ISSUE BRIEF

An Unlevel Playing Field

America’s Gender-Based Wage Gap, Binds of Discrimination, And
A Path Forward
APRIL 2015

Promoting fair pay and eliminating the gap between the wages of women and men in the
United States is more important than ever. Women make up nearly half of the workforce1
and are breadwinners in nearly two-thirds of families with children.2 More than 15.2
million households are headed by women,3 and more than half of those women are single
parents.4 Put simply: Women’s wages are essential to families and the economy. Yet
women, especially women of color and mothers, continue to lose precious income to a
pervasive, gender-based wage gap.

This issue brief takes an in-depth look at the country’s gender-based wage gap for full-time,
year-round workers. It examines what the gender-based wage gap costs women and
families, its demographic and geographic prevalence, and – in a new contribution to the
literature on the impact of the wage gap – the pronounced disparities suffered by mothers
overall, single mothers and mothers of color. It then outlines several changes that
lawmakers, employers and individuals should make to help level the playing field and pave
the way toward the fair and family friendly workplaces the country urgently needs.

Defining the Gap

Nationally, median pay for a woman working full time, year round is $39,157 while median
yearly pay for a man working full time, year round is $50,033.5 This means that, overall,
women in the United States who work full time, year round6 are paid $10,876 less annually
than men who work full time, year round – or just 78 cents for every dollar.7

Overall, the wage gap for women in the United States is pervasive, and its causes are
multifaceted. The gap persists across industries,8 occupations9 and education levels10 and,
when researchers have controlled for these and other factors, they have found an
unexplained portion partially attributable to bias or discrimination.11 These data suggest a
widespread, deep-rooted problem, with significant costs for America’s women, families,
businesses and economy.

Importantly, the data discussed in this brief focus on only a subset of working women and
men: those who work full time and year round. This allows any differential in wages due to
hours worked to be held relatively constant. However, in reality, women are significantly
more likely than men to work part time, or less than 35 hours per week.12 What the wage

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gap means for families when women work less than full time is worthy of further study and
will be the subject of future analysis.

THE WAGE GAP HAS TANGIBLE CONSEQUENCES

As a group, women who are employed full time in the United States lose more than $490
billion to the wage gap every year.13 A loss of that magnitude harms the economy and has
real financial consequences for women and their families. It can affect families’ ability to
afford basic necessities like food, housing, utilities and gasoline, and it means less money to
spend on goods and services that drive economic growth.

For example, if the wage gap were eliminated, on average, a woman working full time, year
round would have enough money for approximately:
 86 more weeks of food for her family (1.6 years’ worth);14
 7.6 more months of mortgage and utilities payments;15
 12 more months of rent;16 or
 4,534 additional gallons of gas.17

THE WAGE GAP EXISTS ACROSS RACE AND ETHNICITY

The country’s gender-based wage gap persists for white women and across communities of
color. For African American women and Latinas, the annual losses are staggering. African
American women who work full time, year round are paid only 64 cents for every dollar
paid to white, non-Hispanic men.18 And Latinas who work full time, year round are paid
just 56 cents for every dollar paid to white, non-Hispanic men.19 For Asian American women
who work full time, year round, the wage gap is smaller but still punishing. On average,
Asian American women are paid just 79 cents for every dollar paid to white, non-Hispanic
men.20 Table 1 shows a breakdown of the wage gap for women by race.

Table 1. The Wage Gap for Women Working Full Time,

Year Round by Race/Ethnicity (2014)

Annual Median Difference Compared to Ratio (Cents

Wages White, Non-Hispanic On the
Men ($53,488) Dollar)

Asian American Women $42,335 $11,153 0.79

White Women $41,398 $12,090 0.77

African American Women $34,089 $19,399 0.64

Latinas $30,209 $23,279 0.56

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THE WAGE GAP SPANS ALL 50 STATES

The wage gap also varies by state. In Louisiana, the state with the largest gap, full-time
working women are paid, on average, 66 cents for every dollar paid to men. The District of
Columbia’s gap is the smallest, with women who work full time, year round paid 91 cents for
every dollar paid to men.21 Still, women in the District lose $5,850 each year that could go
toward basic necessities. For more information on the wage gap in each state and the District
of Columbia, see Appendix B.

Some of these differences can be attributed to the industries that are dominant in the states.
Even though the wage gap exists regardless of industry, women in some industries do better
or worse than others. In the manufacturing industry, for example, women are paid just 73
cents for every dollar paid to men,22 so a state with more manufacturing jobs may have a
larger wage gap. In places like the District of Columbia, where government jobs make up
25 percent of employment,23 the gap is narrower – in part, because the wage gap among
federal employees is narrower.24

The wage gap also varies for women of color by state.25 Appendices C, D and E break down
the wage gap for African American women, Asian American women and Latinas,
respectively, in the 20 states with the largest populations of each group that work full time,
year round. Across these states and groups, the finding is the same: a punishing gap that
threatens the economic security of women and families, and states’ economies overall.

The Double and Triple Binds of Discrimination

As noted, the pervasive wage gap is the result of several influences, but a portion of it
cannot be explained away by industry, occupation, education level or other factors. Analysts
often attribute the unexplained portion to discrimination rooted in deep biases and
longstanding stereotypes about women in the workplace.26 In particular, “sex-plus”
discrimination is a form of bias that exists when a person is subjected to disparate
treatment based on sex in conjunction with one other characteristic, such as pregnancy,
marital status, race/ethnicity or caregiving responsibilities.27 And it can have a serious
impact on women’s wages.

