Arduino Tutorial

Arduino is a project, open-source hardware, and software platform used to design and build
electronic devices. It designs and manufactures microcontroller kits and single-board interfaces
for building electronics projects.

The Arduino boards were initially created to help the students with the non-technical
background.

The designs of Arduino boards use a variety of controllers and microprocessors.

The Arduino board consists of sets of analog and digital I/O (Input / Output) pins, which are
further interfaced to breadboard, expansion boards, and other circuits. Such boards feature the
model, Universal Serial Bus (USB), and serial communication interfaces, which are used for
loading programs from the computers.

It also provides an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) project, which is based on the
Processing Language to upload the code to the physical board.

The projects are authorized under the GPL and LGPL. The GPL is named as GNU General Public
License. The licensed LGPL is named as GNU Lesser General Public License. It allows the use
of Arduino boards, it's software distribution, and can be manufactured by anyone.

It is also available in the form of self practicing kits.

The Arduino is used for various purposes, such as:

o Finger button
o Button for motor activation
o Light as a sensors
o LED button
o Designing
 o The Building of electronic devices

What is Arduino?
Arduino is a software as well as hardware platform that helps in making electronic projects. It is
an open source platform and has a variety of controllers and microprocessors. There are
various types of Arduino boards used for various purposes.

The Arduino is a single circuit board, which consists of different interfaces or parts. The board
consists of the set of digital and analog pins that are used to connect various devices and
components, which we want to use for the functioning of the electronic devices.

Most of the Arduino consists of 14 digital I/O pins.

The analog pins in Arduino are mostly useful for fine-grained control. The pins in the Arduino
board are arranged in a specific pattern. The other devices on the Arduino board are USB port,
small components (voltage regulator or oscillator), microcontroller, power connector, etc.

Features
The features of Arduino are listed below:

o Arduino programming is a simplified version of C++, which makes the learning process
easy.
o The Arduino IDE is used to control the functions of boards. It further sends the set of
specifications to the microcontroller.
o Arduino does not need an extra board or piece to load new code.
o Arduino can read analog and digital input signals.
o The hardware and software platform is easy to use and implement.

History
The project began in the Interaction Design Institute in Ivrea, Italy. Under the supervision of
Casey Reas and Massimo Banzi, the Hernando Bar in 2003 created the Wiring (a development
platform). It was considered as the master thesis project at IDII. The Wiring platform includes
the PCB (Printed Circuit Board). The PCB is operated with the ATmega168 Microcontroller.

The ATmega168 Microcontroller was an IDE. It was based on the library and processing
functions, which are used to easily program the microcontroller.

In 2005, Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, David Mellis, and another IDII student supported the
ATmega168 to the Wiring platform. They further named the project as Arduino.

The project of Arduino was started in 2005 for students in Ivrea, Italy. It aimed to provide an
easy and low-cost method for hobbyists and professionals to interact with the environment
using the actuators and the sensors. The beginner devices were simple motion detectors,
robots, and thermostats.

In mid-2011, the estimated production of Arduino commercially was 300,000. In 2013, the
Arduino boards in use were about 700,000.

Around April 2017, Massimo Banzi introduced the foundation of Arduino as the "new beginning
for Arduino". In July 2017, Musto continued to pull many Open Source licenses and the code
from the websites of the Arduino. In October 2017, Arduino introduced its collaboration with the
ARM Holdings. The Arduino continues to work with architectures and technology vendors.

Microcontroller
The most essential part of the Arduino is the Microcontroller, which is shown below:

o Microcontroller is small and low power computer. Most of the microcontrollers have a
RAM (Random Access Memory), CPU (Central Processing Unit), and a memory storage
like other computer systems.
o It has very small memory of 2KB (two Kilobytes). Due to less memory, some
microcontrollers are capable of running only one program at a time.
o It is a single chip that includes memory, Input/Output (I/O) peripherals, and a processor.
o The GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins present on the chip help us to control
other electronics or circuitry from the program.

Electronic devices around us

We have many electronic devices around us. Most of the appliance consists of the
microcontroller for its functioning. Let's discuss some of the examples.

o Microcontroller present in Microwave Oven accepts the user input and controls the
magnet run that generate microwave rays to cook the food and displays the output timer.
o Modern cars also contain dozens of microcontrollers working in tandem (one after
another) to control functions like lighting, radio interface, etc.
Projects
Let's consider a simple project of LED blink.

We need software to install our sketch or code to the Arduino board. The LED will blink after the
successful uploading of code. The software is called as Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment).

There are various projects created with the help of the Arduino. Some of the projects are listed
below:

o Home Automation System using IOT (Internet of Things).

o Solar Power water trash collector.
o Fire Detector, etc.

Some projects require a list of components. So, for easy convenience and hands-on projects,
the Arduino kits are available easily in market.

Arduino Kits
We can easily start with our electronics projects using the complete kit. It also helps us to
create hand-on and engaging projects.

Some of the popular Arduino kits are listed below:

o Arduino Starter kit

o Robot Linking UNO kit for learning
o Arduino UNO 3 Ultimate starter kit
o UNO Super starter kit
o Mega 2560 Starter Kit

Arduino IDE
The IDE makes the traditional projects even easier and simpler. The USB cable is used to load
the program or sketch on the specific Arduino board.
The IDE application is suitable for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It supports the programming
language C and C++. We need to connect the Genuino and Arduino board with the IDE to upload
the sketch written in the Arduino IDE software.

Many other companies including Sparkfun Electronics, also make their own boards that are
compatible with Arduino IDE.

Arduino Boards
There are variety of Arduino board used for different purposes. The board varies in I/O pins, size,
etc. The various components present on the Arduino boards are Microcontroller, Digital
Input/Output pins, USB Interface and Connector, Analog Pins, Reset Button, Power button, LED's,
Crystal Oscillator, and Voltage Regulator. Some components may differ depending on the type
of board.

Let's discuss some of the popular Arduino boards.

o Arduino UNO
o Arduino Nano
o Arduino Mega
o Arduino Due
o Arduino Bluetooth

Shields

o Shields are defined as the hardware device that can be mounted over the board to
increase the capabilities of the projects.
 o The shield is shown below:

o The shield together with Arduino can make the projects even smarter and simpler. For
example, Ethernet shields are used to connect the Arduino board to the Internet.
o The shields can be easily attached and detached from the Arduino board. It does not
require any complex wiring.

Prerequisite
The requirement to learn Arduino is the basic knowledge of C and C++ programming language.
A basic understanding of circuits, Microcontrollers, and Electronics is also essential.

Audience
The Arduino is intended for use by students, engineers, and hobbyists. The basic knowledge of
electronic components and programming is required before beginning with the Arduino
Tutorials.

Problem
We assure you that you will not find any problem with this Arduino Tutorial. But if there is any
mistake, please post the problem in the contact form.

Arduino Download
The Arduino software (IDE) is open-source software. We are required to write the code and
upload the code to the board to perform some task.

The Arduino IDE software can be used with any type of Arduino boards. The software is
available for various operating system such as, Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X.
The steps to download the Arduino software are listed below:

1. Go to the official website of Arduino (https://www.arduino.cc/) > Click on SOFTWARE < click
on DOWNLOADS, as shown below:

Or

Open the URL https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software

2. A page will appear, as shown below:

3. Scroll the screen a little, as shown below:

4. Click on the 'Windows Installer' as we are operating with the Windows. We can select
the Linux or Mac OS X, accordingly.

5. A contribution window will appear. We can contribute according to our choice and click on the
'CONTRIBUTE &DOWNLOAD' option. Otherwise, click on the 'JUST DOWNLOAD' option, as
shown below:
6. The downloading process will start. The downloading file will look like the below image:

7. Wait for few seconds for the downloading process to complete.

8. Open the downloaded file.

9. Grant permission to the Arduino Software on your computer.

10. Accept the license by clicking on 'I Agree' button, as shown below:
11. Click on the 'Next' button. It is shown below:

12. The window specifying the location of the installed folder will appear.

Click on the 'Install' button. It is shown below:

If you want to change the location, click on the 'Browse' button.

13. The installing process of Arduino will start, as shown below:

Wait for the installation process to complete.

14. Now, we have to accept the security for the installation. We are required to accept the
security Installation three times.

Click on the 'Install' button. The image is shown below:

15. Again, click on the 'Install' button. It is shown below:

16. Again, click on the 'Install' button. It is shown below:

17. The installation process is now completed. The window will now appear as:
18. Click on the 'Close' button at the bottom.

The Arduino IDE software will appear on your desktop, as shown below:

19. Now, open the Arduino software.

20. The Arduino IDE environment is written in the programming language named as Java. So,
we need to allow access to the Java Platform.

As soon we open the Arduino software, a license window will appear, as shown below:
Accept the license by clicking on the 'Allow access' button.

21. The Arduino window will appear as:

Visibility of the connected Hardware port
We can view the port of the attached hardware Arduino IDE to our computer.

The steps are listed below:

1. Go to the File Manager and right-click on the This PC option, as shown below:
 2. Click on the Manage
3. First, we need to connect the Arduino board to our computer.
4. A window will appear, as shown below:

5. Click on the Device Manager

6. Under the PORT option, we can see the ports of the connected hardware.

Arduino IDE
The Arduino IDE is an open-source software, which is used to write and upload code to the
Arduino boards. The IDE application is suitable for different operating systems such
as Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It supports the programming languages C and C++. Here,
IDE stands for Integrated Development Environment.
The program or code written in the Arduino IDE is often called as sketching. We need to connect
the Genuino and Arduino board with the IDE to upload the sketch written in the Arduino IDE
software. The sketch is saved with the extension '.ino.'

The Arduino IDE will appear as:

Let's discuss each section of the Arduino IDE display in detail.

Toolbar Button
The icons displayed on the toolbar are New, Open, Save, Upload, and Verify.
It is shown below:

Upload
The Upload button compiles and runs our code written on the screen. It further uploads the
code to the connected board. Before uploading the sketch, we need to make sure that the
correct board and ports are selected.

We also need a USB connection to connect the board and the computer. Once all the above
measures are done, click on the Upload button present on the toolbar.

The latest Arduino boards can be reset automatically before beginning with Upload. In the older
boards, we need to press the Reset button present on it. As soon as the uploading is done
successfully, we can notice the blink of the Tx and Rx LED.

If the uploading is failed, it will display the message in the error window.

We do not require any additional hardware to upload our sketch using the Arduino Bootloader.
A Bootloader is defined as a small program, which is loaded in the microcontroller present on
the board. The LED will blink on PIN 13.

Open
The Open button is used to open the already created file. The selected file will be opened in the
current window.

Save
The save button is used to save the current sketch or code.

New
It is used to create a new sketch or opens a new window.
Verify
The Verify button is used to check the compilation error of the sketch or the written code.

Serial Monitor
The serial monitor button is present on the right corner of the toolbar. It opens the serial
monitor.

It is shown below:

When we connect the serial monitor, the board will reset on the operating system Windows,
Linux, and Mac OS X. If we want to process the control characters in our sketch, we need to use
an external terminal program. The terminal program should be connected to the COM port,
which will be assigned when we connect the board to the computer.

Menu Bar
o File

When we click on the File button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list will appear. It is shown
below:
Let's discuss each option in detail.

New

The New button opens the new window. It does not remove the sketch which is already present.

Open

It allows opening the sketch, which can be browsed from the folders and computer drivers.

Open Recent

The Open Recent button contains the list of the recent sketches.

Sketchbook

It stores the current sketches created in the Arduino IDE software. It opens the selected sketch
or code in a new editor at an instance.

Examples

It shows the different examples of small projects for a better understanding of the IDE and the
board. The IDE provides examples of self-practice.

Close

The Close button closes the window from which the button is clicked.

Save

The save button is used to save the current sketch. It also saves the changes made to the
current sketch. If we have not specified the name of the file, it will open the 'Save As...' window.

Save As...

We can save the sketch with a different name using the 'Save As...' button. We can also change
the name accordingly.

Page Setup

It allows setting the page margins, orientation, and size for printing. The 'Page Setup' window
will appear as:
Print

According to the settings specified in the 'Page Setup', it prepares the current sketch for printing.

Preferences

It allows the customization settings of the Arduino IDE.

Quit

The Quit button is used to close all the IDE windows. The same closed sketch will be reopened
when we will open the Arduino IDE.

o Edit

When we click on the Edit button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list appears. It is shown below:
Let's discuss each option in detail.

Undo

The Undo button is used to reverse the last modification done to the sketch while editing.

Redo

The Redo button is used to repeat the last modification done to the sketch while editing.

Cut

It allows us to remove the selected text from the written code. The text is further placed to the
clipboard. We can also paste that text anywhere in our sketch.

Copy

It creates a duplicate copy of the selected text. The text is further placed on the clipboard.
Copy for Forum

The 'Copy for Forum' button is used to copy the selected text to the clipboard, which is also
suitable for posting to the forum.

Copy as HTML

The 'Copy for Forum' button is used to copy the selected text as HTML to the clipboard. It is
desirable for embedding in web pages.

Paste

The Paste button is used to paste the selected text of the clipboard to the specified position of
the cursor.

Select All

It selects all the text of the sketch.

Go to line...

It moves the cursor to the specified line number.

The window will appear as:

Comment/Decomment

The Comment/ Decomment button is used to put or remove the comment mark (//) at the
beginning of the specified line.

Increase Indent

It is used to add the space at the starting of the specified line. The spacing moves the text
towards the right.

Decrease Indent

It is used to subtract or remove the space at the starting of the specified line. The spacing
moves the text towards the left.
Increase Font Size

It increases the font size of the written text.

Decrease Font Size

It decreases the font size of the written text.

Find...

It is used to find the specified text. We can also replace the text. It highlights the text in the
sketch.

The window will appear as:

Find Next

It highlights the next word, which has specified in the 'Find...' window. If there is no such word, it
will not show any highlighted text.

Find Previous

It highlights the previous word, which has specified in the 'Find...' window. If there is no such
word, it will not show any highlighted text.

o Sketch

When we click on the Sketch button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list appears. It is shown
below:
Let's discuss each option in detail.

Verify/Compile

It will check for the errors in the code while compiling. The memory in the console area is also
reported by the IDE.

Upload

The Upload button is used to configure the code to the specified board through the port.

Upload Using Programmer

It is used to override the Bootloader that is present on the board. We can utilize the full capacity
of the Flash memory using the 'Upload Using Programmer' option. To implement this, we need
to restore the Bootloader using the Tools-> Burn Bootloader option to upload it to the USB serial
port.

Export compiled Binary

It allows saving a .hex file and can be kept archived. Using other tools, .hex file can also be sent
to the board.

Show Sketch Folder

It opens the folder of the current code written or sketch.

Include Library

Include Library includes various Arduino libraries. The libraries are inserted into our code at the
beginning of the code starting with the #. We can also import the libraries from .zip file.

Add File...

The Add File... button is used to add the created file in a new tab on the existing file.
For example, let's add 'Blink' file to the 'Javatpoint' file. The tab will now appear as:

We can also delete the corresponding file from the tab by clicking on the small triangle
-> Delete option.

Tools
When we click on the Tools button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list appears. It is shown below:

Let's discuss each option in detail.

Auto Format
The Auto Format button is used to format the written code. For example, lining the open and
closed curly brackets in the code.

Archive Sketch

The copy of the current sketch or code is archived in the .zip format. The directory of the
archived is same as the sketch.

Fix Encoding and Reload

This button is used to fix the inconsistency between the operating system char maps and editor
char map encoding.

Manage Libraries...

It shows the updated list of all the installed libraries. We can also use this option to install a new
library into the Arduino IDE.

Serial Monitor

It allows the exchange of data with the connected board on the port.

Serial Plotter

The Serial Plotter button is used to display the serial data in a plot. It comes preinstalled in the
Arduino IDE.

WiFi101/WiFiNINA Firmware Updater

It is used to check and update the Wi-Fi Firmware of the connected board.

Board

We are required to select the board from the list of boards. The selected board must be similar
to the board connected to the computer.

Processor

It displays the processor according to the selected board. It refreshes every time during the
selection of the board.

Port

It consists of the virtual and real serial devices present on our machine.

Get Board Info

It gives the information about the selected board. We need to select the appropriate port before
getting information about the board.

Programmer

We need to select the hardware programmer while programming the board. It is required when
we are not using the onboard USB serial connection. It is also required during the burning of the
Bootloader.

Burn Bootloader

The Bootloader is present on the board onto the microcontroller. The option is useful when we
have purchased the microcontroller without the bootloader. Before burning the bootloader, we
need to make sure about the correct selected board and port.

Help
When we click on the Help button on the Menu bar, a drop-down list will appear. It is shown
below:

The Help section includes several documents that are easy to access, which comes along with
the Arduino IDE. It consists of the number of options such as Getting Started, Environment,
Troubleshooting, Reference, etc. We can also consider the image shown above, which includes
all the options under the Help section.

Some documents like Getting started, Reference, etc., can be accessed without the internet
connection as well. It will directly link us to the official website of Arduino.

Arduino Kit
The Arduino Kit consists of all the components used for building digital or electronic devices.
The Arduino boards are also available in the form of DIY kits. Here, DIY specifies Do It Yourself.
The DIY kits are created for teaching and as a practice tool for students. The non-engineering
students can also use such kits for their projects.

We can easily start with our electronics projects using the complete kit. It also helps us to
create hand-on and engaging projects. The kit helps in understanding the fundamentals of
programming, voltage, current, and digital logic. The concept of digital and analog signals can
be understood by the implementation of actuators and sensors in the projects.

Some of the Arduino projects are the Spaceship Interface (designing the control panel for
spaceship), Keyboard Instrument, Knock Lock (a secret code, which is used to open the door),
etc.

