978-3-030-19246-4 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

9. Reducing Pain and Distress During Procedures

Body weight for infants = (age in months/2) + 4 kg (APLS)

Maintenance fluid rate in mL/h: (4:2:1 rule)

Suction Catheter for ETT

Urinary catheter size (FG) = 2 × size of ETT (ID)

1 An Overview of Pediatric Anesthesia ������������������������������������������������������ 1

13 Congenital Syndromes and Conditions���������������������������������������������������� 281

30 Pediatric Intensive Care���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 479

1.1 Safety of Pediatric Anesthesia

C. Sims (*) ∙ T. Farrell

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Fig. 1.1 The incidence of

intervention and that led

1.2 Organization of Services

If you are anesthetizing a child in a non-pediatric hospital it is important to make

Table 1.3 Patient factors to consider in Patient factor

1.3 Preoperative Assessment

As in adults, assessment of children before anesthesia includes a history and exami-

Table 1.5 Facial dysmorphic features that Dysmorphic feature

1.3.1 Loose Teeth

In certain life-threatening circumstances, society allows the wishes of a child or

1.4.1 Blood Transfusion in a Jehovah’s Witness Child

A blood transfusion critical to survival of the child (usually as determined by more

1.5 Intravenous Access

1.5.1 Positioning of the Awake Child for IV Access

A good assistant is vital to maximize the chances of successful venipuncture. Just

1.5.3 Tips for Venipuncture

Seated parent, back to

1.5.4 Equipment to Find Veins

1.6.1 Inhalational Induction

Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of IV and inhalational induction

Some airway obstruction is common after consciousness is lost due partly to

1.6.2 Intravenous Induction

IV access is obtained and anesthesia is induced with propofol. Co-induction tech-

1.6.3 Rapid Sequence Induction

ventilation cannot be achieved during cricoid pressure, the pressure is reduced or it

The technique of RSI is now questioned as it prioritizes aspiration over everything

Classic rapid sequence induction includes intubation within 1 min of induction.

Hypothermia during anesthesia is common in both children and adults. Children,

pediatric recovery need to be higher as even an awake child needs to be watched

1.8.1 Common Recovery Problems

1.8.1.1 Emergence Delirium and Agitation

Table 1.7 Causes of a child Cause of agitation at awakening

Fig. 1.4 The effect of Sevoflurane Effect on

Propofol bolus during Not effective

Propofol 1 mg/kg at end Sometimes effective

Propofol 3 mg/kg transition late Effective

1.8.1.2 Oxygen Dependence

1.8.2 Discharge from Recovery

1.9.1 Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting (PONV)

PONV is a common problem in children, as it is in adults. Several factors indicate

Fig. 1.5 PONV rates in 32%

Suction Catheter for ETT

1 An Overview of Pediatric Anesthesia �� 1

13 Congenital Syndromes and Conditions�� 281

30 Pediatric Intensive Care�� 479

1.1 Safety of Pediatric Anesthesia

1.2 Organization of Services

1.3 Preoperative Assessment

1.3.1 Loose Teeth

1.4.1 Blood Transfusion in a Jehovah’s Witness Child

1.5 Intravenous Access

1.5.1 Positioning of the Awake Child for IV Access

1.5.3 Tips for Venipuncture

1.5.4 Equipment to Find Veins

1.6.1 Inhalational Induction

1.6.2 Intravenous Induction

1.6.3 Rapid Sequence Induction

1.8.1 Common Recovery Problems

1.8.1.1 Emergence Delirium and Agitation

1.8.1.2 Oxygen Dependence

1.8.2 Discharge from Recovery

1.9.1 Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting (PONV)

1.9.2 Post Extubation Stridor

1.9.3 enous Thromboembolism (VTE) and Deep Vein

1.10 Day Surgery

1.10.1 Suitability for Day Surgery

1.10.2 Discharge Criteria

1.10.3 Problems After Day Surgery

1.10.3.1 Postoperative Fever

1.11 Vaccinations Before and During Anesthesia

2.1 Factors Affecting Dosage in Children

2.1.3 Pharmacokinetic Changes

2.1.4 Pharmacodynamic Changes

2.2 Licensure of Drugs in Children

2.3 Drug Errors

2.4 Local Anesthetic Creams

2.5 IV Induction Agents

2.5.1.2 Clinical Use

2.5.1.3 Propofol Infusions in Children

2.5.1.4 Target Controlled Infusions (TCI)

2.5.1.5 Manual Propofol Infusions

2.5.1.6 Propofol Infusion After Inhalational Induction

2.5.1.7 Propofol Infusion Syndrome

2.6 Inhalational Agents

2.6.1 Speed of Induction

2.6.3 Nitrous Oxide

2.6.4 Neurotoxicity of Anesthetic Agents

2.6.5.1 Excitatory Phenomena with Sevoflurane

2.6.6 Isoflurane and Desflurane

2.9 Muscle Relaxants