Sex stereotypes related to motherhood and caregiving can affect women regardless of their
current maternal status. Studies have shown that stereotypes about women as mothers or
caregivers can mean they are less likely to be hired, perceived as competent, or paid as
much as male colleagues with the same qualifications.28 And even though Title VII of the
1964 Civil Rights Act, as amended, and guidance29 from the U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission protect against this kind of discrimination, it remains a
significant problem.30

The situation can put women in a double and even triple bind of discrimination that can
affect women’s compensation. Mothers can suffer from discrimination based on sex plus
caregiving responsibilities.31 Women of color suffer from discrimination based on sex plus
race.32 And larger disparities for single mothers and mothers of color may be explained, in
part, by discrimination based on sex plus caregiving plus marital status or race,

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respectively. These are important considerations
when defining and addressing the wage gap.
Spotlight on Child Care
THE DOUBLE BIND FOR MOTHERS – THE Eleven million children under the
“MOTHERHOOD PENALTY” age of five are in some form of
child care in the United States,
Many researchers now believe that motherhood and a year of child care costs, on
is a critical factor in the gender-based wage average, more than a year of in-
gap.33 Nearly 85 percent of women will become state tuition at most colleges. This
mothers at some point in their working lives.34 puts significant strain on parents
of young children who have to
Yet median pay for mothers in the United
spend a large percentage of their
States who work full time, year round is $39,000 income on child care.
per year, compared to median pay of $55,000
annually for fathers who work full time, year Median pay for a mom who works
round.35 This means that mothers in the United full time, year round and has a
States who hold full time, year round jobs are child under six is $40,000. That
paid $16,000 less annually than fathers who means that, for the typical
mother with child care expenses,
work full time, year round – or just 71 cents for
closing the wage gap would mean
every dollar (Figure 1).36 Closing this gap would
the ability to pay for 18
help millions of families afford basic necessities.
additional months of child care.
If the wage gap were eliminated, on average, a The high cost of child care hits
mother working full time, year round would low-income women and single
have enough money for approximately: mothers especially hard. Based on
 126 more weeks of food for her family (2.4 median child care costs, child care
can amount to 37 percent of a
years’ worth);37
single mother’s monthly budget.
 11 more months of mortgage and utilities
Source: National Partnership calculation
payments;38 based on the national median cost of
providing child care for a four-year-old.
 18 more months of rent;39 Child Care Aware of America. (2013,
December). Parents and the High Cost of
 25 more months of child care;40 or Child Care: 2014 Update, Appendix 1.
Available at www.naccrra.org/costofcare.
 6,669 additional gallons of gas.41

The so-called “motherhood penalty” – the

negative effects mothers experience in the
workplace compared to women without children, including disparities in pay and
promotions – has been well-established for decades and continues to be reflected in U.S.
Census Bureau data.42 Men do not experience a comparable “fatherhood penalty.” In fact,
when it comes to pay in particular, evidence suggests men’s wages are unaffected or even
increase after having a child.43

Some attribute this penalty, and the wage gap overall, to the time women tend to take
away from formal education and jobs to have and care for children. By contrast, men’s
education and workforce attachment is not interrupted as frequently when they have
children. Stereotypes about men as their families’ breadwinners may also lead to employers

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increasing men’s wages after a child arrives.44 Despite women’s roles as breadwinners, they
do not benefit from the same perception.45

But the explanation for the motherhood penalty is even more complex: Mothers may be
paid less than fathers and women without children because the country lacks supportive
workplace policies, such as paid family and medical leave, paid sick days, predictable or
flexible scheduling, and better and more affordable child care. Without these supports,
women with caregiving responsibilities experience more job interruptions and fewer
opportunities for advancement,46 which can have a negative effect on wages that compounds
over time.

THE TRIPLE BIND FOR SINGLE MOTHERS

When mothers face a wage penalty, the economic consequences can be great. When single
mothers – mothers who head a household and have never married or are divorced,
separated or widowed – face a wage penalty, the economic consequences can be especially
dire, in particular because many are the sole breadwinners for their families. Median pay
for single mothers who work full time, year round in the United States is $32,115 per year,
compared to median pay of $55,000 annually for fathers who work full time, year round.47
This means that single mothers who work full time, year round in the United States are
paid $22,885 less annually than fathers who work full time, year round – or just 58 cents
for every dollar.48

In starker terms, single mothers are working as hard as any parent to provide for their
families, but with wages that are less than 60 percent as much as those paid to fathers. And
the consequences are significant. If the wage gap were eliminated, on average, a single
mother working full time, year round would have enough money for approximately:
 180 more weeks of food for her family (3.5 years’ worth);49
 16 more months of mortgage and utilities payments;50
 25 more months of rent;51
 35 more months of child care;52 or
 9,539 additional gallons of gas.53

For single mothers, this motherhood penalty is likely attributable, in part, to the triple bind
of discrimination based on sex plus caregiving plus marital status. The penalty is also
closely associated with poverty.54 In 2013, 7.2 percent of all households in the United States
were single mother households.55 Nearly half of households headed by a single
breadwinning mother (46.7 percent) had incomes in the bottom quintile (those making
$27,795 or less annually). That is compared to less than one-tenth of households that
included a married breadwinning mother (8.5 percent).56

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 Figure 1: Women's Earnings as Compared to Men's by
Parental Status (2015)

All Women $0.78

Mothers of Young Children $0.77

All Mothers $0.71

Single Mothers $0.58

Note: Each point in the chart above compares women to men and mothers to fathers who work full time, year round. “Full time” is
defined as working 35 hours per week or more. Young children are those considered under the age of six. “Single” includes women who
have never married or are separated, divorced or widowed and are the head of household.

THE TRIPLE BIND FOR MOTHERS OF COLOR

Although many employed women deal with caregiving responsibilities, women of color are
more likely to be caregivers – and, therefore, are more likely to experience a triple bind of
sex-plus discrimination, regardless of whether they are in one- or two-parent households.
Both African American women and Latinas are more likely to be raising children in a
single-parent household than are white or Asian American women.57 Women of color also
may devote more time than their white counterparts to caring for extended family
members,58 including both grandchildren59 and elderly relatives.