There are various types of Arduino kits available in the market. Let's discuss some of the
Arduino kits:

1. Arduino Starter Kit

The Starter kit is generally the basic kit for freshers in the Electronics stream. It is based on
the Arduino UNO board.
The components in the Starter kit are listed below:

o Arduino UNO board

o Breadboard
o LED (Bright White, Green, Red, Yellow, Blue, and RGB)
o LCD Alphanumeric
o Wooden base that can be easily assembled
o Solid core jump wires
o Stranded Jump wires of RED and BLACK color
o 9V Battery
o Resistors of 220 Ohms, 560 Ohms, 1kOhms, 4.7kOhms, 10kOhms, 1MOhms, and
10MOhms
o Small DC Motor of 6/9V
o (40 x 1) Male Strip pins
o Red, Blue, and Green Transparent Gels
o Diodes
o The Capacitors of 100uF
o Optocouplers
o Small servo meter
o Piezo Capsule
 o Push Buttons
o Tilt Sensor
o Potentiometer
o Phototransistor
o Temperature Sensor
o MOSFET Transistors
o H-bridge Motor Driver
o USB Cable

Arduino UNO board

Unit: 1
The Arduino UNO is a standard board of Arduino. Arduino UNO is based on an ATmega328P
Microcontroller. It is easy to use compared to other boards, such as the Arduino Mega board,
etc. The components on the Arduino board are ATmega328P Microcontroller, ICSP pin, power
LED indicator, Digital I/O pins, Analog pins, AREF pin, 16 MHz crystal oscillator, GND pins, Vin
pin, voltage regulator, Tx and Rx LED, USB, and a reset button.

The Arduino board is shown below:

Breadboard
Unit: 1 (400 points)
A breadboard is defined as a rectangular shape board, which is made of plastic. It has tiny holes
on it that are used to insert the wires of the electronic components, such as LED, resistor, etc.
It does not require any soldering to attach the electronic components to the board. We need to
join the components using wire to allow electricity to move from one component to another.

Bright white LED

Unit: 1
LED stands for Light Emitting Diode, which is defined as a semiconductor light source. The
bright white LED produces the white light, while other white lights produce a yellow hue.

When electrons combine with holes in the semiconductor, energy is released in the form of
photons, which produces light.
Green LED
Unit: 8
The Green LED (Light Emitting Diode) produces the green light when electricity is passed
through its terminals. The process is called electroluminescence.

Red LED
Unit: 8
The Red LED produces the red light when electricity is passed through its terminals.
Yellow LED
Unit: 8
The Yellow LED produces the yellow light when electricity is passed through its terminals.

Blue LED
Unit: 3
The Blue LED produces blue light when electricity is passed through its terminals.

RGB LED
Unit: 1
The RGB LED uses the combination of three colors (Red, Green, and Blue) to produce the light.
The millions of hue of lights can be created from the combination of these three universal
colors.

The colors are generated by adjusting the brightness of each of the three colors by using the
PWM pin.

LCD Alphanumeric
Unit: 1
The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a digital display, which gives information in the form of
letters or numbers. It is the basic component in a kit.

The configuration of the LCD display can vary from 16 x 2, 40 x 4, and 8 x 1.

Here, 8 x 1 signifies 8 characters in a row.

Wooden base that can be easily assembled

Unit: 1
The wooden base is a compatible base that is used to assemble the Arduino board and
Breadboard on its base.

Solid core jump wires

Unit: 70
These are the most common wires used in the Breadboard. The wires vary in different lengths
and colors. These wires are cheap and come in the form of the spool. We need to cut the wire
according to the required length.

Stranded Jump wires of RED color

Unit: 1
The stranded jump wires have solid tips.

The RED color stranded jump wire is shown below:

Stranded Jump wires of BLACK color

Unit: 1
The BLACK color stranded jump wire is shown below:
9V Battery
Unit: 1
It is a standard-sized battery used for different purposes. A polarized snap is connected at the
top of the rectangle-shaped battery.

Resistors of 220 Ohms, 560 Ohms, 1kOhms, 4.7kOhms, 10kOhms,

1MOhms, and 10MOhms
Unit: 20 (220 Ohms), 5 (560 Ohms), 5 (1kOhms), 5 (4.7kOhms), 20 (10kOhms), 5 (1MOhms), 5
(10MOhms)

A resistor is a two-terminal component having a particular electrical resistance.

The function of the resistor is to manage the current flow. It controls the current flowing to the
other components. The other functions are dividing voltages, adjusting the signal levels, etc.

The resistors with resistance value are shown below:

Small DC Motor of 6/9V
Unit: 1
It is a small motor whose voltage ranges from 6V to 9V.

(40 x 1) Male Strip pins

Unit: 1
The standard pitch for the 40 x 1 connector pin is 2.54mm. It is a single row male pin consisting
of 40 pin headers connected to it.

It is shown below:
Red, Blue, and Green Transparent Gels
Unit: 3
The colored gels act as a filter for the sensors, which allows the specific colored light to pass
through that gel.

Diodes (1N4007)
Unit: 5
A diode conducts the current in one direction. The diode is an electronic component that has
two terminals. The diodes can be used as the signal modulators, and demodulators, switches,
voltage regulators, etc.

The Capacitors of 100uF

Unit: 5
The capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy. The energy is stored between the plates
of the capacitor in the form of an electrostatic field.

The image of 100uF/450V is shown below:

The capacitors like 100uF/25V, 100uF/50V, etc., are also available.

Optocouplers
Unit: 1
The noise from the electrical signals is removed by the Optocouplers. It is also used to separate
the low power circuits from the high-power circuits and transfers the electrical signals between
these separated circuits.

Small servo motor

Unit: 1
The servo motor is used to control the position, liner speed, and rotational speed. The
advantageous features of servo motor are high efficiency, high precision, low heat generation,
etc.

The servometer will look like the below image:

Piezo Capsule
Unit: 1
The piezo in Arduino is defined as an electronic device, which produces a voltage when
deformed by some mechanical strain, sound wave, or a vibration.
Push Buttons
Unit: 10
The push buttons are used as a switch. We can power ON the board supply or the connection by
pressing the push button.

Tilt Sensor
Unit: 1
The tilt sensor is used to measure the tilt with respect to the reference plain. It is also used to
detect the inclination of the plane.

Potentiometer (10kOhms)
Unit: 3
The potentiometer acts as a knob, which is used to provide variable resistance. It can also be
used to alter its resistance. The amount of resistance is measured as an analog value.
Phototransistor
Unit: 6
The phototransistor uses the NPN transistors to sense the light level and convert it into the
current.

Temperature Sensor
Unit: 1
The temperature sensors are used to record the surrounding temperature. It converts the input
data to the electronic data.
Mosfet Transistors
Unit: 2
We can control the high voltage Arduino projects using the Mosfet Transistors. One terminal is
used as a power source, and the other two terminals are used onboard.

H-bridge Motor Driver [L293D]

Unit: 1
These motors are capable of driving the DC motors. We can turn the motor in both directions
with the help of an H-bridge motor driver.

USB Cable
Unit: 1
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a cable that is used to connect the Arduino board with the
computer. We can further program the Arduino board through the Arduino IDE on our computer.

Other Popular Kits

The other popular Arduino kits are listed below:

o Elegoo UNO Super Starter Kit

It includes a CD, which consist of a PDF explaining about the specifications of the kit. It consists
of some additional components, such as a joystick, Infrared Receiver, and Remote. The
beginners may face some difficulty while using such kit.
 o Elegoo Mega 2560 Starter Kit

It is the ultimate kit designed for beginners as well as advanced users.

o Vilrous Arduino Ultimate Kit

It is the ultimate kit intended for professionals. Beginners with advanced knowledge can use it.

The components in the kit are listed below:

Arduino Uno R3, Temperature Sensor TMP36, USB Cable, Shift Register, Arduino, Breadboard &
its Holder, NPN Transistors, Small Servo motor, 5V Relay, Jumper Wires, DC Motor with wires,
Piezo Buzzer, 12 units of Big 12mm Buttons, Photocell, LEDs (1x RGB, 10 x Red, 10 x Yellow),
10K Trimpot, Resistors (45 x 330Ω and 45 x 10KΩ), and 2 units of 1N4148 Diodes.

o SunFounder Super Starter kit

It includes a vast collection of components. The components in the kit are listed below:

MEGA2560 Controller Board, IR Receiver, Button (small) (5), Power Supply Module, Stepper
Motor, Humiture Sensor, 4-Digit 7-Segment Display, Dupont wire (Female to Male) (10), 5V Relay,
Remote Control, Servo Motor (SG90), USB Cable (5), Stepper Motor Driver, Jumper Wire (Male to
Male) (65), 9V Battery Clip Connector, Joystick PS2, Breadboard, Thermistor, Capacitor Ceramic
100nF, Photoresistor, Tilt Switch, Active Buzzer, LCD1602 Character Display LEDs(5 x Yellow, 5
x Red, 5 x Green, 5 x Blue, 5 x White, 1 x RGB, Resistors (10 each 10Ω, 100Ω, 220Ω, 330Ω, 1KΩ,
2KΩ, 5.1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ, 1MΩ), Potentiometer, NPN Transistor, Small Motor, Fan, and
Ultrasonic Sensor Module.

Arduino Shields
What is Arduino Shields?
Arduino shields are the boards, which are plugged over the Arduino board to expand its
functionalities. There are different varieties of shields used for various tasks, such as Arduino
motor shields, Arduino communication shields, etc.

Shield is defined as the hardware device that can be mounted over the board to increase the
capabilities of the projects. It also makes our work easy. For example, Ethernet shields are used
to connect the Arduino board to the Internet.

The pin position of the shields is similar to the Arduino boards. We can also connect the
modules and sensors to the shields with the help of the connection cable.

Arduino motor shields help us to control the motors with the Arduino board.

Why do we need Shields?

The advantages of using Arduino shields are listed below:

o It adds new functionalities to the Arduino projects.

o The shields can be attached and detached easily from the Arduino board. It does not
require any complex wiring.
o It is easy to connect the shields by mounting them over the Arduino board.
o The hardware components on the shields can be easily implemented.

Types of Shields
The popular Arduino shields are listed below:

o Ethernet shield
o Xbee Shield
o Proto shield
o Relay shield
o Motor shield
o LCD shield
o Bluetooth shield
o Capacitive Touchpad Shield

Let's discuss the shields that are listed above:

Ethernet shield
o The Ethernet shields are used to connect the Arduino board to the Internet. We need to
mount the shield on the top of the specified Arduino board.
o The USB port will play the usual role to upload sketches on the board.
o The latest version of Ethernet shields consists of a micro SD card slot. The micro SD
card slot can be interfaced with the help of the SD card library.

The Ethernet shield is shown below:

o We can also connect another shield on the top of the Ethernet shield. It means that we
can also mount two shields on the top of the Arduino board.

Xbee Shield
o We can communicate wirelessly with the Arduino board by using the Xbee Shield with
Zigbee.
o It reduces the hassle of the cable, which makes Xbee a wireless communication model.
o The Xbee wireless module allows us to communicate outdoor upto 300 feet and indoor
upto 100 feet.
o The Xbee shield is shown below:
 o It can also be used with different models of Xbee.

Proto shield
o Proto shields are designed for custom circuits.
o We can solder electronic circuits directly on the shield.
o The shield consists of two LED pads, two power lines, and SPI signal pads.
o The IOREF (Input Output voltage REFerence) and GND (Ground) are the two power lines
on the board.

The proto shield is shown below:

o We can also solder the SMD (Surface Mount Device) ICs on the prototyping area. A
maximum of 24 pins can be integrated onto the SMD area.
Relay shield
o The Arduino digital I/O pins cannot bear the high current due to its voltage and current
limits. The relay shield is used to overcome such situation. It provides a solution for
controlling the devices carrying high current and voltage.
o The shield consists of four relays and four LED indicators.
o It also provides NO/NC interfaces and a shield form factor for the simple connection to
the Arduino board.
o The LED indicators depicts the ON/OFF condition of each relay.
o The relay used in the structure is of high quality.
o The NO (Normally Open), NC (Normally Closed), and COM pins are present on each relay.
o The relay shield is shown below:

o The applications of the Relay shield include remote control, etc.

Motor shield
o The motor shield helps us to control the motor using the Arduino board.
o It controls the direction and working speed of the motor. We can power the motor shield
either by the external power supply through the input terminal or directly by the Arduino.
o We can also measure the absorption current of each motor with the help of the motor
shield.
o The motor shield is based on the L298 chip that can drive a step motor or two DC
motors. L298 chip is a full bridge IC. It also consists of the heat sinker, which increases
the performance of the motor shield.
o It can drive inductive loads, such as solenoids, etc.
o The operating voltage is from 5V to 12V.

The Motor shield is shown below:

 o The applications of the motor shield are intelligent vehicles, micro-robots, etc.

LCD shield
o The keypad of LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) shield includes five buttons called as up,
down, left, right, and select.
o There are 6 push buttons present on the shield that can be used as a custom menu
control panel.
o It consists of the 1602 white characters, which are displayed on the blue backlight LCD.
o The LED present on the board indicates the power ON.
o The five keys present on the board helps us to make the selection on menus and from
board to our project.

The LCD shield is shown below:

o The LCD shield is popularly designed for the classic boards such as Duemilanove, UNO,
etc.
Bluetooth shield
o The Bluetooth shield can be used as a wireless module for transparent serial
communication.
o It includes a serial Bluetooth module. D0 and D1 are the serial hardware ports in the
Bluetooth shield, which can be used to communicate with the two serial ports (from D0
to D7) of the Arduino board.
o We can install Groves through the two serial ports of the Bluetooth shield called a Grove
connector. One Grove connector is digital, while the other is analog.

The Bluetooth shield is shown below:

o The communication distance of the Bluetooth shield is upto 10m at home without any
obstacle in between.

Capacitive Touchpad shield

o It has a touchpad interface that allows to integrate the Arduino board with the touch
shield.
o The Capacitive touchpad shield consists of 12 sensitive touch buttons, which includes 3
electrode connections and 9 capacitive touch pads.
o The capacitive shield is shown below:
 o The board can work with the logic level of 3.3V or 5V.
o We can establish a connection to the Arduino project by touching the shield.

Arduino Boards
Arduino is an easy-to-use open platform to create electronics projects. Arduino boards play a
vital role in creating different projects. It makes electronics accessible to non-engineers,
hobbyists, etc.

The various components present on the Arduino boards are Microcontroller, Digital
Input/output pins, USB Interface and Connector, Analog Pins, Reset Button, Power button,
LED's, Crystal Oscillator, and Voltage Regulator. Some components may differ depending on
the type of board.

The most standard and popular board used over time is Arduino UNO. The ATmega328
Microcontroller present on the UNO board makes it rather powerful than other boards. There are
various types of Arduino boards used for different purposes and projects. The Arduino Boards
are organized using the Arduino (IDE), which can run on various platforms. Here, IDE stands for
Integrated Development Environment.

Let's discuss some common and best Arduino boards.

Types of Arduino Boards

o Arduino UNO

Arduino UNO is based on an ATmega328P microcontroller. It is easy to use compared to other

boards, such as the Arduino Mega board, etc. The Arduino UNO includes 6 analog pin inputs, 14
digital pins, a USB connector, a power jack, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header.

It is the most used and of standard form from the list of all available Arduino Boards. It is also
recommended for beginners as it is easy to use.
 o Arduino Nano

The Arduino Nano is a small Arduino board based on ATmega328P or ATmega628

Microcontroller. The connectivity is the same as the Arduino UNO board.

The Nano board is defined as a sustainable, small, consistent, and flexible microcontroller board.
It is small in size compared to the UNO board. The devices required to start our projects using
the Arduino Nano board are Arduino IDE and mini USB.

The Arduino Nano includes an I/O pin set of 14 digital pins and 8 analog pins. It also includes 6
Power pins and 2 Reset pins.

o Arduino Mega

The Arduino Mega is based on ATmega2560 Microcontroller. The ATmega2560 is an 8-bit

microcontroller. We need a simple USB cable to connect to the computer and the AC to DC
adapter or battery to get started with it. It has the advantage of working with more memory
space.
The Arduino Mega includes 54 I/O digital pins and 16 Analog Input/Output (I/O), ICSP header, a
reset button, 4 UART (Universal Asynchronous Reciever/Transmitter) ports, USB connection,
and a power jack.

o Arduino Micro

The Arduino Micro is based on the ATmega32U4 Microcontroller. It consists of 20 sets of pins.
The 7 pins from the set are PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) pins, while 12 pins are analog input
pins. The other components on board are reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator, ICSP header,
and a micro USB connection.

The USB is inbuilt in the Arduino Micro board.

The Arduino Micro is also called as the shrunk version of Arduino Leonardo.

o Arduino Leonardo

The basic specification of the Arduino Leonardo is the same as the Arduino Micro. It is also
based on ATmega32U4 Microcontroller. The components present on the board are 20 analog
and digital pins, reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator, ICSP header, and a micro USB
connection.
 o Arduino Due

The Arduino Due is based on the 32- bit ARM core. It is the first Arduino board that has
developed based on the ARM Microcontroller. It consists of 54 Digital Input/Output pins and 12
Analog pins. The Microcontroller present on the board is the Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3
CPU.