When discrimination based on sex, caregiving responsibilities and race combine, mothers of
color and their families pay a grievous price. They are critical – often sole – breadwinners
for their families while getting paid a fraction of what white male breadwinners are paid.
Families in which Latinas contribute to or are solely responsible for their household’s
income face the greatest financial challenges: On average, Latina mothers who work full
time, year round are paid just 49 cents to every dollar paid to white, non-Hispanic men who
work full time, year round.60

Table 2 shows the median pay of working women with children by race and ethnicity, the
wage gap for each, and what families could afford in practical terms if that gap were closed.
For example, if the wage gap between African American mothers who work full time, year
round and white, non-Hispanic fathers who work full time, year round were eliminated, an
African American working mother could afford 19.5 more months of mortgage payments,61
43 more months of child care62 or more than 11,600 additional gallons of gasoline.63

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 Table 2. The Wage Gap Between Mothers and Fathers Who Work Full Time, Year Round
and Its Impact in Practical Terms

Mother’s Father’s Annual Ratio Food64 Mortgage Rent66 Child Gasoline68

Median Median Difference (Cents Payments65 Care67
Annual Pay Annual On the
Pay Dollar)

Asian $45,000 $61,000 $16,000 .74 126 11 18 25 6,669

American
Working
Mothers

All Working $39,000 $55,000 $16,000 .71 126 11 18 25 6,669

Mothers

White $43,000 $61,000 $18,000 .70 142 12.5 20 28 7,503

Working
Mothers

African $33,000 $61,000 $28,000 .54 221 19.5 31 43 11,672

American
Working
Mothers

Latina $30,000 $61,000 $31,000 .49 244 21.6 34 48 12,922

Working
Mothers

Note: Median annual pay is calculated for all full-time, year-round working mothers and fathers. Asian American mothers’,
white mothers’, African American mothers’ and Latina mothers’ median annual pay is compared to white, non-Hispanic fathers’
median annual pay. Food, mortgage, rent and child care figures are the additional number of months of essential payments a
woman could purchase if the wage gap between men and women’s wages were eliminated. Gasoline figures are the additional
number of gallons a woman could purchase if the wage gap were eliminated.

The Way Forward

To date, the data and research make clear that America’s gender-based wage gap persists and
continues to punish women, families, businesses and the economy – despite the Equal Pay Act
of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act and other workplace protections for women. A lack of
supportive public and private workplace policies, occupational segregation, bias, harassment
and stereotypes all conspire to make fair and equal pay elusive. But there is a way forward.

The keys to closing the wage gap include ensuring that women have access to good jobs that
pay decent wages, the support and protections they need to stay and advance in their careers
and fair and nondiscriminatory treatment wherever they work, in whatever jobs they have.
These changes require a number of solutions from lawmakers, employers and individuals. The
suggestions below provide a roadmap to help get there.

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STEP ONE: CREATE A PIPELINE TO GOOD JOBS AND HIGHER WAGES

At every skill level, women need better-paying jobs. Women are disproportionately
represented in the fastest-growing low-wage jobs.69 But at the same time, women are more
likely than men to complete college. Still, according to the most recent data available, one
year after college graduation, women who worked full time were paid, on average, 82
percent of what men were paid.70

Barriers women face in entering or staying in “nontraditional” and higher-paying industries

must be eliminated. Even though women comprise nearly half of the U.S. workforce, women
only make up one-quarter of workers in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM)
jobs,71 which tend to pay higher wages. Stereotypes, gender bias, discrimination,
harassment and a lack of female mentors often dissuade women from entering or staying in
STEM or other “nontraditional” jobs like construction and manufacturing.72

Changing this will require:

 Lawmakers to raise the federal minimum wage rate and employers to voluntarily set
wage levels that go beyond the minimum wage. Women comprise more than two-
thirds of minimum wage workers.73 And states with higher minimum wage rates have
smaller wage gaps.74 Raising the federal minimum wage would go a long way toward
closing the gender-based wage gap.75
 Public policies that incentivize and employers that take the initiative to develop
resources for apprenticeship, training and mentoring programs to get women into
STEM and nontraditional jobs and create environments in which women feel
comfortable staying in those jobs, with strong enforcement of nondiscrimination and
sexual harassment laws and policies.
 Educators and mentors to encourage young women to pursue majors in engineering,
health care fields, and computer and information sciences, which are some of the best-
paying majors.76

STEP TWO: ENCOURAGE AND SUPPORT THE RETENTION AND ADVANCEMENT OF

WOMEN IN THE WORKPLACE

Women are nearly half the workforce and breadwinners in nearly two-thirds of families, yet
workplace policies have not kept pace. Pregnancy discrimination laws only protect some
pregnant women when they need minor on-the-job modifications, and that forces too many
to leave their jobs just when they need income and stability most. Leave policies,
particularly for new parents and family caregivers, are absent or insufficient, and low-wage
workers are hit the hardest. Scheduling challenges – the inability to request or receive a
schedule that is stable, predictable and offers sufficient hours – are also all too common.77

The mismatch between working families’ needs and supportive policies disproportionately
harms women, who continue to bear more responsibility for the health and care of children
and elders in their families. In order to close the wage gap, workplaces need to be more
supportive of working women’s – and men’s – family responsibilities.