It has two ports, namely, native USB port and Programming port. The micro side of the USB
cable should be attached to the programming port.

o Arduino Shields

The Arduino shields are the boards, which can be plugged on the top of the PCB. The shields
further extend the potential of the PCB's. The production of shields is cheap. It is also easy to
use. There are various types of Arduino shields that can be used for different purposes. For
example, the Xbee shield.
The Xbee shield can be used for wireless communication between multiple Arduino boards over
distances upto 300 feet using the Zigbee Module.

o Arduino Lilypad

The Arduino LilyPad was initially created for wearable projects and e-textiles. It is based on the
ATmega168 Microcontroller. The functionality of Lilypad is the same as other Arduino Boards. It
is a round, light-weight board with a minimal number of components to keep the size of board
small.

The Arduino Lilypad board was designed by Sparkfun and Leah. It was developed by Leah
Buechley. It has 9 digital I/O pins.
 o Arduino Bluetooth

The Arduino Bluetooth board is based on ATmega168 Microcontroller. It is also named

as Arduino BT board. The components present on the board are 16 digital pins, 6 analog pins,
reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator, ICSP header, and screw terminals. The screw terminals
are used for power.

The Arduino Bluetooth Microcontroller board can be programmed over the Bluetooth as a
wireless connection.

o Arduino Diecimila

The Arduino Diecimila is also based on ATmeg628 Microcontroller. The board consists of 6
analog pin inputs, 14 digital Input/Output pins, a USB connector, a power jack, an ICSP (In-Circuit
Serial Programming) header, and a reset button.

We can connect the board to the computer using the USB, and can power-on the board with the
help of AC to DC adapter. The Diecimila was initially developed to mark the 10000 delivered
boards of Arduino. Here, Diecimila means 10,000 in Italian.

o Arduino Robot

The Arduino Robot is called as the tiny computer. It is widely used in robotics. The board
comprises of the speaker, five-button, color screen, two motors, an SD card reader, a digital
compass, two potentiometers, and five floor sensors.

The Robot Library can be used to control the actuators and the sensors.

o Arduino Ethernet

The Arduino Ethernet is based on the ATmega328 Microcontroller. The board consists of 6
analog pins, 14 digital I/O pins, crystal oscillator, reset button, ICSP header, a power jack, and an
RJ45 connection.

With the help of the Ethernet shield, we can connect our Arduino board to the internet.

o Arduino Zero

The Arduino Zero is generally called as the 32-bit extension of the Arduino UNO. It is based on
ATmel's SAM21 MCU. The board consists of 6 analog pin inputs, 14 digital Input/Output pins, a
USB connector, a power jack, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header, UART port
pins, a power header, and AREF button.

The Embedded debugger of Atmel is also supported by the Arduino Zero. The function of
Debugger is to provide a full debug interface, which does not require additional hardware.

o Arduino Esplora

The Arduino Esplora boards allow easy interfacing of sensors and actuators. The outputs and
inputs connected on the Esplora board make it unique from other types of Arduino boards. The
board includes outputs, inputs, a small microcontroller, a microphone, a sensor, a joystick, an
accelerometer, a temperature sensor, four buttons, and a slider.

o Arduino Pro Micro

The structure of Arduino Pro Micro is similar to the Arduino Mini board, except the
Microcontroller ATmega32U4. The board consists of 12 digital Input/output pins, 5 PWM (Pulse
Width Modulation) pins, Tx and Rx serial connections, and 10-bit ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter).
List of available boards in Arduino software
The list of boards that we can see in the Arduino software is shown below:
Here, the dot represents the select Arduino board in the Arduino IDE.

Arduino UNO
The Arduino UNO is a standard board of Arduino. Here UNO means 'one' in Italian. It was named
as UNO to label the first release of Arduino Software. It was also the first USB board released by
Arduino. It is considered as the powerful board used in various projects. Arduino.cc developed
the Arduino UNO board.

Arduino UNO is based on an ATmega328P microcontroller. It is easy to use compared to other

boards, such as the Arduino Mega board, etc. The board consists of digital and analog
Input/Output pins (I/O), shields, and other circuits.

The Arduino UNO includes 6 analog pin inputs, 14 digital pins, a USB connector, a power jack,
and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header. It is programmed based on IDE, which
stands for Integrated Development Environment. It can run on both online and offline platforms.

The IDE is common to all available boards of Arduino.

The Arduino board is shown below:

The components of Arduino UNO board are shown below:

Let's discuss each component in detail.

o ATmega328 Microcontroller- It is a single chip Microcontroller of the ATmel family. The

processor code inside it is of 8-bit. It combines Memory (SRAM, EEPROM, and Flash),
Analog to Digital Converter, SPI serial ports, I/O lines, registers, timer, external and
internal interrupts, and oscillator.
o ICSP pin - The In-Circuit Serial Programming pin allows the user to program using the
firmware of the Arduino board.
o Power LED Indicator- The ON status of LED shows the power is activated. When the
power is OFF, the LED will not light up.
o Digital I/O pins- The digital pins have the value HIGH or LOW. The pins numbered from
D0 to D13 are digital pins.
o TX and RX LED's- The successful flow of data is represented by the lighting of these
LED's.
 o AREF- The Analog Reference (AREF) pin is used to feed a reference voltage to the
Arduino UNO board from the external power supply.
o Reset button- It is used to add a Reset button to the connection.
o USB- It allows the board to connect to the computer. It is essential for the programming
of the Arduino UNO board.
o Crystal Oscillator- The Crystal oscillator has a frequency of 16MHz, which makes the
Arduino UNO a powerful board.
o Voltage Regulator- The voltage regulator converts the input voltage to 5V.
o GND- Ground pins. The ground pin acts as a pin with zero voltage.
o Vin- It is the input voltage.
o Analog Pins- The pins numbered from A0 to A5 are analog pins. The function of Analog
pins is to read the analog sensor used in the connection. It can also act as GPIO
(General Purpose Input Output) pins.

Why is Arduino recommended over other boards for beginners?

The USB port in the Arduino board is used to connect the board to the computer using the USB
cable. The cable acts as a serial port and as the power supply to interface the board. Such dual
functioning makes it unique to recommend and easy to use for beginners.

What is the main difference between Arduino UNO and Arduino Nano?
The Arduino Nano has a compact size and mini USB cable than the Arduino UNO.

What is the main difference between Arduino UNO and Arduino Mega?
The Arduino UNO is a standard board recommended to beginners, while Arduino Mega is used
for complex projects due to its greater memory space.

Memory
The memory structure is shown in the below image:
The preinstalled flash has a bootloader, which takes the memory of 0.5 Kb.

Here, SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory, and EEPROM stands for Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.

Technical Specifications of Arduino UNO

The technical specifications of the Arduino UNO are listed below:

o There are 20 Input/Output pins present on the Arduino UNO board. These 20 pis include
6 PWM pins, 6 analog pins, and 8 digital I/O pins.
o The PWM pins are Pulse Width Modulation capable pins.
o The crystal oscillator present in Arduino UNO comes with a frequency of 16MHz.
o It also has a Arduino integrated WiFi module. Such Arduino UNO board is based on the
Integrated WiFi ESP8266 Module and ATmega328P microcontroller.
o The input voltage of the UNO board varies from 7V to 20V.
o Arduino UNO automatically draws power from the external power supply. It can also
draw power from the USB.

How to get started with Arduino UNO?

We can program the Arduino UNO using the Arduino IDE. The Arduino IDE is the Integral
Development program, which is common to all the boards.

We can also use Arduino Web Editor, which allows us to upload sketches and write the code
from our web browser (Google Chrome recommended) to any Arduino Board. It is an online
platform.

The USB connection is essential to connect the computer with the board. After the connection,
the PWR pins will light in green. It is a green power LED.

The steps to get started with Arduino UNO are listed below:

o Install the drivers of the board.

As soon we connect the board to the computer, Windows from XP to 10 will automatically
install the board drivers.

But, if you have expanded or downloaded the zip package, follow the below steps:

1. Click on Start -> Control Panel -> System and Security.

2. Click on System -> Device Manager -> Ports (COM &LPT) -> Arduino UNO (COMxx). If
the COM &LPT is absent, look Other Devices -> Unknown Device.
3. Right-click to Arduino UNO (COmxx) -> Update Driver Software -> Browse my computer
for driver software.
4. Select the file "inf" to navigate else, select "ArduinoUNO.inf" .
5. Installation Finished.

o Open the code or sketch written in the Arduino software.

o Select the type of board.
Click on 'Tools' and select Board, as shown below:

o Select the port. Click on the Tools -> Port (select the port). The port likely will
be COM3 or higher. For example, COM6, etc. The COM1 and COM2 ports will not appear,
 because these two ports are reserved for the hardware serial ports.
o Now, upload and run the written code or sketch.

To upload and run, click on the button present on the top panel of the Arduino display, as shown
below:

Within the few seconds after the compile and run of code or sketch, the RX and TX light present
on the Arduino board will flash.

The 'Done Uploading' message will appear after the code is successfully uploaded. The
message will be visible in the status bar.

Arduino UNO Pinout

The Arduino UNO is a standard board of Arduino, which is based on
an ATmega328P microcontroller. It is easier to use than other types of Arduino Boards.

The Arduino UNO Board, with the specification of pins, is shown below:
Let's discuss each pin in detail.

o ATmega328 Microcontroller- It is a single chip Microcontroller of the ATmel family. The

processor core inside it is of 8-bit. It is a low-cost, low powered, and a simple
microcontroller. The Arduino UNO and Nano models are based on the ATmega328
Microcontroller.
o Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator converts the input voltage to 5V. The primary function of voltage regulator
is to regulate the voltage level in the Arduino board. For any changes in the input voltage of the
regulator, the output voltage is constant and steady.
 o GND - Ground pins. The ground pins are used to ground the circuit.
o TXD and RXD

TXD and RXD pins are used for serial communication. The TXD is used for transmitting the data,
and RXD is used for receiving the data. It also represents the successful flow of data.

o USB Interface

The USB Interface is used to plug-in the USB cable. It allows the board to connect to the
computer. It is essential for the programming of the Arduino UNO board.

o RESET

It is used to add a Reset button to the connection.

o SCK

It stands for Serial Clock. These are the clock pulses, which are used to synchronize the
transmission of data.

o MISO

It stands for Master Input/ Slave Output. The save line in the MISO pin is used to send the data
to the master.

o VCC

It is the modulated DC supply voltage, which is used to regulate the IC's used in the connection.
It is also called as the primary voltage for IC's present on the Arduino board. The Vcc voltage
value can be negative or positive with respect to the GND pin.

o Crystal Oscillator- The Crystal oscillator has a frequency of 16MHz, which makes the
Arduino UNO a powerful board.
o ICSP

It stands for In-Circuit Serial Programming. The users can program the Arduino board's
firmware using the ICSP pins.

The program or firmware with the advanced functionalities is received by microcontroller with
the help of the ICSP header.

The ICSP header consists of 6 pins.

The structure of the ICSP header is shown below:

It is the top view of the ICSP header.

o SDA

It stands for Serial Data. It is a line used by the slave and master to send and receive data. It is
called as a data line, while SCL is called as a clock line.

o SCL

It stands for Serial Clock. It is defined as the line that carries the clock data. It is used to
synchronize the transfer of data between the two devices. The Serial Clock is generated by the
device and it is called as master.

o SPI

It stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. It is popularly used by the microcontrollers to

communicate with one or more peripheral devices quickly. It uses conductors for data receiving,
data sending, synchronization, and device selection (for communication).

o MOSI

It stands for Master Output/ Slave Input.

The MOSI and SCK are driven by the Master.

o SS

It stands for Slave Select. It is the Slave Select line, which is used by the master. It acts as the
enable line.

o I2C
It is the two-wire serial communication protocol. It stands for Inter Integrated Circuits. The I2C
is a serial communication protocol that uses SCL (Serial Clock) and SDA (Serial Data) to receive
and send data between two devices.

3.3V and 5V are the operating voltages of the board.

Arduino Coding Basics

We have already discussed the popular Arduino Boards, Arduino IDEs, and Installation process
of the Arduino software. We learned that Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
allows us to draw the sketch and upload it to the various Arduino boards using code. The code
is written in a simple programming language similar to C and C++.

The initial step to start with Arduino is the IDE download and installation.

Let's discuss the basics to start with Arduino programming.

Brackets
There are two types of brackets used in the Arduino coding, which are listed below:

o Parentheses ( )
o Curly Brackets { }

Parentheses ( )

The parentheses brackets are the group of the arguments, such as method, function, or a code
statement. These are also used to group the math equations.

Curly Brackets { }

The statements in the code are enclosed in the curly brackets. We always require closed curly
brackets to match the open curly bracket in the code or sketch.

Open curly bracket- ' { '

Closed curly bracket - ' } '

Line Comment
There are two types of line comments, which are listed below:

o Single line comment

o Multi-line comment
// Single line comment

The text that is written after the two forward slashes are considered as a single line comment.
The compiler ignores the code written after the two forward slashes. The comment will not be
displayed in the output. Such text is specified for a better understanding of the code or for the
explanation of any code statement.

The // (two forward slashes) are also used to ignore some extra lines of code without deleting it.

/ * Multi - line comment */

The Multi-line comment is written to group the information for clear understanding. It starts with
the single forward slash and an asterisk symbol (/ *). It also ends with the / *. It is commonly
used to write the larger text. It is a comment, which is also ignored by the compiler.

Coding Screen
The coding screen is divided into two blocks. The setup is considered as the preparation block,
while the loop is considered as the execution block. It is shown below:
 The set of statements in the setup and loop blocks are enclosed with the curly brackets. We can
write multiple statements depending on the coding requirements for a particular project.

For example:

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. Coding statement 1;
4. Coding statement 2;
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. Coding statement n;
9. }
10. void loop ( )
11. {
12. Coding statement 1;
13. Coding statement 2;
14. .
15. .
16. .
17. Coding statement n;
18. }

What is Setup? What type of code is written in the setup block?

It contains an initial part of the code to be executed. The pin modes, libraries, variables, etc., are
initialized in the setup section. It is executed only once during the uploading of the program and
after reset or power up of the Arduino board.

Zero setup () resides at the top of each sketch. As soon as the program starts running, the code
inside the curly bracket is executed in the setup and it executes only once.

What is Loop? What type of code is written in the Loop block?

The loop contains statements that are executed repeatedly. The section of code inside the curly
brackets is repeated depending on the value of variables.

Time in Arduino
The time in Arduino programming is measured in a millisecond.
Where, 1 sec = 1000 milliseconds

We can adjust the timing according to the milliseconds.

For example, for a 5-second delay, the time displayed will be 5000 milliseconds.

Example:

Let's consider a simple LED blink example.

The steps to open such example are:

1. Click on the File button, which is present on the menu bar.

2. Click on the Examples.
3. Click on the Basics option and click on the Blink

The example will reopen in a new window, as shown below:

o The void setup () would include pinMode as the main function.

pinMode ( )
The specific pin number is set as the INPUT or OUTPUT in the pinMode () function.

The Syntax is: pinMode (pin, mode)

Where,

pin: It is the pin number. We can select the pin number according to the requirements.
 Mode: We can set the mode as INPUT or OUTPUT according to the corresponding pin number.

Let' understand the pinMode with an example.

Example: We want to set the 12 pin number as the output pin.

Code:

1. pinMode (12, OUTPUT);

Why is it recommended to set the mode of pins as OUTPUT?

The OUTPUT mode of a specific pin number provides a considerable amount of current to other
circuits, which is enough to run a sensor or to light the LED brightly. The output state of a pin is
considered as the low-impedance state.

The high current and short circuit of a pin can damage the ATmel chip. So, it is recommended to
set the mode as OUTPUT.

Can we set the pinMode as INPUT?

The digitalWrite () will disable the LOW during the INPUT mode. The output pin will be
considered as HIGH.

We can use the INPUT mode to use the external pull-down resistor. We are required to set the
pinMode as INPUT_PULLUP. It is used to reverse the nature of the INPUT mode.

The sufficient amount of current is provided by the pull-up mode to dimly light an LED, which is
connected to the pin in the INPUT mode. If the LED is working dimly, it means this condition is
working out.

Due to this, it is recommended to set the pin in OUTPUT mode.

o The void loop () would include digitalWrite( ) and delay ( ) as the main function.

digitalWrite( )
The digitalWrite ( ) function is used to set the value of a pin as HIGH or LOW.

Where,

HIGH: It sets the value of the voltage. For the 5V board, it will set the value of 5V, while for 3.3V,
it will set the value of 3.3V.

LOW: It sets the value = 0 (GND).

If we do not set the pinMode as OUTPUT, the LED may light dim.
 The syntax is: digitalWrite( pin, value HIGH/LOW)

pin: We can specify the pin number or the declared variable.

Let's understand with an example.

Example:

1. digitalWrite (13, HIGH);

2. digitalWrite (13, LOW);

The HIGH will ON the LED and LOW will OFF the LED connected to pin number 13.

What is the difference between digitalRead () and digitalWrite ()?

The digitalRead () function will read the HIGH/LOW value from the digital pin, and the
digitalWrite () function is used to set the HIGH/LOW value of the digital pin.

delay ( )
The delay () function is a blocking function to pause a program from doing a task during the
specified duration in milliseconds.

For example, - delay (2000)

Where, 1 sec = 1000millisecond

Hence, it will provide a delay of 2 seconds.

Code:

1. digitalWrite (13, HIGH);

2. delay (2000);
3. digitalWrite (13, LOW);
4. delay (1000);

Here, the LED connected to pin number 13 will be ON for 2 seconds and OFF for 1 second. The
task will repeatedly execute as it is in the void loop ().

We can set the duration according to our choice or project requirements.

Example: To light the LED connected to pin number 13. We want to ON the LED for 4 seconds
and OFF the LED for 1.5 seconds.