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Doing this will require:
 Lawmakers and employers to help ensure that pregnant workers are not forced off the
job or placed on unpaid leave because they require minor accommodations to protect
their health and the health of their pregnancies. The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act,
and similar state and local laws, would help ensure that most women who have known
limitations related to pregnancy, childbirth and related medical conditions receive the
minor workplace accommodations they need to keep working. These and employers’
own policies are important steps toward equal opportunity for pregnant workers.
 Lawmakers to ensure that all workers have access to paid family and medical leave.
When new mothers have paid leave, they are more likely to be working in the year
after their child’s birth, to return to their employer and to receive higher wages over
time.78 When men have paid leave, they are more involved in their child’s care, share
household responsibilities and promote female partners’ workforce participation.79 The
Family And Medical Insurance Leave (FAMILY) Act would create a national family
and medical insurance program that is modeled on successful and effective state paid
family leave and temporary disability insurance programs.
 Lawmakers to ensure that no worker loses pay or her or his job because they do not
have paid sick time to recover from the flu, care for a sick child or family member,
address domestic violence or seek preventive health care. This is especially important
for women because they are much more likely than men to take charge of children’s
health care, to miss work when a child is sick and to lose wages when they do so.80 The
Healthy Families Act would establish a national paid sick days standard, building on
laws enacted in more than 20 states and cities.
 Lawmakers to enact sensible protections against inflexible, unpredictable and
unstable schedules that make it difficult or impossible for working people to arrange
stable child care, provide care to children or elders, seek education or training or hold
a second job. Women are disproportionately impacted by these policies because they
are concentrated in lower-wage, inflexible jobs81 and also tend to bear responsibility
for family caregiving.82 The Schedules That Work Act would give workers more control
over their schedules and offer predictability and stability in shifts and work hours.
 Lawmakers to expand access to child care for all families and to make the cost of
quality child care less burdensome for parents, especially those who need stable,
affordable and high-quality care in order to stay at and advance in their jobs. Because
women are disproportionately responsible for making and maintaining child care
arrangements, they’re also most impacted when child care arrangements are
insufficient or fall through.83
 Employers to create paid family and medical leave and paid sick days policies in the
absence of – or in addition to – public policies that meet the needs of their workforce.
Employers must also train managers and supervisors in best practices so that
employees feel comfortable taking the leave that is offered.
 Employers to adopt best practices for scheduling, giving workers control and
predictability over their schedules in a way that helps create the stability they need to
stay and advance on the job.
 Employers to promote wage and benefit rates for part-time workers based on wages
and benefits paid to full-time workers.

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  Employers to recognize working families’ child and elder care challenges and help
women and men meet those challenges through dependent care accounts, onsite or
offsite child care and backup care for families when their usual care arrangements fall
through.

STEP THREE: HELP ENSURE FAIR, NONDISCRIMINATORY TREATMENT AT WORK

In order for women to achieve full workplace and wage equality, they must receive fair
treatment in workplaces that are welcoming and safe. Yet, too often, explicit and more
veiled forms of bias make it impossible for women to succeed. Whether women are victims
of unlawful discrimination, retaliation, harassment or stereotyping, or are not empowered
or supported in negotiating for the wages, benefits and positions they deserve, unfair
treatment – and the fear of unfair treatment – is a significant impediment to wage equality.

Changing this will require:

 Lawmakers and employers to protect workers who choose to share salary information
with co-workers and create stronger penalties for employers who engage in wage
discrimination based on sex. About half of all workers report that the discussion of
wage and salary information is either discouraged or prohibited in their workplace
and/or could lead to punishment.84 But knowledge can be a powerful tool. In the
federal government, where salary bands are disclosed, the wage gap between women
and men is 11 cents rather than the national 22 cents.85 The Paycheck Fairness Act
would make it harder for employers to hide pay discrimination, reward employers that
have good pay practices and help train women and girls in salary negotiation. Several
states have led the way by prohibiting retaliation against workers who share their pay
information with co-workers.
 Lawmakers and employers to ensure comparable pay for jobs that require the same
skills, abilities and education. Men and women should be compensated equally for
work requiring comparable skills, responsibilities and effort, but too often the
tendency is to pay workers in predominantly female jobs less than workers in
predominantly male jobs with comparable skill levels.86 Proposed legislation such as
the federal Fair Pay Act, would prohibit pay discrimination against workers in
“equivalent” jobs whose composite of skill, effort, responsibility and working
conditions are equivalent in value even if the jobs are not identical. Some states have
passed fair pay laws like this that affect employers seeking state contracts.
 Lawmakers, agencies and employers to crack down on discrimination on the basis of
sex, pregnancy, caregiving or family responsibilities through expansions and strong
enforcement of civil rights protections. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission must vigorously enforce existing protections under Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964, the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Americans with Disabilities Act
of 1990. And the U.S. Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division must vigorously
enforce protections against interference and discrimination for taking leave under the
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993.
 Employers to ensure adequate training for managers and supervisors on sex
stereotyping, implicit gender bias and proper procedures for responding to wage

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 claims, discrimination claims, family and medical leave requests, and requests under
the Americans with Disabilities Act.
 Employers to promote workplaces that are free from harassment and violence and
safe for women – and all – workers. Ninety percent of women working outside of the
home will experience sexual harassment at some point in their working lives, and
nearly half (49 percent) of women in the workforce have experienced unwanted sexual
attention.87 Employers should implement programs to identify potential risks of
workplace violence and implement corrective measures.
 Workers to take collective action to negotiate compensation, including by joining
together to unionize their workplaces. A significant benefit of collective action is that
women in unions have a narrower wage gap than nonunion women.88 Union women
are also more empowered in their workplaces and may have protections against
retribution when negotiating their salary, benefits, raises, promotions and bonuses.

Conclusion
If the United States continues on its current course, experts estimate that it will take
another 43 years for the gender-based wage gap to close.89 At that point, even women new to
the workforce today will be nearing retirement. Women – especially mothers, single
mothers and mothers of color – and the families that rely on them cannot wait another four
decades for fair and equal pay, and neither can the country. America’s families and our
state and national economies need strong, comprehensive action to close the wage gap now.

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Appendix A. Methodology
The National Partnership for Women & Families calculated the gender-based wage gap by
comparing the median annual wages of women and men who worked full time, year round
using the March 2014 Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic
Supplements (ASEC). The ASEC is the primary source of annual data on the structure and
economic well-being of American families.

The ASEC is a national survey of more than 75,000 households and is the source of annual
income, migration statistics, poverty, work experience, noncash benefits and health
insurance data used in this brief. The ASEC is sponsored by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services. The survey contains detailed questions covering social and economic
characteristics of each person who is a household member as of the interview date. Income
questions refer to income received during the previous calendar year.

The data used in these analyses is courtesy of Miriam King, Steven Ruggles, J. Trent
Alexander, Sarah Flood, Katie Genadek, Matthew B. Schroeder, Brandon Trampe and
Rebecca Vick. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Current Population Survey: Version
3.0. [Machine-readable database]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Further
information about the IPUMS is available at https://usa.ipums.org/usa/index.shtml.