Code:
1. void setup ()
2. {
3. pinMode ( 13, OUTPUT); // to set the OUTPUT mode of pin number 13.
4. }
5. void loop ()
6. {
7. digitalWrite (13, HIGH);
8. delay (4000); // 4 seconds = 4 x 1000 milliseconds
9. digitalWrite (13, LOW);
10. delay (1500); // 1.5 seconds = 1.5 x 1000 milliseconds
11. }

Arduino Syntax and Program Flow

Syntax
Syntax in Arduino signifies the rules need to be followed for the successful uploading of the
Arduino program to the board. The syntax of Arduino is similar to the grammar in English. It
means that the rules must be followed in order to compile and run our code successfully. If we
break those rules, our computer program may compile and run, but with some bugs.

Let's understand with an example.

As we open the Arduino IDE, the display will look like the below image:
The two functions that encapsulate the pieces of code in the Arduino program are shown below:

1. void setup ( )
2. void loop ( )

Functions
o The functions in Arduino combine many pieces of lines of code into one.
o The functions usually return a value after finishing execution. But here, the function does
not return any value due to the presence of void.
o The setup and loop function have void keyword present in front of their function name.
o The multiple lines of code that a function encapsulates are written inside curly brackets.
o Every closing curly bracket ' } ' must match the opening curly bracket '{ ' in the code.
o We can also write our own functions, which will be discussed later in this tutorial.

Spaces
o Arduino ignores the white spaces and tabs before the coding statements.
o The coding statements in the code are intent (empty spacing at the starting) for the easy
reading.
o In the function definition, loop, and conditional statements, 1 intent = 2 spaces.
o The compiler of Arduino also ignores the spaces in the parentheses, commas, blank
lines, etc.

Tools Tab
o The verify icon present on the tool tab only compiles the code. It is a quick method to
check that whether the syntax of our program is correct or not.
o To compile, run, and upload the code to the board, we need to click on the Upload button.

Uses of Parentheses ( )
o It denotes the function like void setup ( ) and void loop ( ).
o The parameter's inputs to the function are enclosed within the parentheses.
o It is also used to change the order of operations in mathematical operations.

Semicolon ;
o It is the statement terminator in the C as well as C++.
o A statement is a command given to the Arduino, which instructs it to take some kind of
action. Hence, the terminator is essential to signify the end of a statement.
 o We can write one or more statements in a single line, but with semicolon indicating the
end of each statement.
o The compiler will indicate an error if a semicolon is absent in any of the statements.
o It is recommended to write each statement with semicolon in a different line, which
makes the code easier to read.
o We are not required to place a semicolon after the curly braces of the setup and loop
function.

Arduino processes each statement sequentially. It executes one statement at a time before
moving to the next statement.

Program Flow
The program flow in Arduino is similar to the flowcharts. It represents the execution of a
program in order.

We recommend to draw the flowchart before writing the code. It helps us to understand the
concept of code, which makes it the coding simpler and easier.

Flow Charts
A flowchart uses shapes and arrows to represent the information or sequence of actions.

An oval ellipse shows the Start of the sequence, and a square shows the action or processes
that need to be performed.

The Arduino coding process in the form of the flowchart is shown below:

Here, the processor enters our code, and the execution of code begins. After the setup, the
execution of the statement in the loop begins.

The example of the flowchart in Arduino is shown below:

Arduino Serial |Serial.begin()
Serial Communication
The serial communication is a simple scheme that uses the UART (Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter) on the Microcontroller. It uses,

o 5V for logic 1 (high)

o 0V for logic 0 (low)

For a 3.3V board, it uses

o 3V for logic 1 (high)

o 0V for logic 0 (low)

Every message sent on the UART is in the form of 8 bits or 1 byte, where 1 byte = 8 bits.

The messages sent to the computer from Arduino are sent from PIN 1 of the Arduino board,
called Tx (Transmitter). The messages being sent to the Arduino from the computer
are received on PIN 0, called Rx (Receiver).

These two pins on the Arduino UNO board look like the below image:

When we initialize the pins for serial communication in our code, we cannot use these two pins
(Rx and Tx) for any purpose. The Tx and Rx pins are also connected directly to the computer.

The pins are connected to the serial Tx and Rx chip, which acts as a serial to USB translator. It
acts as a medium for the computer to talk to the Microcontroller.

The chip on the board looks like the below image:

The object can include any number of data members (information) and member functions (to
call actions).

The Serial.begin( ) is a part of the serial object in the Arduino. It tells the serial object to perform
initialization steps to send and receive data on the Rx and Tx (pins 1 and 0).

Let's discuss Serial.begin( ) in detail.

Arduino Mega has four serial ports. The Tx pins on the Mega board are listed below:

o 1 (TX)
o 18 (TX)
o 16 (TX)
o 14 (TX)

The Rx pins on the Mega port are listed below:

o 0 (RX)
o 19 (RX)
o 17 (RX)
o 15 (RX)

The communication with the Tx and Rx pins would cause interference and failed uploads to the
particular board.

If we require a serial port for communication, we need to use a USB-to serial adapter. It is a mini
USB connector, which converts the USB connection to the Serial RX and TX. We can directly
connect the adapter to the board.

There are five pins present on the USB-to serial adapter, including RX, TX, reset button, and GND
(Ground).

Serial.begin ( )
 The serial.begin( ) sets the baud rate for serial data communication. The baud rate signifies the
data rate in bits per second.

The default baud rate in Arduino is 9600 bps (bits per second). We can specify other baud rates
as well, such as 4800, 14400, 38400, 28800, etc.

The Serial.begin( ) is declared in two formats, which are shown below:

o begin( speed )
o begin( speed, config)

Where,

serial: It signifies the serial port object.

speed: It signifies the baud rate or bps (bits per second) rate. It allows long data types.

config: It sets the stop, parity, and data bits.

Example 1:

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. Serial.begin(4800);
4. }
5. void loop ( )
6. {
7. }

The serial.begin (4800 ) open the serial port and set the bits per rate to 4800. The messages in
Arduino are interchanged with the serial monitor at a rate of 4800 bits per second.

Let's consider another example.

Example 2:

It is shown below:
Arduino Serial.print ( )
The serial.print ( ) in Arduino prints the data to the serial port. The printed data is stored in the
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) format, which is a human-readable
text.

Each digit of a number is printed using the ASCII characters.

The printed data will be visible in the serial monitor, which is present on the right corner on the
toolbar.

The Serial.print( ) is declared in two formats, which are shown below:

o print( value )
o print( value, format)
 Note: In Serial.print( ), S must be written in uppercase.

Where,

serial: It signifies the serial port object.

print: The print ( ) returns the specified number of bytes written.

value: It signifies the value to print, which includes any data type value.

format: It consists of number base, such as OCT (Octal), BIN (Binary), HEX (Hexadecimal), etc.
for the integral data types. It also specifies the number of decimal places.

Serial.print( value )
The serial.print ( ) accepts the number using the ASCII character per digit and value upto two
decimal places for floating point numbers.

Example 1:

1. Serial.print(15.452732)

Output:

15.45

It sends bytes to the printer as a single character. In Arduino, the strings and characters using
the Serial.print( ) are sent as it is.

Example 2:

1. Serial.print("Hello Arduino")
 Output:

"Hello Arduino"

Serial.print( value, format )

It specifies the base format and gives the output according to the specified format. It includes
the formats Octal -OCT (base 8), Binary-BIN (base 2), Decimal-DEC (base 10), and Hexadecimal-
HEX (base 16).

Let's understand by few examples.

Example 1:

1. Serial.print(25, BIN)

Output:

11001

It converts the decimal number 25 to binary number 11001.

Example 2:

1. Serial.print(58, HEX)

Output:

3A

It converts the decimal number 58 to hexadecimal number 3A.

Example 3:

1. Serial.print(58, OCT)

Output:

72

It converts the decimal number 58 to octal number 72.

Example 4:

1. Serial.print(25, DEC)
 Output:

25

The conversion is from decimal to decimal. So, the output will be the same.

Flash Memory based strings

If we want to pass the flash memory in Serial.print ( ) based on string, we need to wrap the
function statement with F.

For example,

Serial.print( F ( "Hello Arduino") ).

Printing a Tab space

We can also print the tab in the output.

Let's consider the code below:

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. Serial.begin ( 4800);
4. }
5. void loop ( )
6. {
7. Serial.print(" Hello Arduino" );
8. Serial.print(" \ t '');
9. }

Here, Serial.print(" \ t '') is used to print the tab in the output program.

Serial.println ( )
The Serial.println ( ) means print line, which sends the string followed by the carriage return ('\r'
or ASCII 13) and newline ('\n' or ASCII 10) characters. It has a similar effect as pressing the
Enter or Return key on the keyboard when typing with the Text Editor.

The Serial.println( ) is also declared in two formats, which are shown below:

o println( value )
o println( value, format)
 What is the difference between Serial.print( ) and Serial.println( )?

The text written inside the open and closed parentheses in the Serial.println( ) moves in a new
line. With the help of Serial.print( ) and Serial.println( ), we can figure the order and execution of
certain things in our code.

Let's understand with an example:

Consider the below code.

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. Serial.begin ( 4800);
4. }
5. void loop ( )
6. {
7. Serial.print(" Hello");
8. delay(1000);
9. Serial.println("Arduino"); // It will print Arduino followed by a new line.
10. delay ( 1500); // delay of 1.5 seconds between each printed line.
11. }

Click on the Upload button-> Serial monitor for the output.

In the output, the word Hello will appear followed by the word Arduino 1 second later. After 1.5
second, another line will be printed.

Output

1. Hello Arduino
2. Hello Arduino // The next line will be printed after the specified duration.
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. The output will be printed repeatedly.

Arduino Mega

The Arduino Mega board (type of Arduino board) has four serial ports. While programming the
Mega, we need to declare all the four serial ports. The baud rates of all the four serial ports
should be different.
 It is shown below:

1. void setup() {
2. Serial.begin(4800);
3. Serial1.begin(28800);
4. Serial2.begin(38400);
5. Serial3.begin(9600);
6.
7. Serial.println("Serial port");
8. Serial1.println("Serial port 1");
9. Serial2.println("Serial port 2");
10. Serial3.println("Serial port 3");
11. }
12. void loop()
13. {
14. }

Serial.available( )
The Serial.available( ) function in Arduino gets the stored bytes from the serial port that are
available for reading. It is the data, which is already stored and arrived in the serial buffer. The
serial buffer in Arduino holds the 64 bytes.

Serial.available( ) function inherits from the utility class called stream. The stream is only
invoked when the function relying on it is called. The stream class is considered as the base
class for binary and character-based streams.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

1. int arrivingdatabyte = 0; // initializing the incoming serial byte

2. void setup( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600); // 9600 is the data rate in bps (bits per second).
5. }
6. void loop( ) // loop function that executes repeatedly
7. {
8. if(Serial.available( ) > 0) // It will only send data when the received data is greater than 0.

9. {
10. arrivingdatabyte = Serial.read( ); // It will read the incoming or arriving data byte
11. Serial.print("data byte received:");
12. Serial.println(arrivingdatabyte, DEC); // here, DEC means Decimal
13. }
14. }

In case of the Arduino Mega, the ports available are:

Serial1.available( )

Serial2.available( )

Serial3.available( )

Let's understand the concept of Mega with an example.

In this example, the data will be read and sent from one port to another.

It will read data from port 0 and will then send the data to port 1.

Consider the below code.

1. void setup( )
2. {
3. Serial.begin(4800);
4. Serial1.begin(4800);
5. }
6. // two if conditions will be used.
7. //In first, if the data is available in the port 0, it will send to the port 1. In second, if the da
ta is available in the port 1, it will send to the port 0.
8. void loop( )
9. {
10. // Now,the data will be read from port 0 and will be sent to the port 1.
11. if( Serial.available( ) )
12. {
13. int incomingdatabyte = Serial.read( );
14. Serial1.print('incomingdatabyte, byte');
15. }
16. // Now,the data will be read from port 1 and will be sent to the port 0.
17. if( Serial1.available( ) )
18. {
19. int incomingdatabyte = Serial1.read( );
20. Serial.print('incomingdatabyte, byte');
21. }
22. }

We can also check the errors in our code by compiling. For that, click on the Verify button.

The Arduino screen will look like the below image:

The Done Compiling will signify the successful compiling of the code.

Note: With the help of the Arduino board, we cannot connect the serial device to our computer.

Arduino Serial.read( ) and Serial.write( )

Arduino Serial.read( )
The Serial.read( ) in Arduino reads the incoming serial data in the Arduino. The int data type is
used here. It returns the first data byte of the arriving serial data. It also returns -1 when no data is
available on the serial port.

The syntax used in the Arduino programming is Serial.read( ),

Where,

serial: It signifies the serial port object.

The data is stored in the form of bytes, where 1 byte = 8 bits.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

int arrivingdatabyte;
void setup( )
{
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop( )
{
if(Serial.available( ) > 0)
{
arrivingdatabyte = Serial.read( ); // It will read the incoming or arriving data byte
Serial.print("data byte received:");
Serial.println(arrivingdatabyte);
}
}

The above code clearly explains that the Serial.available( ) is used to get the available number of
bytes if it is greater than 0. The Serial.read( ) function will read the data from the data byte and
print a message if the data is received. The data is sent from the serial monitor to the Arduino.
Serial.readString( )
It reads the incoming serial data from the serial buffer in the string. The String data type is used
here.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

String b;
void setup( )
{
Serial.begin(4800);
}
void loop( )
{
while( Serial.available( ) )
{
b = Serial.readString( );
Serial.println(b);
}
}

The above code clearly explains that the Serial.readString( ) is used to read the serial data into the
string. The string specified here is b.

The data in the Serial function is read as a string in the above code.

How serial data is read by Serial.readString( ) and Serial.read( )?

The Serial.read( ) function reads the data in terms of bytes, while the Serial.readString( ) reads the
data in the term of string.

Serial.write( )
It sends the binary data to the serial port in Arduino. The data through Serial.write is sent as a
series of bytes or a single byte. The data type is size_t.

The Serial.write( ) function will return the number of written bytes.

If we want to send the digits of numbers represented by the characters, we need to use the
Serial.print( ) function instead of Serial.write( ).

The Serial.write( ) is declared in three formats, which are shown below:

o write( str )

o write( value )

o write( buffer, len)

Where,

Serial: It signifies the serial port object.

str: The str means string, which sends the data as a series of bytes.

buffer: It is an array that is used to send the data as a series of bytes.

value: It sends the data to the Arduino as a single byte.

len: It signifies the number of bytes, which can be sent from the array.

Let's understand with a simple example.

Consider the below code.

void setup( )
{
Serial.begin(14400);
}
void loop( )
{
Serial.write(55); // the specified value is 55.
// Serial.write( ) send the data as a byte with this value (55).
int Bytestosend = Serial.write( " Arduino" );
// It sends the Arduino string.
//The length of the string is a return parameter in this function.
}

Arduino analogRead ( )
The analogRead( ) function reads the value from the specified analog pin present on the
particular Arduino board.

The ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) on the Arduino board is a multichannel converter. It maps
the input voltage and the operating voltage between the values 0 and 1023. The operating
voltage can be 5V or 3.3V.

The values from 0 to 1023 are the integer values. It can also be written as 0 to (2^10) -1.

The time duration to read an analog input signal on the boards (UNO, Mega, Mini, and Nano) is
about 100 microseconds or 0.0001 seconds.

Hence, the maximum reading rate of analog input is about 10000 times per second.

Let's discuss operating voltage and resolution of some Arduino boards.

o The Operating voltage of Arduino UNO, Mini, Mega, Nano, Leonardo, and Micro is 5V, and
resolution is 10 bits.
o The Operating voltage of MKR family boards, Arduino Due, and Zero is 3 V, and
resolution is 12 bits.

Changing the input voltage and resolution

o On a particular board, we can change the input voltage using the analogReference( )
 function.

analogReference( )

The reference voltage used for the analog input is configured by the analogReference( ).

The syntax is:

1. analogReference (type)

Note: The external reference voltage on the AREF pin should not exceed greater than 5V or less than
0V. We need to set the analog Reference as External while working on the AREF pin.
Otherwise, it can damage the microcontroller present on the Arduino board.

o We can change the resolution only for the MKR Family, Zero, and Due board using the
analogReadResolution( ) function.

analogReadResolution( )

The MKR Family, Zero, and Due have the ADC resolution of 12 bits.

The analogReadResolution( ) will return the integer values between 0 and 4095 from the
analogRead( ) function.

The syntax is:

1. analogReadResolution (bits)

where,

bits: It signifies the resolution bits returned by the analogRead( ) function. We can set the value
of bits between 1 and 32.

Note: If the resolution bits higher than the board capabilities are specified, the Arduino will pad the
extra bits with zeroes.
For example, analogReadResolution (14)
The above function will give a 14-bit approximated number with the first two 12 bits (that includes
ADC reading) and the last two padded bits.

Syntax of analogRead ( )
The syntax is:

1. analogRead(pin)

where,
 pin: It includes the name of the particular analog pin to read from.

The data type is int.

A not-connected analog pin can also return some value. Such value depends on the position of
our hand on the board and other nearby analog inputs.

Code Example
Let's understand the concept of analogRead with an example.

Consider the below code:

1. // Below is an example for the better understanding of the analogRead( ) function

2. int AnaPin = A3; // Analog pin A3 is specified here
3. int value = 0; // variable declared to store the value read
4. void setup()
5. {
6. Serial.begin(9600); // It sets the serial rate at bps
7. }
8. void loop()
9. {
10. value = analogRead(AnaPin); // It reads the input pin
11. Serial.println(value);
12. }

The above code reads the voltage from the specified analog pin (AnaPin) and displays it.

Arduino Functions
The functions allow a programmer to divide a specific code into various sections, and each
section performs a particular task. The functions are created to perform a task multiple times in
a program.

The function is a type of procedure that returns the area of code from which it is called.

For example, to repeat a task multiple times in code, we can use the same set of statements
every time the task is performed.

Advantages of using Functions

Let's discuss some advantages of using functions in programming, which are listed below:
 o It increases the readability of the code.
o It conceives and organizes the program.
o It reduces the chances of errors.
o It makes the program compact and small.
o It avoids the repetition of the set of statements or codes.
o It allows us to divide a complex code or program into a simpler one.
o The modification becomes easier with the help of functions in a program.

The Arduino has two common functions setup() and loop(), which are called automatically in
the background. The code to be executed is written inside the curly braces within these
functions.

void setup() - It includes the initial part of the code, which is executed only once. It is called as
the preparation block.

void loop() - It includes the statements, which are executed repeatedly. It is called the execution
block.

But sometimes, we need to write our own functions.

Let's start writing the functions.

Function Declaration
The method to declare a function is listed below:

o Function return type

We need a return type for a function. For example, we can store the return value of a function in
a variable.

We can use any data type as a return type, such as float, char, etc.

o Function name

It consists of a name specified to the function. It represents the real body of the function.

o Function parameter

It includes the parameters passed to the function. The parameters are defined as the special
variables, which are used to pass data to a function.

The function must be followed by parentheses ( ) and the semicolon ;

 The actual data passed to the function is termed as an argument.

Let's understand with some examples.

Example 1:
Consider the below image:

Example 2: Here, we will add two numbers.

Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. Serial.begin(9600);
4. }
5. void loop() {
6. int a = 5; // initialization of values to the variables a and b
7. int b = 4;
8. int c;
9. c = myAddfunction(a, b); // c will now contains the value 9
10. Serial.println(c); // to print the resulted value
11. delay(1000); // time delay of 1 second or 1000 milliseconds
12. }
13. int myAddfunction(int i, int j)
14. {
15. int sum;
16. sum = i + j;
17. return sum;
18. }

Similarly, we can perform arithmetic operations using the above concept.

Example 3:
Here, we will create a function that determines if a number is even or odd.

Consider the below code.

1. int a= 0;
2. int b;
3. void setup()
4. {
5. Serial.begin(9600);
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. b = Evenfunction(a); // we can store the function return value in variable b
10. Serial.print(a);
11. Serial.print(" : "); // to separate even or odd text
12. if (b==1)
13. {
14. Serial.println( " Number is even");
15. }
16. else
17. {
18. Serial.println("Number is odd");
19. }
20.
21. a++; // the function will increment and will again run
22. delay(1000);
23. }
24.
25. int Evenfunction(int d)
26. {
27. if (d% 2==0)
28. {
29. return 1;
30. }
31. else
32. {
33. return 0;
34. }
35. }

Output:

The output is shown below:

Arduino Data Types

 The data types are used to identify the types of data and the associated functions for handling
the data. It is used for declaring functions and variables, which determines the bit pattern and
the storage space.

The data types that we will use in the Arduino are listed below:

o void Data Type

o int Data Type
o Char Data Type
o Float Data Type
o Double Data Type
o Unsigned int Data Type
o short Data Type
o long Data Type
o Unsigned long Data Type
o byte data type
o word data type

void Data Type

The void data type specifies the empty set of values and only used to declare the functions. It is
used as the return type for the functions that do not return any value.

Let's understand with an example in Arduino.

Consider the below code.

1. int a = 3;
2. void setup( )
3. {
4. . //
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. .
9. .
10. }

Int Data Type

 The integer data types are the whole numbers like 5, -6, 10, -123, etc. They do not have any
fractional part. The integer data types are represented by int. It is considered as the primary
data type to store the numbers.

The size of int is 2 bytes ( 16 bits).

Minimal range: -32768 to 32767 or - (2^ 15) to ((2 ^ 15) - 1)

In the ATmega and Arduino UNO boards, the int data types store the value of 2 bytes.

On the boards like Arduino Zero and MKR1000 (SAMD boards), and Arduino Due, the int data
type stores the value of 4 bytes or 32 bits. The Minimal range in such case would be - (2^ 31) to
((2 ^ 31) - 1) or -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

The negative numbers are stored in the form of 2's complement, where the sign bit or the
highest bit is flagged as the negative number.

The syntax is used as:

1. int var = val;

where,

var= variable

value = the value assigned to the variable

For example,

1. int a;
2. int b = 3;

Any variable or identifier becomes an integer variable and can hold only integer values.

Let's understand with an example in Arduino.

Consider the below code.

1. int Sum = 0;
2. void setup( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. Sum++; // on every loop, it adds 1 to the Sum int
9. Serial.println ( Sum); // it prints the current state of the Sum variable
10. delay(1500); // delay of 1.5 seconds
11. }

Char Data Type

The char datatype can store any number of character set. An identifier declared as the char
becomes a character variable. The literals are written inside a single quote.

The char type is often said to be an integer type. It is because, symbols, letters, etc., are
represented in memory by associated number codes and that are only integers.

The size of character data type is minimum of 8 bits. We can use the byte data type for an
unsigned char data type of 8 bits or 1 byte.

For example, character ' A ' has the ASCII value of 65.

If we specify, ' A ' + 2, it will have the ASCII value of 67.

The syntax is:

1. char var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

1. char myvariable = ' B ';

2. char myvariable = 66 ; // both the value are equivalent

The ASCII table is shown below:

Float Data Type
A number having the fractional part and a decimal part is considered as a floating-point number.
For example, 4.567 is a floating-point number. The number 13 is an integer, while 13.0 is a
floating-point number. Due to their greater resolution, fractional numbers are used to
approximate the contiguous and analog values.

Floating point numbers can also be written in the exponent form. The numbers can be as large
as 3.4028235E+38 and as small as -3.4028235E+38. The size of float data types is 4 bytes or
32 bits.

The syntax is:

1. float var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

1. int a ;
2. int b ;
3. float c ;
4. void setup ( )
5. {
6. Serial.begin (9600);
7. }
8. void loop ( )
9. {
10. a=3;
11. b = a/2 ; // b is an integer. It cannot hold fractions. The output will be 1.
12. c = (float) a / 2.0 ; // c now contains 1.5.
13. // Here, we have to use 2.0 instead of 2.
14. }

Note: We need to add a decimal point to a number. Otherwise, it will be considered as an integer. For
example, 14.0 is considered as a float number, while 14 is an integer.

The floating-point numbers can also be converted to integers. For example,

1. float a = 3.6 ;
2. int b = a + 0.6 ; // output = 4

Double Data Type

The double data type is also used for handling the decimal or floating-point numbers. It
occupies twice as much memory as float. It stores floating point numbers with larger precision
and range. It stands for double precision floating point numbers.

It occupies 4 bytes in ATmega and UNO boards, while 8 bytes on Arduino Due.
 The syntax is:

1. double var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

Unsigned int Data Type

The unsigned int stores the value upto 2 bytes or 16 bits. It stores only positive values. The
range of unsigned int data type is from 0 to 65,535 or 0 to ((2 ^ 16) - 1).

Arduino Due stores the unsigned data value of 4 bytes or 32-bits.

The difference between Unsigned and signed data type is the sign bit. The int type in Arduino is
the signed int. In a 16-bit number, 15 bits are interpreted with the 2's complement, while the high
bit is interpreted as the positive or negative number. If the high bit is '1', it is considered as a
negative number.

The syntax is:

1. unsigned int var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

For example,

1. unsigned int pinofLED = 8;

short Data Type

The short is an integer data type that stores two bytes or 16-bit of data.

The range of short data types is from -32768 to 32767 or - (2^ 15) to ((2 ^ 15) - 1). The ARM and
ATmega based Arduino's usually stores the data value of 2 bytes.

The syntax is:

1. short var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = the value assigned to the variable

For example,

1. short pinofLED = 8 ;

long Data Type

The long data types are considered as the extended size variables, which store 4 bytes (32 -bits).
The size ranges from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

While using integer numbers, at least one of the numbers should be followed by L, which forces
the number to be a long data type.

The syntax is:

1. long var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

For example,

1. long speed = 186000L;

Unsigned long Data Type

The unsigned long data types are also considered as the extended size variables, which store 4
bytes (32 -bits). It does not store negative numbers like other unsigned data types, which makes
their size ranges from 0 to 4,294,967,295 or (2^32 - 1).

The syntax is:

1. unsigned long var = val;

where,
 var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

For example

1. unsigned long currenTtime;

byte
1 byte = 8 bits.

It is considered as an unsigned number, which stores values from 0 to 255.

The syntax is:

1. byte var = val;

where,

var= variable

value = the value assigned to the variable

For example,

1. byte c = 20;

word
It is considered as an unsigned number of 16 bits or 2 bytes, which stores values from 0 to
65535.

The syntax is:

1. word var = val;

where,

var= variable

val = The value assigned to the variable

For example,
1. word c = 2000;

Arduino Variables
The variables are defined as the place to store the data and values. It consists of a name, value,
and type.

The variables can belong to any data type such as int, float, char, etc. Consider the url - Arduino
data types for detailed information.

Consider the below example:

1. int pin = 8;

Here, the int data type is used to create a variable named pin that stores the value 8. It also
means that value 8 is initialized to the variable pin.

We can modify the name of the variable according to our choice. For example,

The above example can also be written as:

1. int LEDpin = 8;

Here, the variable name is LEDpin.

We can refer the declared variable further in our program or code.

For example,

1. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);

Here, the value stored (8) in the declared variable (LEDpin) will be passed to the pinMode()
function.

If we have not declared the variable, the value can also be directly passed to the function.

For example:
1. pinMode( 8, OUTPUT);

Advantages of Variables
The advantages of the variables are listed below:

o We can use a variable many times in a program.

o The variables can represent integers, strings, characters, etc.
o It increases the flexibility of the program.
o We can easily modify the variables. For example, if we want to change the value of
variable LEDpin from 8 to 13, we need to change the only point in the code.
o We can specify any name for a variable. For example, greenpin, bluePIN, REDpin, etc.

How can we change the value of a variable in Arduino?

The value of a variable can be changed using the assignment operator ( equal = sign). But we
need to declare a variable before assigning the value.

If we directly specify the value as:

1. pin = 7;

We will get an error that pin has not declared.

We can easily change the variables by copying its value to another variable.

For example,

1. int LEDpin = 7;
2. int pin1 = LEDpin;
3. LEDpin = 13;

The LEDpin now contains the value 13 instead of 7. But, value of pin1 is still 7.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code.

1. void setup()
2. {
3. Serial.begin(9600);
4. int pinLED = 7;
5. Serial.println(pinLED); // value 7 will be printed
6. int pin1 = pinLED;
7. pinLED = 13;
8. Serial.println(pinLED); // value is now changed
9. // now, value 13 will be printed
10. }
11. void loop()
12. {
13. }

Output:

We can notice in the output that the value of LEDpin is changed from 7 to 13. Similarly, we can
change the values of variables.

Variables Scope
It means that in how many ways the variables can be declared.

The variables can be declared in two ways in Arduino, which are listed below:

o Local variables
o Global variables

Local Variables
The local variables are declared within the function. The variables have scope only within the
function. These variables can be used only by the statements that lie within that function.

For example,

1. void setup()
2. {
3. Serial.begin(9600);
4. }
5. void loop()
6. {
7. int x = 3;
8. int b = 4;
9. int sum = 0;
10. sum = x + b;
11. Serial.println(sum);
12. }

Global Variables
The global variables can be accessed anywhere in the program. The global variable is declared
outside the setup() and loop() function.

For example,

Consider the below code.

1. int LEDpin = 8;
2. void setup()
3. {
4. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);
5. }
6. void loop()
7. {
8. digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH);
9. }

We can notice that the LEDpin is used both in the loop() and setup() functions.

The value is used in both functions, so, changing the value in one function will reflect in the
other. For example,

1. int LEDpin = 8;
2. void setup()
3. {
4. LEDpin = 13;
5. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH);
10. }

Here, the value 13 will be passed to the digitalWrite() function.

What are constants?

The constants in Arduino are defined as the predefined expressions. It makes the code easy to
read.

The constants in Arduino are defined as:

Logical level Constants

The logical level constants are true or false.

The value of true and false are defined as 1 and 0. Any non-zero integer is determined as true in
terms of Boolean language. The true and false constants are type in lowercase rather than
uppercase (such as HIGH, LOW, etc.).

Pin level Constants

The digital pins can take two value HIGH or LOW.

In Arduino, the pin is configured as INPUT or OUTPUT using the pinMode() function. The pin is
further made HIGH or LOW using the digitalWrite() function.

HIGH
The board includes two types of voltage pins to provide HIGH value, which are listed below:

o 5V
o 3V

Some boards include only 5V pins, while some include 3.3V.

Some boards consist of both 5V and 3.3V pins. For example, Arduino UNO R3.

The pin configured as HIGH is set at either 5V or 3.3V.

The pins are configured at the 5V or 3.3V depending on:

o for voltage > 3.0V (presented at 5V pin)

 o for voltage > 2.0V (presented at 3.3V pin)

LOW
The pin configured as LOW is set at 0 Volts.

The pins are configured at the 5V or 3.3V depending on:

o for voltage < 1.5V (presented at 5V pin)

o for voltage < 1V (presented at 3.3V pin)

LED_BUILTIN Constant
The Arduino boards have built-in LED connected in series with the resistor. The particular pin
number is defined with the constant name called LED_BUILTIN.

Most Arduino boards have the LED_BUILTIN connected to Pin number 13.

Constant Keyword
The name const represents the constant keyword. It modifies the behavior of the variables in
our program. It further makes the variable as 'read-only'.

The variable will remain the same as other variables, but its value cannot be changed.

It means we cannot modify the constant. For example,

1. const int a =2;

2. //....
3. a = 7; // illegal - we cannot write to or modify a constant

The const keyword is considered superior compared to the #define keyword because it obeys
the rules of the variable scope.

For example,

Consider the below code:

1. const float x = 5.68;

2. float y;
3. void setup()
4. {
5. Serial.begin(9600);
6. y = x * 2; // we can also use constants in math
7. Serial.println(y);
8. }
9. void loop()
10. {
11. // ....

Output: 11.36

Note: We can either use const or #define in the case of strings and numeric constants. But we can
only use const for arrays.

#define
The #define in Arduino is used to give a name to the constant value. It does not take any
memory space on the chip.

At the compile time, the compiler will replace the predefined value in the program to the
constants with the defined value.

The syntax is:

1. #define nameOFconstant value

where,

nameOFconstant: It is the name of the macro or constant to define

value: It includes the value assigned to the constant or macro.

For example,

1. #define LEDpin 12
2. // It is the correct representation of #define

Note: The #define does not require any semicolon. Hence, we do not need to specify any semicolon
after the #define. Otherwise, the compiler will show errors.

The incorrect declarations of #define can be:

1. #define LEDpin = 12
2. #define LEDpin 12;

Arduino Operators
The operators are widely used in Arduino programming from basics to advanced levels. It plays
a crucial role in every programming concept like C, C++, Java, etc.

The operators are used to solve logical and mathematical problems. For example, to calculate
the temperature given by the sensor based on some analog voltage.

The types of Operators classified in Arduino are:

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Compound Operators
3. Boolean Operators
4. Comparison Operators
5. Bitwise Operators

Arithmetic Operators
There are six basic operators responsible for performing mathematical operations in Arduino,
which are listed below:

o Assignment Operator ( = )

The Assignment operator in Arduino is used to set the variable's value. It is quite different from
the equal symbol (=) normally used in mathematics.

o Addition ( + )

The addition operator is used for the addition of two numbers. For example, P + Q.

o Subtraction ( - )

Subtraction is used to subtract one value from the another. For example, P - Q.

o Multiplication ( * )

The multiplication is used to multiply two numbers. For example, P * Q.

o Division ( / )

The division is used to determine the result of one number divided with another. For example,
P/Q.

o Modulo ( % )
 The Modulo operator is used to calculate the remainder after the division of one number by
another number.

Most of the operators are similar to the usual operator used in mathematics.

Let's understand the operators with the help of two examples.

Example 1:

Consider the below code.

1. int b;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin( 9600 );
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. b = 5 + 2;
9. Serial.println(b);
10. }

In the above code, we have assigned the result of the addition of two numbers to b before
printing it to the console.

For output, click on the Upload and Serial Monitor button present on the toolbar.

Output: 7

Example 2:

Consider the below code:

1. int d;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin( 9600 );
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. d = 5 - 2;
9. Serial.println(d);
10. d = d + 3;
11. Serial.println(d);
12. }

Here, d= d +3 is not operated as a usual mathematical operation. It is the assignment operator

where right of the function is evaluated first and is assigned to the left of the equal sign.

Let's consider the below image for better understanding.

Output:

3
6

Similarly, we can perform multiplication, modulo, and division. The int variable will store the
integer values. For example, 20/3 = 6.

If we want decimal values to be printed, we need to use the float instead of int.

For example,

Consider the below code:

1. int b;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin( 9600 );
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. b = 20.0 / 3; // decimal value is used to force the compiler to print decimal value.
9. Serial.println(b);
10. }

Output: 6.66

Order of mathematical operations

Let's understand the order of operations considered by the Arduino while performing calculation:

1. Parentheses ( )
2. Multiplication, division, and modulo
3. Addition and subtraction

If there are multiple operations next to each other, they will be computed from left to right.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code:

1. int c;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin( 9600 );
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. c = 2 * 3 / (2 + 1) + 4;
9. Serial.println(c);
10. }

Output:

Let's understand how the above output occurred. Consider the below image:
Compound Operators
The compound operators perform two or more calculations at once.