The IPUMS-CPS samples are weighted, with some records representing more cases than
others. Weight variables allow researchers to create accurate population estimates using
weighted samples. As recommended by the U.S. Census Bureau’s Fertility and Family
Statistics Branch, the National Partnership used personal weights to obtain nationally
representative statistics for person-level analyses.

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Appendix B. The Wage Gap in the States

Wage Gap Between Men and Women by State, Per Dollar

$0.00 $0.20 $0.40

Louisiana (1) $0.34

Wyoming (2) $0.31
West Virginia (3) $0.31
Utah (4) $0.30
North Dakota (5) $0.30
Montana (6) $0.26
Indiana (7) $0.26
Nebraska (8) $0.26
Oklahoma (9) $0.25
South Dakota (10) $0.25
Michigan (11) $0.25
Alabama (12) $0.24
Idaho (13) $0.24
Alaska (14) $0.24
Pennsylvania (15) $0.24
Mississippi (16) $0.23
Arkansas (17) $0.23
Ohio (18) $0.23
Iowa (19) $0.22
Kentucky (20) $0.22
South Carolina (21) $0.22
Connecticut (22) $0.22
New Hampshire (23) $0.22
Texas (24) $0.21
Wisconsin (25) $0.21
Kansas (26) $0.21
Illinois (27) $0.21
Missouri (28) $0.21
Virginia (29) $0.21
Colorado (30) $0.20
Washington (31) $0.20
New Jersey (32) $0.20
Minnesota (33) $0.20
Source: U.S. Census
Oregon (34) $0.20
Bureau. (2014). American
Maine (35) $0.19
Community Survey 1-Year
Massachusetts (36) $0.18
Estimates 2013,
New Mexico (37) $0.18
Geographies: All States
Rhode Island (38) $0.18
within United States and
Delaware (39) $0.17
Puerto Rico, Table B20017:
Tennessee (40) $0.17 Median Earnings in the
Georgia (41) $0.17 Past 12 Months by Sex by
North Carolina (42) $0.17 Work Experience in the
Vermont (43) $0.17 Past 12 Months for the
Nevada (44) $0.17 Population 16 Years and
Hawaii (45) $0.17 Over with Earnings in the
Arizona (46) $0.16 Past 12 Months. Retrieved
California (47) $0.16 1 April 2015, from
Florida (48) $0.16 http://factfinder2.census.g
Maryland (49) $0.15 ov/faces/tableservices/jsf/
New York (50) $0.14 pages/productview.xhtml?
District of Columbia (51) $0.09 pid=ACS_13_1YR_B20017
&prodType=table

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 13
Appendix C. The Wage Gap for African American Women by State

An analysis of the wage gap in the 20 states with the largest number of African American women
who work full time, year round (ranked from largest to smallest cents-on-the-dollar gap)

Number of African Median Wages

American Women for African Median Wages
Working Full Time, American for White, Non- Annual Wage
State Year Round Women Hispanic Men Gap Cents On the Dollar

Louisiana 207,277 $26,365 $53,734 $27,369 0.49

Mississippi 148,368 $25,327 $45,801 $20,474 0.55

Alabama 181,486 $28,319 $49,901 $21,582 0.57

South Carolina 185,211 $27,348 $47,499 $20,151 0.58

New Jersey 188,009 $42,128 $72,160 $30,032 0.58

Virginia 262,842 $35,322 $60,211 $24,889 0.59

Texas 490,809 $34,764 $59,248 $24,484 0.59

Florida 447,313 $30,106 $48,786 $18,680 0.62

Georgia 457,531 $32,241 $51,434 $19,193 0.63

North Carolina 310,251 $30,417 $48,502 $18,085 0.63

Illinois 245,450 $37,399 $58,993 $21,594 0.63

California 292,565 $44,035 $69,004 $24,969 0.64

Ohio 184,887 $32,250 $49,525 $17,275 0.65

Michigan 160,666 $34,027 $51,397 $17,370 0.66

New York 486,704 $40,395 $60,939 $20,544 0.66

Indiana 74,248 $32,225 $48,085 $15,860 0.67

Missouri 98,632 $31,328 $45,930 $14,602 0.68

Tennessee 163,996 $31,142 $45,234 $14,092 0.69

Pennsylvania 183,517 $35,595 $51,340 $15,745 0.69

Maryland 337,063 $47,081 $67,581 $20,500 0.70

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: All States within United States,
Table B20005B: Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months by Earnings in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over
(Black or African American Alone); Table B20017B: Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12
Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (Black or African American Alone); and Table
B20017H: Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and
Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (White Alone, not Hispanic or Latino).

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 14
Appendix D. The Wage Gap for Asian American Women by State

An analysis of the wage gap in the 20 states with the largest number of Asian American women
who work full time, year round (ranked from largest to smallest cents-on-the-dollar gap)

Number of Asian Median Wages

American Women for Asian Median Wages
Working Full Time, American for White, Non- Annual Wage Cents On the
State Year Round Women Hispanic Men Gap Dollar

Minnesota 33,095 $37,149 $52,905 $15,756 0.70

Nevada 37,563 $37,510 $52,705 $15,195 0.71

Washington 77,527 $42,414 $59,302 $16,888 0.72

Georgia 45,863 $36,835 $51,434 $14,599 0.72

California 780,475 $50,368 $69,004 $18,636 0.73

Colorado 23,725 $41,427 $56,524 $15,097 0.73

Hawaii 96,322 $38,654 $52,122 $13,468 0.74

Florida 76,960 $36,488 $48,786 $12,298 0.75

North Carolina 32,104 $36,477 $48,502 $12,025 0.75

Arizona 29,263 $41,515 $52,755 $11,240 0.79

Massachusetts 58,490 $51,185 $64,874 $13,689 0.79

Texas 161,143 $46,792 $59,248 $12,456 0.79

Pennsylvania 52,904 $40,923 $51,340 $10,417 0.80

New York 228,117 $49,453 $60,939 $11,486 0.81

Maryland 61,190 $56,913 $67,581 $10,668 0.84

Virginia 80,176 $50,936 $60,211 $9,275 0.85

Ohio 29,185 $41,984 $49,525 $7,541 0.85

New Jersey 124,404 $61,522 $72,160 $10,638 0.85

Illinois 97,508 $50,806 $58,993 $8,187 0.86

Michigan 30,796 $49,185 $51,397 $2,212 0.96

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: All States within United States,
Table B20005D: Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months by Earnings in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over
(Asian Alone); Table B20017D: Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the
Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (Asian Alone); and Table B20017H: Median Earnings in the Past 12
Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months
(White Alone, not Hispanic or Latino).