The result of the right operand is assigned to the left operand, as already discussed above. The
same condition will apply to all the compound operators, which are listed below:

Let's consider a variable b.

o b++

Here, b = b + 1. It is called the increment operator.

o b+=

For example, b + = 4. It means, b = b+ 4.

o b--

Here, b = b - 1. It is called as the decrement operator.

o b-=
 For example, b - = 3. It means, b = b - 3.

o b*=

For example, b * = 6. It means, b = b * 6.

o b/=

For example, b / = 5. It means, b = b / 5.

o b%=

For example, b % = 2. It means, b = b % 2.

Now, let's use the above operators with two variables, b and c.

o b + = c ( b = b + c)
o b - = c ( b = b - c)
o b * = c ( b = b * c)
o b / = c ( b = b / c)
o b % = c ( b = b % c)

We can specify any variable instead of b and c.

Boolean Operators
The Boolean Operators are NOT ( ! ), Logical AND ( & & ), and Logical OR ( | | ).

Let's discuss the above operators in detail.

o Logical AND ( & & )

The result of the condition is true if both the operands in the condition are true.

Consider the below example:

1. if ( a = = b & & b = = c )

Above statement is true if both conditions are true. If any of the conditions is false, the
statement will be false.

o Logical OR ( | | )
 The result of the condition is true, if either of the variables in the condition is true.

Consider the below example.

1. if ( a > 0 | | b > 0 )

The above statement is true, if either of the above condition ( a> 0 or b > 0 ) is true.

o NOT ( ! )

It is used to reverse the logical state of the operand.

For example, a ! = 2.

The NOT operator returns the value 1 or TRUE when the specified operand is FALSE. It also
reverses the value of the specified expression.

Comparison Operators
The comparison operators are used to compare the value of one variable with the other.

The comparison operators are listed below:

o less than ( < )

The less than operator checks that the value of the left operand is less than the right operand.
The statement is true if the condition is satisfied.

Consider the below code.

1. int b;
2. int c ;
3. void setup ( )
4. {
5. Serial.begin( 9600 );
6. }
7. void loop ( )
8. {
9. b = 3;
10. c = 5;
11. if ( b < 4 )
12. Serial.println(b);
13. if ( c < 4)
14. Serial.println( c);
15. }

Output: 3

In the above code, if any of the two statement is correct, the corresponding value of the variable
will be printed. Here, only first condition is correct. Hence, the value of b will be printed.

o greater than ( > )

The less than operator checks that the value of the left side of a statement is greater than the
right side. The statement is true if the condition is satisfied.

For example, a > b.

If a is greater than b, the condition is true, else false.

o equal to ( = = )

It checks the value of two operands. If the values are equal, the condition is satisfied.

For example, a = = b.

The above statement is used to check if the value of a is equal to b or not.

o not equal to ( ! = )

It checks the value of two specified variables. If the values are not equal, the condition will be
correct and satisfied.

For example, a ! = b.

o less than or equal to ( < = )

The less or equal than operator checks that the value of left side of a statement is less or equal
to the value on right side. The statement is true if either of the condition is satisfied.

For example, a < = b

It checks the value of a is less or equal than b.

o greater than or equal to ( > = )

The greater or equal than operator checks that the value of the left side of a statement is
 greater or equal to the value on the right side of that statement. The statement is true if the
condition is satisfied.

For example, a > = b

It checks the value of a is greater or equal than b. If either of the condition satisfies, the
statement is true.

Bitwise Operators
The Bitwise operators operate at the binary level. These operators are quite easy to use.

There are various bitwise operators. Some of the popular operators are listed below:

o bitwise NOT ( ~ )

The bitwise NOT operator acts as a complement for reversing the bits.

For example, if b = 1, the NOT operator will make the value of b = 0.

Let's understand with another example.

1. 0 0 1 1 // Input or operand 1 ( decimal value 3)

2. 1 1 0 0 // Output ( reverses the input bits ) decimal value is 12
o bitwise XOR ( ^ )

The output is 0 if both the inputs are same, and it is 1 if the two input bits are different.

For example,

For example,

1. 1 0 0 1 // input 1 or operand 1
2. 0 1 0 1 // input 2
3. 1 1 0 0 // Output ( resultant - XOR)
o bitwise OR ( | )

The output is 0 if both of the inputs in the OR operation are 0. Otherwise, the output is 1. The
two input patterns are of 4 bits.

For example,

1. 1 1 0 0 // input 1 or operand 1
2. 0 0 0 1 // input 2
3. 1 1 0 1 // Output ( resultant - OR)
o bitwise AND ( & )

The output is 1 if both the inputs in the AND operation are 1. Otherwise, the output is 0. The two
input patterns are of 4 bits.

For example,

1. 1 1 0 0 // input 1 or operand 1
2. 0 1 0 1 // input 2
3. 0 1 0 0 // Output ( resultant - AND)
o bitwise left shift ( < < )

The left operator is shifted by the number of bits defined by the right operator.

o bitwise right shift ( > > )

The right operator is shifted by the number of bits defined by the left operator.

Arduino Array
What are Arrays?
The arrays are defined as the data structures that allow multiple values to be grouped together
in a simple way. This is an easily access method.

The array is normally built from the data types like integer, reals, characters, and boolean. It
refers to a named list of finite number (n) of similar data elements.

The set of consecutive numbers usually represent the elements in the array, which are 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6,.......n.

For example, if the name of an array of 5 elements is AR, the elements will be referenced as
shown below:

1. AR[0], AR[1], AR[2], AR[3], and AR[4]

Arrays in Arduino
The array in Arduino is declared with the integer data type.

It is also defined as the collection of variables, which is acquired with an index number.
 The array is represented as:

We can specify any name according to our choice. The array name is the individual name of an
element.

Array Declaration
There are different methods to declare an array in Arduino, which are listed below:

o We can declare the array without specifying the size.

For example,

1. int myarray[ ] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ;
o We can declare the array without initializing its elements.

For example,

1. int myarray[ 5];

o We can declare the array by initializing the size and elements.

1. int myarray[ 8] = { 1, 4, 7, 9, 3, 2 , 4};

Features of Array

o The elements of the array can be characters, negative numbers, etc.

For example,

1. int myarray[ 4 ] = { 1, -3, 4};

2. char myarray[ 6] = " Hi " ;
 o The size of the array should not be less than the number of elements. For example,

int myarray[5 ] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ; can be written as int myarray[8 ] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ;

But, it cannot be written as int myarray[ 2] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ;

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code in Arduino IDE.

Let's specify the array as: int myarray[5 ] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ;

The code will successfully compile, as shown below:

Now, if we specify the array as: int myarray[ 2] = { 1, 4, 6, 7 } ;

The code will display errors, as shown below:

 o The total elements, while specifying the char type should be (n - 1), where n is the size
of the array. It is because one element is required to hold the null character in the array.

For example,

Let's specify the array as char abc[8 ] = " Arduino";

 Access of array in Arduino
The array in Arduino has zero index. It means that the first element of the array is indexed as 0.
For example,

1. myvalue[0] = = 1, myvalue[1] = = 2, . . . .

Example 1:

Let's take an array (ARarduino) of 6 elements. The elements of the array are shown below:

ARarduino[0], ARarduino[1], ARarduino[2], ARarduino[3], ARarduino[4],

and ARarduino[5].

The last element of the array is ARarduino[5].

The last element of the array will be n-1, where n is the declared size of an array.

Consider the below code.

1. ARarduino[6] = { 1, 4, 7, 6, 11, 15};

2. // ARarduino[4] contains value 11
3. // ARarduino[5] contains value 15
4. //ARarduino[6] is invalid

Arithmetic operations on Array

Let's understand the operations carried on the array.

Example 1: Sum

We can also calculate the sum of elements within an array.

Let's consider an array (AR) with 4 elements. The elements are: AR[0], AR[1], AR[2], and AR[3].

To calculate the sum of the first two elements:

1. Serial.print( AR[0] + AR[1] );

The sum of values assigned to the elements within an array will be printed.

Example 2: Division

We will divide the value assigned to the element AR[4] with 2. The resulting value will be
assigned to the variable 'z.' Consider the below code:
1. z = AR[4] / 2;
2. Serial.println ( x );

The result will be printed.

We need to be careful while assigning value to the array. The index number greater than the size
of the array may yield invalid data. Such data is saved to random memory locations, which can
cause the program malfunction or a difficult bug to find.

Note: C++ does not check the legally bound size of the declared array, while JAVA and BASIC do
check.

The syntax to assign a value to an array is specified as:

1. myArray[0] = 5;
2. // we can assign any value depending on the requirements.

The syntax to retrieve a value from an array is specified as:

Example of project: We will also discuss a project to light LED using arrays in the Basic projects
-> Blinking various LEDs using Arrays.

Loop Arrays
We can also use arrays inside the loop. For each element of an array, the loop counter acts as
an index element for that array.

Let's understand with an example.

In this example, the element over the serial port will be printed.

The code is given below:

1. for (byte i = 0; i < 6; i = i + +) // here, i++ can also be written as i+1

2. {
3. Serial.println(myArray[i]);
4. }

Code Examples
Let's understand arrays with some examples.
 Example 1: Printing the sum of all elements
Consider the below code:

1. const int sizeOFarray = 5; // constant variable indicating size of array

2. int b[sizeOFarray] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}; // five values initialized to five elements of an arr
ay
3. int sum = 0;
4.
5. void setup ()
6. {
7. Serial.begin(9600);
8. }
9. void loop ()
10. {
11. // sum of array b
12. for ( int i = 0; i < sizeOFarray; i++ )
13. sum += b[ i ]; // here, sum = sum + b[i]
14. Serial.print('Sum of total elements of an array:') ;
15. Serial.print(sum) ; // It will print the sum of all elements of an array
16. }

Output

Sum of total elements of an array: 150

In the above code, we have used the const variable. The compiler reserves the memory
in Arduino. We need to use the const integer greater than zero. For detail- go to the URL Arduino
Variables.

Example 1: Average of the elements of an array

Consider the below code:

1. const int sizeOFarray = 5; // constant variable indicating size of array

2. int b[sizeOFarray] = {10, 30, 40, 55, 65}; // five values initialized to five elements of an arr
ay
3. int sum = 0;
4. int average = 0;
5.
6. void setup ()
7. {
8. Serial.begin(9600);
9. }
10. void loop () {
11. // sum of array b
12. for ( int i = 0; i < sizeOFarray; i++ )
13. sum += b[ i ]; // here, sum = sum + b[i]
14. average = sum/5;
15. Serial.print('Average of the elements of the array:') ;
16. Serial.println(average) ; // It will print the average of all elements of an array
17. // there are 5 elements. So, the average will be divided by 5.
18. }

Output

Average of the elements of the array:

40

Arduino Delay
Here, Arduino Delay specifies the delay( ) function used in the Arduino programming. Let's
discuss the delay( ) function in detail.

delay( ) function
The delay( ) function pauses the program or task for a specified duration of time. The time is
specified inside the open and closed parentheses in milliseconds.

Where,

1 second = 1000 milliseconds

Example 1:

delay(500)

Here, the specified time is 0.5 seconds.

It is shown below:
 The program waits for a specified duration before proceeding onto the next line of the code.
The delay( ) function allows the unsigned long data type in the code.

We can create many sketches using the short and long delays depending on the requirements in
the project. It does not disable any interrupts. But, the delay( ) function has some drawbacks.

The Drawback of using delay( ) in the sketch

The delay( ) cease (stops) the other activities, such as manipulation of pins on the board,
mathematical calculations, reading of other sensors during the delay function. The
programmers usually avoid delay( ) of more than 10 seconds in the sketch.

Let's understand the delay() function with the help of two examples.

Example 1:

Consider the below code.

1. int LEDlightPin = 8; // PIN 8 of the Arduino board initialized to the LED

2. // We can specify the variable according to our choice.
3. // For example, int PINonboard= 8
4. void setup( )
5. {
6. pinMode( LEDlightPin, OUTPUT) // the digital pin on board is set as the Output.
7. }
8. void loop( )
9. {
10. digitalWrite(LEDlightPin, HIGH);
11. delay(1500); // The LED will light/ON for 1.5 seconds = 1500 milliseconds
12. digitalWrite(LEDlightPin, LOW);
13. delay(500); // The LED will dim/OFF for 0.5 seconds = 0.5x1000 = 500 milliseconds
14. //We can modify the time duration accoordingly.
15. }

Example 2:

Consider the below code:

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. Serial.begin ( 4800); //opens the serial port and set the bits per rate to 4800
4. }
5. void loop ( )
6. {
7. Serial.print(" Welcome");
8. delay(1000);
9. Serial.println("to delay"); // It will print 'to delay' followed by a new line.
10. delay ( 500); // delay of 0.5 seconds between each printed line.
11. }

In the output, the word Welcome will appear followed by the word to delay 1 second later. After
0.5 seconds, another line will be printed.

Output:

Welcome to delay

Welcome to delay

The output will be printed repeatedly.

Arduino If statement
 The if ( ) statement is the conditional statement, which is the basis for all types of programming
languages.

If the condition in the code is true, the corresponding task or function is performed accordingly.
It returns one value if the condition in a program is true. It further returns another value if the
condition is false.

It means that if ( ) statement checks for the condition and then executes a statement or a set of
statements.

Let's understand the concept with the help of a flow chart.

It clearly explains the process of execution of a statement. If the condition is False, it comes out
of the if ( ) statement. If the condition is true, the function is performed.

The if ( ) statement is written as:

1. if ( condition)
2. {
3. // include statements
4. // if the condition is true
5. // then performs the function or task specified inside the curly braces
6. }
 Here,

condition = It includes the boolean expressions, that can be true or false.

We can also use one or more operators inside the parentheses.

The comparison operators that can be used as a condition inside the parentheses are listed
below:

o a ! = b ( a not equal to b )
o a < b ( a less than b )
o a > b ( a greater than b )
o a = = b ( a equal to b )
o a < = b ( a less than or equal to b )
o a > = b ( a greater than or equal to b )

where,

a and b are the variables.

Code Examples
Let's understand with the help of two coding examples.

Example 1:

Consider the below code.

1. int a = 6; // initiaization of values to variables a and b

2. int b = 4;
3. void setup()
4. {
5. Serial.begin(9600);
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. if (a > b )
10. {
11. Serial.println( " a is greater than b ");
12. }
13. if (b > a )
14. {
15. Serial.println( " b is greater than a ");
16. }
17. }

Output: a is greater than b

The code shows the initialization of values to the two variables a and b. In this example, the first
condition is True. Hence the corresponding information is printed.

Example 2:

Consider the below code.

1. const int LED1 = 2;

2. const int LED2 = 13;
3. int x = 80 ;
4. void setup ( )
5. {
6. Serial.begin( 9600 );
7. pinMode ( LED1, OUTPUT);
8. pinMode ( LED2, OUTPUT);
9. }
10. void loop ( )
11. {
12. if ( x > 100 )
13. {
14. digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
15. delay (500);
16. }
17. if ( x < 100 )
18. {
19. digitalWrite(LED2, HIGH);
20. delay (500);
21. }
22. }

The example is of two LEDs.

In the above example, we have initialized the value of x. Since the value of x is less than 100, the
second condition is true. Hence, LED2 will light up.

If the value of x is greater than 100, LED1 will light.

Similarly, we can use the if statement according to our requirements.

Note: We should be careful while using the = (equal) sign.

For example, x = 5. It is the assignment operator, where value 5 will be assigned to the variable x.
Instead, we need to use x = = 5, as it is a comparison operator.

Arduino if-else and else-if

The else and else-if both are used after specifying the if statement. It allows multiple conditions
to be grouped.

If else
The if-else condition includes if ( ) statement and else ( ) statement. The condition in the else
statement is executed if the result of the If ( ) statement is false.

The flowchart is shown below:

 Let's understand with an example.

1. if (condition)
2. {
3. // statements
4. }
5. else
6. {
7. //statements
8. }

The else( ) statement can also include other if statements. Due to this, we can run multiple
statements in a single program.

The flowchart is shown below:

The statements will be executed one by one until the true statement is found. When the true
statement is found, it will skip all other if and else statements in the code and runs the
associated blocks of code.

Code Example
Let's understand if else statement with the help of two examples.
 Example 1:

Consider the below code.

1. int a = 5;
2. int b= 6;
3. void setup ( )
4. {
5. Serial.begin ( 9600 );
6. }
7. void loop ( )
8. {
9. if ( a > b )
10. {
11. Serial.println ( " a is greater " );
12. }
13. else
14. {
15. Serial.println ( " a is smaller " );
16. }
17. }

In the above example, the values are initialized to the variables a and b. The message
concerning the satisfied condition will be printed.

Example 2:

Consider the below code.

1. const int LED1 = 4;

2. int x = 150 ;
3. void setup ( )
4. {
5. Serial.begin( 9600 );
6. pinMode ( LED1, OUTPUT);
7. }
8. void loop ( )
9. {
10. if ( x > 100 )
11. {
12. digitalWrite(LED1, HIGH);
13. Serial.println ( " LED1 will light +++");
14. delay (500);
15. }
16. else
17. {
18. Serial.println ( "LED1 will not light");
19. }
20. }

Output: LED1 will light +++

If the initialized value of x is less than 100, the message ' LED1 will not light ' will be printed in
the output.

Else if
The else if statement can be used with or without the else ( ) statement. We can include
multiple else if statements in a program.

Let's understand with an example.

1. if (condition)
2. {
3. // statements
4. }
5. else if ( condition)
6. {
7. // statements
8. // only if the first condition is false and the second is true
9. }
10. else
11. {
12. //statements
13. }

Code Example
Let's understand else-if statement with the help of an example.

Example 1:
 Consider the below code.

1. int i = 2;
2. int j = 3;
3. void setup ( )
4. {
5. Serial.begin(9600);
6. }
7. void loop ( )
8. {
9. if ( i > j )
10. {
11. Serial.println( " I is greater ");
12. }
13. else if ( i < j )
14. {
15. Serial.println( " J is greater " );
16. }
17. else
18. {
19. Serial.println( " Both are equal " );
20. }
21. }

Output: J is greater

The else if ( ) statement will stop the flow once its execution is true.

What is the difference between Else and Else If?

The Else ( ) part is executed if one or all the If ( ) conditions present in the code comes out to be
false.

The else if ( ) will stop the program flow if it becomes true.

Arduino for Loop

The statements inside the curly brackets under for loop are executed repeatedly according to
the specified condition. An increment counter in the for loop is used to increment or decrement
the loop repetitions.
 The for statement is commonly used for repetitive task or operation or to operate on the group
of data/pins in combination with arrays.

The syntax is:

1. for (initialization; condition; increment)

2. {
3. \\ statements
4. }

where,

o initialization: It is defined as the initialization of the variable.

o condition: The condition is tested on every execution. If the condition is true, it will
execute the given task. The loop ends only when the condition becomes false.
o increment: It includes the increment operator, such as i + +, i - - , i + 1, etc. It is
incremented each time until the condition remains true.

For example,

1. for ( i = 0 ; i < 5 ; i + +)

The above statement will execute the loop for five times. The values of i will be from 0 to 4.

If the statement is:

1. for ( i = 0 ; i < = 5 ; i + +)

The above statement will execute the loop six times. The values of i will be from 0 to 5.

Note: If we do not want to execute the for loop again and again. Then, we can insert the for loop in
the void setup( ) function.

Example 1:
To print a message 'Arduino' 15 times.
To print a message 15 times or more is quite complicated using Serial.println ( ), as the code
will become too lengthy.

To overcome this, programmers prefer to use for loop to execute a task multiple times, while
using a single statement.

Let's consider the below code.

1. int i;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. for ( i = 0 ; i < 15 ; i ++ )
6. {
7. Serial.println( "Arduino");
8. }
9. }
10. void loop ( ) {
11. }

Output:

Example 2:
To use a multiplication increment

The multiplication increment in the for loop will generate a logarithmic progression.

Consider the below code:

1. int x;
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. for (x = 2; x < 100; x = x * 2)
6. {
7. Serial.println(x);
8. }
9. }
10. void loop ( ) {
11. }

Output:

We can also declare the int data type directly in the for loop.

For example,

1. for (int x = 2; x < 100; x = x * 2)

Example 3: To fade an LED

Here, fade and LED means that LED will faint slowly.

Consider the below code:

1. const int pinPWM = 11; // here, we have initialized the PWM pin.
2. void setup ( )
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. }
6. void loop ( )
7. {
8. int x = 1;
9. for (int i = 0; i > -1; i = i + x)
10. {
11. analogWrite(pinPWM, i);
12. if (i == 255)
13. {
14. x = -1; // It will switch the direction at peak
15. }
16. delay(10); // It is delay time of 10 milliseconds
17. // the lesser the time, the more fading effect can be seen clearly
18. }
19. }

For the connection, we will connect the positive terminal of the LED in series with the resistor to
PIN 11 (PWM pin), and the negative terminal of the LED to GND.

Note: The for loops in C++ programming language is much more flexible than other types of
programming languages.

Example 4:
Consider the below code:

1. void setup ( )
2. {
3. int i;
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. for (i = 0; i < 4; i = i + 1)
6. {
7. Serial.println( "Hello Arduino" );
8. }
9. Serial.println( " DONE");
10. }
11. void loop ( )
12. {
13. }

The above code will print 'Hello Arduino' four times. After that the condition becomes false,
control comes out of the loop, and 'DONE' is printed.

Output:
 Similarly, we can create any program using for loop accordingly.

Arduino while loop

The while loop() is the conditional loop that continues to execute the code inside the
parentheses until the specified condition becomes false.

The while loop will never exit until the tested condition is changed or made to stop. The
common use of a while loop in Arduino includes sensor testing, calibration (calibrating the
input of sensor), variable increment, etc.

The syntax is:

1. while (condition)
2. {
3. // code or set of statements
4. }

where,

condition: It specifies the boolean expression, which determines the condition to be true or
false.

For example,

1. variable = 0;
2. while (variable < 100) {
3. // performs the specified task 100 times repeatedly
4. variable++ ; // increments after every execution
5. }

The above code inside the curly braces in while loop will execute continuously and repeatedly as
long as the variable is less than 100.
 Flowchart
The flowchart is shown below:

Code Example
In order to change the flow of the program, we need to change the specified condition inside the
parentheses of while loop. The process is much like the if statement.

Let's understand the concept of while loop with two examples.

Example 1:

Consider the below code:

1. int a = 0;
2. void setup()
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. while( a < 5)
6. {
7. Serial.println("Welcome to Arduino");
8. a = a + 1;
9. }
10. }
11. void loop()
12. {
13. }

Output:

The message inside the loop will be printed five times, as shown below:

Let's look at the code.

Explanation: At first, we have defined the variable a as 0, and initialized the serial monitor as
usual (means Serial.begin()). The loop first checks the condition specified within the
parentheses. At first, a =0. The condition is true (0 < 5). The code inside the curly braces will
execute, and the message is printed.

Now, the value of a is incremented (added 1 to a), and the loop executes again.

Similarly, five times the condition remains true. When a =5, the condition becomes false, and the
loop exits and drops. The code outside the loop is executed.

Let's consider another example.

Example 2:

The code is similar to the above example. We will only add some statements outside the loop.

Consider the below code:

1. int a = 0;
2. void setup()
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. while( a < 5)
6. {
7. Serial.println("Welcome to Arduino");
8. a = a + 1;
9. }
10. Serial.println("DONE");
11. Serial.println("Welcome to the code outside the loop");
12. }
13. void loop()
14. {
15. }

Output:

We can notice that as soon as the condition in the loop becomes false, the message specified
outside the loop is printed.

do...while
The working of the do-while loop is similar to the while loop. The condition inside the do-while
will execute at least once. It is because the condition is tested at the end of the loop instead of
the beginning.

The syntax is:

1. do
2. {
3. // code or set of statements
4. } while (condition);

where,
 condition: It specifies the boolean expression, which determines the condition to be true or
false.

For example,

1. int b = 0;
2. do {
3. delay(100); // wait for stabilization of the sensors
4. b = readSensors(); // It checks the sensors
5. } while (x < 100); // specified condition

Flowchart
The flowchart is shown below:

Code Example
Let's understand the concept of the do-while loop with an example.

Example 1:
 Consider the below code:

1. int a = 0;
2. void setup()
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. do
6. {
7. Serial.println("Welcome to the do while loop");
8. a = a + 1;
9. } while( a < 3);
10. }
11. void loop()
12. {
13. }

Output:

Arduino switch case

The switch case controls the flow of the program by executing the code in various cases. A
switch statement compares a particular value of a variable with statements in other cases.
When the statements in a case matches the value of a variable, the code associated with that
case executes.

The break keyword is used at the end of each case. For example, if there are five cases, the
break statements will also be five. The break statement exits the switch case.

The switch statement without a break will continue to execute all the cases until the end. Hence,
it is essential to include a break statement at the end of each case.

Let's understand with an example.

1. switch(variable)
2. {
3. case 1:
4. // statements related to case1
5. break;
6. case 2:
7. // statements related to case2
8. break;
9. .
10. .
11. case n:
12. // statements related to case n
13. break;
14. default:
15. // it contains the optional code
16. //if nothing matches in the above cases, the default statement runs
17. break;
18. }

where,

variable: It includes the variables whose value will be compared with the multiple cases

value: It consists of a value to compare. These values are constants. The allowed data types
are int and char.

Flowchart of the switch case

Consider the below flowchart:
Can we use the if statement instead of a switch case?
 Yes.

But for some cases, implementing a switch case is somewhat easier than if statements.

It is recommended to use switch cases instead of if statement when multiple conditions of a

non-trivial expression are being compared.

The if statement allows us to choose between the two options, TRUE or FALSE. We can also use
multiple if statements for more than two cases. The switch case allows us to choose between
various discrete options.

Code Example
We will include the switch case in the setup() function, as we do not require the repeated
execution.

Consider the below code:

1. // switch case example

2. void setup()
3. {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. int a = 1;
6. switch(a) // the case matching the value in the declared variable will run
7. {
8. case 1:
9. Serial.println(" Case 1 matches");
10. // the value of variable matches with the value in case 1.
11. // The message associated with case 1 will be printed
12. break;
13. case 2:
14. Serial.println(" Case 2 matches");
15. break;
16. case 3:
17. Serial.println(" Case 3 matches");
18. break;
19. default:
20. Serial.println(" default matches");
21. break;
22. }
23. }
24. void loop()
25. {
26. }

Output:

Arduino String
The string is a data type that stores text rather than the integer values. It is similar to other data
types such as integer, float, etc., in Arduino.

The string is an array of characters or a set of characters that consists of numbers,

spaces, and special characters from the ASCII table.

The string can be declared in the following ways:

o char StrA[10];
o char StringA[8] = {'w', 'e', 'l', 'c', 'o', 'm', 'e'};

We can also add an explicit null character

o char StringB[8] = {'w', 'e', 'l', 'c', 'o', 'm', 'e', '\0'};

We can also declare an array with extra space for a string constant StrA.

o char StrA[10]; = "Hello";

o char StrD[6]; = "Hello";
o char StrD[]; = "Welcome";

The data type is char. Each character is an element in string. For example, Arduino contains
seven characters. So, we need to declare an array atleast of size 8 (1 extra to store the null
character at the end of the string).

Consider the below example:

1. char myString[len] = "text";

 The above declared string will be stored as:

When we create a string using the double quotes like the word "text" specified above, the
compiler automatically creates an element out of each character. It further appends the null
character to the end.

The null character has the value 0 in the ASCII table. It is defined using two characters ( \ and
\0). The backslash (\) represents the special character when used in conjunction with other
characters. The backslash is also known as an escape character. The null character is added by
the compiler to terminate the string.

Note: Strings are always declared inside the double quotes, while characters are declared inside
single quotes.

How Serial.print() and Serial.println() works with strings?

It is interesting to know how print() and println() function works with the strings.

Let's start.

Serial.print() with string

Let's understand with a coding example.

1. const int length = 20;

2. char myString[length] = "Hello Arduino";
3. // we can also specify as char myString[20] = "Hello Arduino";
4. void setup()
5. {
6. Serial.begin(9600);
7. }
8. void loop()
9. {
10. for( int i=0; i<length; i = i+1)
11. {
12. if(myString[i]== '\0')
13. // it will stop printing when it sees a null character
14. {
15. break; //
16. }
17. Serial.print(myString[i]);
18. }
19. Serial.println();
20. delay(500);
21. }

The code will print Hello Arduino multiple times, as shown below:

Serial.println() with string

In the case of println() function, we need not require any for loop or condition to print.

It is an easier way to print strings.

The println() function will work the same as the above.

Consider the below example.

1. const int length = 15;

2. char myString[length] = "Hello Arduino";
3. void setup()
4. {
5. Serial.begin(9600);
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. Serial.println(myString);
10. delay(500);
11. }

Output:

The output will be the same as the above.

Array of Strings
We can specify the array of strings while working with large projects, such as LCD display, etc.

The array names are also considered as pointers. The data type marked with an asterisk is
defined as pointers.

For example, char*. To define an array of arrays, we actually need pointers.

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code:

1. char *StrAB[] = {"Welcome to string A to G in Arduino", "Here is string A", "Here is string B
", "Here is string C", "Here is string D", "Here is string E",
2. "Here is string F", "Here is string G" };
3. void setup() {
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. }
6. void loop() {
7. for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++)
8. {
9. Serial.println(StrAB[i]);
10. delay(1000);
11. }
12. }

Output:
Arduino String Object
What are objects in Arduino?
An object is like a variable, which points to a memory location that holds some data. The
functions associated with the object are called member functions. As a result, we can make the
objects to perform some actions.

For example,

The begin(), print(), and println() are the functions that are declared using the serial object. The
period after the Serial (print(), etc.) specifies that we are accessing some members within the
serial object. The members can be either a function or a variable.

The parentheses after the print() and println() function determines the function being called in
the serial. These functions cannot be declared alone in the global scope in the code. Thus, they
are declared with the serial object as Serial.print() and Serial.println().

String Object
The String object allows us to store and perform actions on an array of characters. The String
object takes more memory than the regular String.

The String object is always displayed with the uppercase 'S'. It produces an instance of the
String class.

It can be constructed from different data types, which are listed below:

o a constant integer using a specific base

o a long integer using a particular base
o an instance of a String object
o a constant character enclosed within a single-quotes
o A constant string of characters enclosed within the double-quotes.
o float and double
 The specified number in a string has a default base of 10. For example,

1. String myString = String(15);

It creates a string that consists of the ASCII representation of the number 15.

To specify a number with base other than 10, the String can be created as:

1. String myString = String(15, HEX);

It will give us the String ''F''. It signifies the hexadecimal conversion of the decimal number 15.

We can also represent a String in BIN. For example,

1. String myString = String(15, BIN);

It will give us the String ''1111''. It signifies the hexadecimal conversion of the decimal number
15.

The syntax is:

1. String(value)
2. String(value, base)
3. String(value, PlacesofaDecimal)

where,

value: It signifies the value needed to format or represent a string.

The data types are byte, unsigned int, char, float, double, unsigned long, long, int, and string.

base: It signifies the base, which is required to format the integer value. For example, HEX, BIN,
etc.

The base is optional to include.

PlacesofaDecimal: It specifies the desired decimal places, which is only needed if the value is
double or float.

Functions with String Object

We can use various functions with the String.

o charAT()
 It is used to access a specific character.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.charAT(n)

where,

thisString is the declared variable

n is also a variable

The data type allowed is unsigned int.

The above syntax will return the nth character of the specified string.

o compareTo()

It is used to compare the two Strings. The specified Strings are compared using the ASCII
values of the characters.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.compareTo(myString)

where,

thisString and myString are the declared variable

The above syntax will return a negative number if thisString comes before myString.

It will return a positive number if thisString comes after myString.

o endsWith()

It tests that if a String ends with the characters of other String or not.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.endsWith(myString)

where,

thisString and myString are the declared variable

It will return true if thisString ends with the characters of myString. Otherwise, it will return false.
 o startsWith()

It tests that if a String starts with the characters of other String or not.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.startsWith(myString)

where,

thisString and myString are the declared variable

It will return true if thisString starts with the characters of myString. Otherwise, it will
return false.

o toLowerCase()

It gets a lowercase version of the specified String.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.toLowerCase()

where,

thisString is the declared variable

o toUpperCase()

It gets an uppercase version of the specified String.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.toUpperCase()

where,

thisString is the declared variable

o equals()

It compares the equality of the Two Strings. The comparison is quite sensitive, where String
"Arduino" is not equal to the String "ARDUINO".

The syntax is:

1. thisString.equals(myString)

where,

thisString and myString are the variables

It will return true if thisString equals to myString. Otherwise, it will return false.

o getBytes()

It copies the characters of the String to the supplied buffer.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.getBytes(buffer, length)

where,

thisString is the declared variable

buffer: The characters are copied into the buffer. The required data type is the byte.

length: It signifies the size of the buffer. The required data type is unsigned int.

o lastIndexOf()

It locates a String or character within the other String.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.lastIndexOf(value)
2. thisString.lastIndexOf(value, from)

where,

thisString is the declared variable

value: It includes the particular value to search for. The required data types are String and char.

from: It is defined as the index to work backward from

o substring()

It is declared to get the substring of a specific String.

 The syntax is:

1. thisString.substring(from)
2. thisString.substring(from, to)

where,

thisString is the declared variable

from: It is defined as the index, from where the substring will start

to: It is also the index to end the substring before. It is optional.

o toInt()

It converts a valid String in Arduino to the integer type.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.toInt()

where,

thisString is the variable

The required data type is long. It returns zero if the conversation is invalid or a String does not
start with an integer number.

o toFloat()

It converts a valid String in Arduino to the float.

For example, String "150" will be converted to "150.00"

The syntax is:

1. thisString.toFloat()

where,

thisString is the variable

The required data type is float. It returns zero if the conversation is invalid or a String does not
start with a digit.

o trim()
 It modifies the String by removing the extra whitespaces.

The syntax is:

1. thisString.trim()

where,

thisString is the variable

Code Example
Let's understand the String Object with two examples.

Example 1:

Let's use the charAt() function.

Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. Serial.begin(9600);
4. String thisString = "Welcome to Arduino";
5. Serial.println(thisString.charAt(8));
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. }

Output: t

The t is the character at index 8, which is declared in the charAt() function.

Example 2:

Let's use the concat function.

concat() - The concat() function is used to combine the Strings.

Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. Serial.begin(9600);
4. String thisString = "Welcome to Arduino";
5.
6. thisString.concat("String Object");
7.
8. Serial.println(thisString);
9. }
10. void loop()
11. {
12. }

Output

Similarly, we can use other String object functions as well.

Blinking an LED
It is the simple basic project created using Arduino. LED (Light Emitting Diode) is an electronic
device, which emits light when the current passes through its terminals. LED's are used in
various applications. It is also used as an ON/OFF indicator in different electronic devices.

In this project, we will connect the LED to the digital pin on the Arduino board. The LED will work
as a simple light that can be turned ON and OFF for a specified duration.