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 15
Appendix E. The Wage Gap for Latinas by State

An analysis of the wage gap in the 20 states with the largest number of Latinas
who work full time, year round (ranked from largest to smallest cents-on-the-dollar gap)

Number of Latinas Median Wages

Working Full Time, Median Wages for White, Non- Annual Wage
State Year Round for Latinas Hispanic Men Gap Cents On the Dollar

California 1,465,353 $30,078 $69,004 $38,926 0.44

New Jersey 215,328 $31,538 $72,160 $40,622 0.44

Texas 1,115,438 $26,196 $59,248 $33,052 0.44

North Carolina 70,665 $22,456 $48,502 $26,046 0.46

Washington 72,511 $27,584 $59,302 $31,718 0.47

Maryland 66,587 $31,466 $67,581 $36,115 0.47

Illinois 226,104 $27,531 $58,993 $31,462 0.47

Connecticut 57,205 $32,273 $67,989 $35,716 0.47

Georgia 81,465 $24,752 $51,434 $26,682 0.48

Massachusetts 71,222 $32,209 $64,874 $32,665 0.50

Oregon 39,609 $25,848 $50,941 $25,093 0.51

Virginia 90,478 $31,133 $60,211 $29,078 0.52

Nevada 87,229 $28,136 $52,705 $24,569 0.53

Arizona 208,369 $28,283 $52,755 $24,472 0.54

Colorado 118,969 $30,429 $56,524 $26,095 0.54

New York 434,890 $33,172 $60,939 $27,767 0.54

Michigan 41,598 $27,999 $51,397 $23,398 0.54

Pennsylvania 73,752 $28,188 $51,340 $23,152 0.55

New Mexico 116,655 $29,228 $53,085 $23,857 0.55

Florida 597,537 $29,012 $48,786 $19,774 0.59

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: All States within United States,
Table B20005I: Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months by Earnings in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over
(Hispanic or Latino); Table B20017I: Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the
Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (Hispanic or Latino); and Table B20017H: Median Earnings in the
Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12
Months (White Alone, not Hispanic or Latino).

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 16
Endnotes

1 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: United States, Table DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics. Retrieved 9 April
2015, from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_DP03&prodType=table
2 In 2012, the latest year for which data are available, 40.9 percent of mothers were sole or primary breadwinners, bringing in at least half of family earnings. And more than one
in five — 22.4 percent — were co-breadwinners, bringing home 25 percent to 49 percent of earnings. Glynn, S.J. (2014). Breadwinning Mothers, Then and Now. Center for
American Progress Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/Glynn-Breadwinners-report-FINAL.pdf
3 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Table DP02: Selected Social Characteristics in the United States. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_DP02&prodType=table (Calculation uses family households headed by females
living in a household with family and no husband. A family household includes a householder, one or more people living in the same household who are related to the
householder, and anyone else living in the same household.)
4 Ibid.
5 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement: Table PINC-05: Work Experience in 2013 – People 15 Years Old and Over
by Total Money Earnings in 2013, Age, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032014/perinc/pinc05_000.htm
(Unpublished calculation based on the median earnings of all men and women who work full time, year-round in 2013.)
6 Full-time workers are persons on full-time schedules include persons working 35 hours or more, persons who worked 1-34 hours for noneconomic reasons (e.g., illness) and
usually work full time, and persons "with a job but not at work" who usually work full time. Year round workers are persons who work 50-52 weeks of the year.
7 See note 5.
8 In the health care and social assistance industry, women are paid just 71 cents for every dollar paid to men. In manufacturing, just 73 cents. In retail trade, 78 cents. And in
educational services, women are paid 87 cents for every dollar paid to men. Across all industries, women are paid lower salaries than men. U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American
Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Table S2404: Industry by Sex and Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months for the Full-Time, Year-Round Civilian Employed Population 16
Years and Over. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_S2404&prodType=table
9 In sales occupations, women are paid just 63 cents for every dollar paid to men. In production, just 68 cents. In management, 74 cents. And in office and administrative support
occupations, women are paid just 89 cents for every dollar paid to men. U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement:
Table PINC-06: Occupation of Longest Job in 2012 – People 15 Years and Over, by Total Money Earnings in 2013, Work Experience in 2013, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex. Retrieved
9 April 2015, from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032014/perinc/pinc06_000.htm
10 Women with master’s degrees working full time, year round are paid just 71 cents for every dollar paid to men with master’s degrees. Further, among full-time, year-round
workers, women with doctoral degrees are paid less than men with master’s degrees, and women with master’s degrees are paid less than men with bachelor’s degrees. U.S.
Census Bureau (2014). Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement: Table PINC-03. Educational Attainment – People 25 Years Old and Over, by
Total Money Earnings in 2013, Work Experience in 2013, Age, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032014/perinc/pinc03_000.htm
11 Corbett, C., & Hill, C. (2012). Graduating to a Pay Gap: The Earnings of Women and Men One Year after College Graduation. American Association of University Women
Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.aauw.org/files/2013/02/graduating-to-a-pay-gap-the-earnings-of-women-and-men-one-year-after-college-graduation.pdf.
AAUW found that, even after controlling for a number of contributing factors – chosen major, type of job, number of hours worked each week – a seven percent wage gap
persists. Likewise, a 2009 report from the Government Accountability Office (GAO) which focused on federal workers similarly found an average pay gap of seven percent that
could not be explained by occupational or other factors. GAO said its analysis “neither confirms nor refutes the presence of discriminatory practices.” Government Accountability
Office. (2009, April). Converging Characteristics of Men and Women in the Federal Workforce Help Explain the Narrowing Pay Gap. Testimony before the Joint Economic
Committee, U.S. Congress. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/122341.pdf
12 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, December). Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/cps/highlights-of-
womens-earnings-in-2013.pdf. In 2013, 26 percent of all female wage and salary workers worked part time, compared to 13 percent of men. There are several factors that
contribute to this, including a lack of full-time jobs, choice (for those who can afford it), and the fact that part-time schedules are better aligned with women’s child and elder
care responsibilities. See Compton, J., & Pollak, R. A. (2014). Family proximity, childcare, and women’s labor force attachment. Journal of Urban Economics, 79, 72-90.; Shreffler, K.
M., & Johnson, D. R. (2013). Fertility intentions, career considerations and subsequent births: The moderating effects of women’s work hours. Journal of family and economic
issues, 34(3), 285-295.; Stone, P., & Hernandez, L. A. (2013). The All‐or‐Nothing Workplace: Flexibility Stigma and “Opting Out” Among Professional‐Managerial Women. Journal
of Social Issues, 69(2), 235-256.
13 See note 5.
14 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, September). Consumer Expenditure Survey, Table 1800. Region of Residence: Annual Expenditure Means, Shares, Standard Errors, and
Coefficient of Variation, 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.bls.gov/cex/2013/combined/region.pdf (Unpublished calculation.)
15 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Table GCT2511: Median Monthly Housing Costs for Owner-Occupied Housing Units with a
Mortgage (Dollars): United States – States; and Puerto Rico. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_GCT2511.US01PR&prodType=table (Unpublished calculation.)
16 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Table GCT2514: Median Monthly Housing Costs for Renter-Occupied Housing Units (Dollars):
United States – States; and Puerto Rico. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_GCT2514.US01PR&prodType=table (Unpublished calculation.)
17 AAA. (2015). AAA’s Daily Fuel Gauge Report. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://fuelgaugereport.opisnet.com/index.asp (Calculation uses average cost of regular quality
gasoline ($2.40 national average) as of April 9, 2015.)
18 See note 5. The analysis uses a comparator of women of color to white, non-Hispanic men to best quantify the impact of race or ethnicity and sex on economic opportunity,
and methodologically, it is helpful to have a single benchmark. However, even when the wages of African American, Latina and Asian American women are compared to all men,
the wage gap is significant.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 17
21 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: All States within United States and Puerto Rico, Table B20017: Median Earnings in
the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_B20017&prodType=table
22 U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates 2013, Table S2404: Industry by Sex and Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months for the Full-Time,
Year-Round Civilian Employed Population 16 Years and Over. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_S2404&prodType=table
23 See note 8.
24 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. (2014, April). Governmentwide Strategy on Advancing Pay Equality in the Federal Government. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://www.chcoc.gov/files/Governmentwide_Strategy_on_Advancing_Pay_Equality_in_the_Federal_Government.pdf
25 In every state, African American women and Latinas are paid less than white, non-Hispanic men. In every state, except West Virginia, Asian American women are paid less than
white, non-Hispanic men. In West Virginia, Asian American women who work full time, year round, on average, are paid $51,215 compared to white, non-Hispanic men who are
paid, on average, $44,811. U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates 2013, Geographies: All States within United States, Table B20017D: Median
Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (Asian Alone); Table
B20017H: Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months by Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months for the Population 16 Years and Over with Earnings in the Past 12 Months (White
Alone, not Hispanic or Latino). Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_3YR_B20017H&prodType=table.
26 Williams, J. C., & Bornstein, S. (2007). Evolution of FReD: Family Responsibilities Discrimination and Developments in the Law of Stereotyping and Implicit Bias. Hastings LJ, 59,
1311.; Jolls, C. (2005). Antidiscrimination Law's Effects on Implicit Bias. Yale Law & Economics Research Paper, (343).
27 Velte, K. C. (2013). So You Want to Have a Second Child; Second Child Bias and the Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice in Family Responsibilities Discrimination. Buff.
L. Rev., 61, 909.
28 Kmec, J. A., Huffman, M. L., & Penner, A. M. (2013). Being a parent or having a parent? The perceived employability of men and women who take employment leave. American
Behavioral Scientist.; Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty? 1. American Journal of Sociology, 112(5), 1297-1339.
29 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2007). Enforcement Guidance on Unlawful Disparate Treatment of Workers with Caregiving Responsibilities. Retrieved 9 April
2015, from http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/caregiving.html; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2014). Enforcement Guidance on Pregnancy Discrimination and
Related Issues. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/pregnancy_guidance.cfm
30 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2012). Unlawful Discrimination Based on Pregnancy and Caregiving Responsibilities Widespread Problem, Panelists Tell. Press
Release. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/2-15-12.cfm
31 Kitchen, R. K. (2011). Eradicating the Mothering Effect: Women as Workers and Mothers, Successfully and Simultaneously. Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender & Society, 26,
2012-09. See also Williams, J. C., & Segal, N. (2003). Beyond the maternal wall: Relief for family caregivers who are discriminated against on the job. Harvard Women’s Law
Journal, 26, 77.
32 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2006). Compliance Manual: Race Discrimination, Volume II, § 15-IV, C, “Intersectional Discrimination Retrieved 9 April 2015,
from http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/race-color.html#IVC
33 Gough, M., & Noonan, M. (2013). A Review of the Motherhood Wage Penalty in the United States. Sociology Compass, 7(4), 328-342.; See also Budig, M. J., & England, P.
(2001). The Wage Penalty for Motherhood. American Sociological Review, 204-225.
34 U.S. Census Bureau. (2015, April). Fertility of Women in the United States: 2014. Table 6. Completed Fertility for Women age 40 to 50 Years Old – Selected Characteristics: June
2014. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.census.gov/hhes/fertility/data/cps/2014.html (Unpublished calculation reported percentage of women who had become mothers
by age 40 to 44 as of 2014 is 84.7 percent.)
35 National Partnership calculations based on CPS, 2014 ASEC using Miriam King et al, "IPUMS, Current Population Survey: Version 3.0)", available at
https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml. Mothers and fathers have at least one related child under 18 at home. Figures are median annual earnings for 2013.
36 Ibid.
37 See note 14.
38 See note 15.
39 See note 16.
40 Child Care Aware of America. (2013, December). Parents and the High Cost of Child Care: 2014 Update, Appendix 1. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from www.naccrra.org/costofcare.
(Calculation based on the national median cost of providing child care for a four-year-old.)
41 See note 17.
42 Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 204-225; National Partnership calculations based on CPS, 2014 ASEC using
Miriam King et al, "IPUMS, Current Population Survey: Version 3.0)," available at https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml. Mothers and fathers have at least one related child under
18 at home.
43 Budig. M. J. (2014) The Fatherhood Bonus and the Motherhood Penalty. Parenthood and the Gender Gap in Pay. Third Way Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://content.thirdway.org/publications/853/NEXT_-_Fatherhood_Motherhood.pdf
44 Ibid. National Partnership calculations based on CPS, 2014 ASEC using Miriam King et al, "IPUMS, Current Population Survey: Version 3.0)", available at
https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml, also found evidence of a “fatherhood bonus.” The median pay for a father who works full time, year round is $55,000 whereas the median
pay for a full time, year round working man without children is $45,000.
45 See note 28.
46 Ibid.
47 See note 35.
48 This analysis compares median pay of single mothers to median pay of all fathers to demonstrate the effects of gender, marital status and caregiving on the disparity in
wages. National Partnership calculations based on CPS, 2014 ASEC using Miriam King et al, "IPUMS, Current Population Survey: Version 3.0)", available at
https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml. Mothers and fathers have at least one related child under 18 at home. Figures are median annual earnings for 2013.

NATIONAL PARTNERSHIP FOR WOMEN & FAMILIES | ISSUE BRIEF | AN UNLEVEL PLAYING FIELD 18
49 See note 14.
50 See note 15.
51 See note 16.
52 See note 40.
53 See note 17.
54 McLanahan, S. S., & Kelly, E. L. (2006). The feminization of poverty. In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender (pp. 127-145). Springer U.S.
55 See note 3.
56 Glynn, S.J. (2014). Breadwinning Mothers, Then and Now. Center for American Progress Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/Glynn-Breadwinners-report-FINAL.pdf
57 Kids Count Data Center. (2015, January). Children In Single-Parent Families By Race. National Kids Count provided figures. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/107-children-in-single-parent-families-by#detailed/1/any/false/36,868,867,133,38/10,168,9,12,1,13,185/432,431
58 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, June). American Time Use Survey – 2013 Results. Table 3. Time spent in primary activities for the civilian population by age, sex, race,
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, marital status, and educational attainment, 2013 annual averages. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/atus.pdf
(Showing Hispanic or Latina women spent a greater portion of their day than white women caring for and helping household members.)
59 Ellis, R. R., & Simmons, T. (2014, October). Coresident Grandparents and Their Grandchildren: 2012. U.S. Census Bureau Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/demo/p20-576.pdf (Showing a higher proportion of African American and Native American grandparents
responsible for grandchildren than white or Asian grandparents.)
60 See note 35.
61 See note 15.
62 See note 40.
63 See note 17.
64 See note 14.
65 See note 15.
66 See note 16.
67 See note 40.
68 See note 17.
69 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, January). Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15 Edition, Fastest Growing Occupations. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://www.bls.gov/ooh/fastest-growing.htm
70 See note 11.
71 Beede, D. N., Julian, T. A., Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M. E. (2011). Women in STEM: A gender gap to innovation. Economics and Statistics Administration
Issue Brief, (04-11).
72 Kelly, K., & Grant, L. (2012). Penalties and Premiums: The Impact of Gender, Marriage, and Parenthood, on Faculty Salaries in SEM and non-SEM Fields. Social Studies of
Science.
73 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014, March) Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers, 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.bls.gov/cps/minwage2013.pdf
74 Vogtman, J. & Robbins, K.G. (October, 2014). Higher State Minimum Wages Promote Fair Pay for Women. National Women’s Law Center Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015,
from http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/higher_state_minimum_wages_promote_fair_pay_for_women_october_2014.pdf
75 The White House. (2014, March). The Impact of Raising the Minimum Wage on Women. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/20140325minimumwageandwomenreportfinal.pdf (Estimates from the president’s Council of Economic Advisers suggest that
increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 an hour and indexing it to inflation could close about five percent of the gender wage gap.)
76 See note 11.
77 National Partnership for Women & Families. (2015, January). Not Enough Family Friendly Policies: High Stakes for Women and Families. National Partnership for Women &
Families Publication. Retrieved 9 April 2015, from http://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/not-enough-family-friendly-policies.pdf
78 Houser, L., & Vartanian, T. (2012, January). Pay Matters: The Positive Economic Impacts of Paid Family Leave for Families, Businesses and the Public. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
Center for Women and Work; Laughlin, L. L. (2011). Maternity leave and employment patterns of first-time mothers: 1961-2008. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and
Statistics Administration and U.S. Census Bureau Publication; Rossin‐Slater, M., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2013). The Effects of California's Paid Family Leave Program on
Mothers’ Leave‐Taking and Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 32(2), 224-245.
79 Rehel, E. M. (2013). When Dad Stays Home Too Paternity Leave, Gender, and Parenting. Gender & Society.
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secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1

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85 See note 24.
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policies that help women and men meet the dual demands of work and family. More information is available at www.NationalPartnership.org.

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