Structure of LED
An LED is a two-terminal device. The two terminals are called as Cathode and Anode.

It is shown below:
The long terminal is called Anode, and the shorter terminal is called Cathode. Here, cathode is
the negative terminal and anode is the positive terminal.

Components of the project

The components used in the blinking of an LED are listed below:

1. 1 x Arduino UNO board.

We can use any version of the UNO board, such as UNO R3, etc. We can also use other
types of Arduino boards, such as Arduino Zero, Arduino Micro, etc.
2. 1 x Breadboard
3. 2 x Jump wires
4. 1 x LED
5. 1 x Resistor of 220 Ohm.

We can use a resistor of any value upto 470 Ohms. We can use other value of resistors as well,
depending on our circuit requirements. Usually, the value should not exceed the allowable
forward current.

Structure of the project

The structure clearly shows the pinout of the UNO board. It also displays the LED and resistance
connected to the board.

It is shown below:
 Sketch
We need to install the Arduino IDE, to begin with the coding, which is already discussed.

Open the IDE and start with the coding, which is given below:

1. void setup ()
2. {
3. pinMode ( 8, OUTPUT); // to set the OUTPUT mode of pin number 8.
4. }
5. void loop ()
6. {
7. digitalWrite (8, HIGH);
8. delay(1000); // 1 second = 1 x 1000 milliseconds
9. digitalWrite (8, LOW);
10. delay(500); // 0.5 second = 0.5 x 1000 milliseconds
11. }

We can modify the delay duration according to our choice or as per the requirements.

Every statement of coding is explained in Arduino coding basics. You can open the URL for clear
understanding.

Note: Make sure the code is free of errors.

The sketch will be uploaded to the board after the correct compiling, as shown below:
We are required to click on the Verify button to compile the code.

The RX and TX LED on the board will light up after the successful uploading of the code.

Procedure
The procedure to join the components of the project is shown below:

o Attach an LED on the breadboard. We need to plug-in the two terminals of an LED into
the holes of the breadboard.

We can plug-in the LED anywhere on the breadboard.

o Connect the resistor in series with the LED, as shown below:

o Connect the left leg of the resistor (connected in series with red LED) to the digital
output pin of the UNO board, i.e., PIN 8.
o Connect the negative/shorter terminal (Cathode) of the LED to the GND pin of the UNO
board using the wire, as shown below:
Here, the orange wire is connected to the PIN 8, and the blue wire is connected to the GND.

The shorter terminal indicates the negative. So, we will connect the shorter terminal to the
Ground (GND).

o Connect the USB cable.

o Select the board and serial port in the Arduino IDE.
o Upload the sketch or code on the board.
o The LED will dim and light for the specified duration.

Important points

The important points to be considered in this project are listed below:

o The resistor must be connected in series with the LED.

The resistor prevents the excess current from reaching the LED. The excess current in the
connection can burn the LED. Hence, a resistor in series with the LED is used in the connection.

o We can use any pin as the OUTPUT pin. For example, 8, 13, 7, 4, and 3. The other pins are
PWM and analog pins.
o One terminal of the LED is connected to the Ground while the other terminal is
 connected to the digital pin. The digital pin has only two values 0 or 1.
o HIGH = 1
o LOW = 0
o Arduino UNO board is recommended for all basic projects because it is easy to
understand and implement. It is also the standard Arduino board from all types of
boards used. It supplies power and also acts as a serial port.

Blinking Two LED

We have already discussed a project of blinking an LED. Here, we will discuss a project of
blinking two LED's.

The concept of blinking two LED's is similar to the blinking of a single LED. As we know, we can
use the resistance of any value, so let's take the resistors of 470 Ohms. The resistors reduce the
amount of current reaching the LED, which saves the LED from being burnt.

We can also use other resistors depending on the circuit limit and requirements.

Let's start with the project.

Structure of two LED's

The structure of red and green LED is shown below:

The long terminal is called Anode (positive charged), and the short terminal is called Cathode
(negative charged).
Components
The components used in the project are listed below:

1. 1 x Arduino UNO board.

We can also use other types of Arduino boards, such as Arduino Mega, Arduino Micro,
etc.
2. 1 x Breadboard
3. 4 x Jump wires
4. 1 x Red LED
5. 1 x Green LED
We need to take 2 LEDs of any color. Here, we will use the red and green color LED.
6. 2 x Resistor of 470 Ohm.

Structure of the project

Here, we will use the digital output pin number 13 and 7. The positive terminal of the red LED is
connected to the PIN 13, and the negative terminal (anode) is connected to the ground.

Similarly, the positive terminal (cathode) of the green LED is connected to PIN 7 and the
negative terminal is connected to the ground.

As mentioned, two resistors each of 470 Ohms, will be connected in series to the two LEDs in
the project.

The structure will represent the pinout diagram of the project. It is shown below:
 Sketch
Open the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) and start with the coding, which is
given below:

1. void setup ()
2. {
3. pinMode ( 13, OUTPUT); // to set the OUTPUT mode of pin number 13.
4. pinMode ( 7, OUTPUT); // to set the OUTPUT mode of pin number 7.
5. }
6. void loop ()
7. {
8. digitalWrite (13, HIGH);
9. digitalWrite (7, LOW);
10. delay(1500); // 1.5 second = 1.5 x 1000 milliseconds
11. digitalWrite (13, LOW);
12. digitalWrite (7, HIGH);
13. delay(1000); // 1 second = 1 x 1000 milliseconds
14. }

We can modify the delay duration according to our choice or as per the requirements.

The sketch will be uploaded to the board after the correct compiling, as shown below:

Click on the Verify button present on the toolbar to compile the code.

The RX and TX LED on the board will light up after the successful uploading of the code.
Procedure
The procedure to join the components of the project is shown below:

o Plug-in the two LED adjacent to each other on the breadboard.

o Now, plug-in the resistors of 470 Ohm in series with the two LED, as shown below:

We need to check that the plug-in is performed correctly, as shown above. For any confusion,
check the pin diagram shown above in the heading- Structure of project.

o Connect the left leg of the resistor (connected in series with red LED) to the digital
output pin of the UNO board, i.e., PIN 13.
o Connect the left leg of the resistor (connected in series with green LED) to the digital
output pin of the UNO board, i.e., PIN 7.
o Connect the negative/shorter terminal (Cathode) of the red and green LED to
the GND pin of the UNO board using the wire, as shown below:
Here, the red wire is connected to the PIN 13, and the blue wire is connected to the GND.

Similarly, the green wire is connected to the PIN 7, and the orange wire is connected to the GND.

Note: The different colors of wire are used only for a better understanding.

The shorter terminal indicates the ground. So, we will connect the shorter terminal to the
Ground (GND).

o Connect the USB cable.

o Select the board and serial port in the Arduino IDE.
o Upload the sketch or code on the board.
o The LED will dim and light for the specified duration. Here, the green and red LED will
light alternatively.

It means when the red LED will be ON, the green LED will be OFF and vice versa.

Blinking various LEDs using Arrays

We have already discussed how to blink a single LED, two LEDs, and LEDs using a loop, in
previous topics.
Here, we will discuss a project to blink five LEDs using array. All the five LEDs will light one after
the other.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 5 x red LED
o 5 x 220 Ohm Resistors
o Arduino UNO R3 board
o Jump wires

We can use any color LED as per our choice.

Principle
We will connect the five LEDs to pins 13, 12, 8, 4, and 2 of the Arduino board. The required
resistance of the resistors is enough to light up an LED without damaging the board and other
components.

The LED arranged one after another will light up. We can also change or rearrange the LEDs
connected to the specified pin number on the board.

Structure of the project

The structure clearly shows the UNO board's pinout, and the five LEDs with resistors in series
are connected to the board.

It is shown below:
Connection
The connection of the above project is discussed below:

o Connect the resistor of 220 Ohm in series with the five LEDs. Now connect it to the pin
number 13, 12, 8, 4, and 2 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the negative terminal of the five LEDs to the GND (Ground).
 Sketch
The code to light the five LEDs is given below:

1. int timer = 500;

2. int LEDPins[] = {13, 12, 8, 4, 2}; // an array of declared pin numbers on the board
3. int countOFpin = 6; // the number of arrays
4. void setup()
5. {
6. // we have declared an array to intialize the LED pins as OUTPUT
7. for (int PIN = 0; PIN < countOFpin; PIN= PIN + 1)
8. {
9. pinMode(LEDPins[PIN], OUTPUT);
10. }
11. }
12. void loop()
13. {
14. // loop starting from the lowest pin in the array to the highest:
15. for (int PIN = 0; PIN < countOFpin; PIN++) {
16. // turns the pin ON:
17. digitalWrite(LEDPins[PIN], HIGH);
18. delay(timer);
19. // turnS the pin OFF:
20. digitalWrite(LEDPins[PIN], LOW);
21. }
22. // loop from the highest pin in the array to the lowest:
23. // It means the LEDs will light in the reverse direction as used above
24. for (int PIN = countOFpin - 1; PIN >= 0; PIN- -)
25. {
26. digitalWrite(LEDPins[PIN], HIGH);
27. delay(timer);
28. digitalWrite(LEDPins[PIN], LOW);
29. // We can also specify the time inside the delay( ) instead of the delcaring the timer
30. }
31. }
Connection Diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator because the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Blinking multiple LEDs using the loop

We have already discussed the method to blink a single LED and two LEDs.

In this project, we will discuss the process to blink three LEDs using for loop. The three LEDs
will light up one after the other.

Let's start the process.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 3 x red LED
 o 3 x 220 Ohm Resistors
o Arduino UNO R3 board
o Jump wires

We can use any color LED as per our choice.

Principle
We will connect the three LEDs to pins 13, 8, and 4 of the Arduino board. The limiting value of
resistance should be between 220 and 330 ohms to set the optimal current through the LEDs.

The required resistance is enough to light up an LED without damaging the board and the LED.
We will turn the LED ON/OFF individually.

Structure of the project

The structure clearly shows the pinout of the UNO board, and the three LEDs with resistors in
series are connected to the board.

It is shown below:
Procedure
The connection of the above project is discussed below:

o Connect the resistor of 220 Ohm in series with the three LEDs. Now connect it to the pin
number 13, 8, and 4 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the negative terminal of the three LEDs to the GND (Ground).
 Sketch
Open the Arduino IDE and start with the coding, which is given below:

1. /*
2. This program blinks LED connection to the pin number 13, 8, and 4
3. */
4. void setup()
5. {
6. pinMode(13, OUTPUT);
7. pinMode(8, OUTPUT);
8. pinMode(4, OUTPUT);
9. }
10. void loop()
11. {
12. // the first LED is made to blink one time
13. digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
14. delay(1000); // delay time in milliseconds
15. digitalWrite(13, LOW);
16. delay(1000);
17. // the second LED will blink two times
18. digitalWrite(8, HIGH);
19. delay(500); // the duration is 0.5 seconds
20. digitalWrite(8, LOW);
21. delay(500);
22. digitalWrite(8, HIGH);
23. delay(500);
24. digitalWrite(8, LOW);
25. delay(500);
26. // the third LED will blink three times
27. for( int i = 0; i < 3; i = i +1 )
28. {
29. digitalWrite(4, HIGH);
30. delay(500);
31. digitalWrite(4, LOW);
32. delay(500);
33. // We can adjust the delay time accordingly
34. }
35. }

Connection Diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator because the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Blinking multiple LEDs using switch case

Here, we will discuss a project to turn ON one led from multiple LEDs based on the value in the
variable.

Let's start with the project.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 4 x red LED
o 4 x 220 Ohm Resistors
o Arduino UNO R3 board
o Jump wires

We can use any color LED as per our choice.

Principle
We will connect the four LEDs to pins 12, 11, 8, and 6 of the Arduino board. The resistors of 220
Ohm are connected in series with the LEDs.

The switch statement will compare the declared value of a variable with statements in other
cases. The code associated with the matching case will run.

We will also change or rearrange the LEDs connected to the specified pin number on the board.

Structure of the project

The structure clearly shows the UNO board's pinout, and the four LEDs with resistors in series
are connected to the board.

It is shown below:
 Connection
The connection of the above project is discussed below:

o Connect the resistor of 220 Ohm in series with the four LEDs. Now connect it to the pin
number 12, 11, 8, and 6 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the negative terminal of the five LEDs to the GND (Ground).

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. // initialize serial communication:
4. Serial.begin(9600);
5. // initializing the LED pins:
6. for (int LEDpin = 6; LEDpin <13 ; LEDpin++) {
7. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);
8. // here, we have used for loop for initialization
9. }
10. }
11. void loop()
12. {
13. int a = 3; // we can specify any variable name
14. switch (a)
15. {
16. case 1:
17. digitalWrite(6, HIGH);
18. break;
19. case 2:
20. digitalWrite(8, HIGH);
21. break;
22. case 3:
23. digitalWrite(11, HIGH);
24. break;
25. case 4:
26. digitalWrite(12, HIGH);
27. break;
28. default:
29. // turn all the LEDs off if all the above cases does not matches:
30. for (int LEDpin = 6; LEDpin <13; LEDpin++)
31. {
32. digitalWrite(LEDpin, LOW);
33. }
34. }
35. }

In the above code, the specified value of variable matches with case 3. Hence, the LED
connected to pin number 11 will light up.

Connection Diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator because the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Output

The LED connected to the PIN 11 will light up, as shown below:

Arduino Simulator
The Arduino simulator is a virtual portrayal of the circuits of Arduino in the real world. We can
create many projects using a simulator without the need for any hardware.

The Simulator helps beginner and professional designers to learn, program, and create their
projects without wasting time on collecting hardware equipments.

Advantages of using Simulator

There are various advantages of using simulator, which are listed below:

o It saves money, because there is no need to buy hardware equipments to make a project.
o The task to create and learn Arduino is easy for beginners.
o We need not to worry about the damage of board and related equipments.
o No messy wire structure required.
o It helps students to eliminate their mistakes and errors using simulator.
o It supports line to line debugging, and helps to find out the errors easily.
 o We can learn the code and build projects anywhere with our computer and internet
connection.
o We can also share our design with others.

Types of Simulator
There are various simulators available. Some are available for free, while some require a license
to access the simulators.

Some types of simulators are listed below:

o Autodesk Tinkercad
o Emulator Arduino Simulator
o Autodesk Eagle
o Proteus Simulator
o Virtronics Arduino Simulator
o ArduinoSim

Autodesk Eagle is an advanced simulator, which is used to design 2D and 3D models of PCB,
modular designs, multi-sheet schematics, real-time synchronization, etc.

How to access simulator?

Here, we are using the Autodesk Tinkercad Simulator.

The steps to access the TINKERCAD are listed below:

1. Open the official website of tinkercad. URL: https://www.tinkercad.com/

A window will appear, as shown below:

Example Code
Let's write a simple code to blink an LED.

The coding screen is shown below:

As soon we choose the board and port, the program will be uploaded to the board, and LED will
blink for the specified duration (0.5 seconds).

Arduino Switch
Switches are used to turn ON/OFF devices and to connect different parts of a circuit. The slide-
switch in Arduino moves the slider of the switch from the open position (ON) to the closed
position (OFF).

It allows the flow of current in the circuit without the need for splice wire. The slide switches are
widely used in small circuits applications.

There are two types of circuits, which are shown below:

o Closed circuits

The closed circuits have closed loop. Electrons can easily flow in a closed circuit and light up
an LED.
 o Open circuits

The open circuits have open ends, due to which electrons cannot flow through the circuit.

We can use an electronic component switch, to open and close circuits without the need to
disconnect the wires by hand again and again.

Types of Switches
There are major four types of switches in Arduino, which are listed below:

o SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) Switch

It is a switch that has one input and one output. The circuit is ON when the switch is closed and
vice versa.

o SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) Switch

It is a three-terminal switch. It has a single input, which can switch between two outputs.

o SP3T (Single Pole Three Throw) Switch

It is a switch with one input and three outputs, where each input corresponds to any of the
output in a circuit.

o DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw) Switch

It is a switch with two inputs and four outputs. Each input of a switch in Arduino can be
connected to either of the two outputs.
where,

Pole: It signifies the number of circuits the switch can control.

Throw: It signifies the number of positions in which each pole of the switch can connect to it.

Code Example
Let's discuss an example to light an LED using a Switch. Here, we will use the SPDT (Single Pole
Double Throw) Switch.

If we leave one side of the switch, it can work as SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) switch.

Components Required

The required components are listed below:

o Arduino UNO board. Here, we have used UNO R3.

o 1 x 220 ohm resistor
o Jump wires
o 1 x Slide switch
o 1 x green LED (we can take LED of any color)
 o 1 x Breadboard

The steps for such an example are listed below:

1. Attach the green LED on the breadboard.

2. Connect a resistor in series with the LED.

3. Attach Slide switch on the breadboard, as shown below:

4. Connect the negative pin of the LED to the Ground.

5. Connect the positive terminal of LED in series with the resistor to PIN 8.

6. Connect the common terminal or the middle terminal to pin number 3. It is because the
middle terminal is the input terminal.

7. Connect one end of slide switch to Ground and another end to 5V.

The circuit is shown below:

 Now, we need to write the code on the coding screen.

The code is given below:

1. const int pinOFswitch = 3;

2. const int LED = 8;
3. void setup( ) {
4. pinMode(pinOFswitch, INPUT);
5. pinMode(LED, OUTPUT);
6. }
7. void loop( )
8. {
9. int ValueOFswitch;
10. ValueOFswitch = digitalRead(pinOFswitch);
11. if (ValueOFswitch == HIGH)
12. {
13. digitalWrite(LED, HIGH);
14. delay(500);
15. }
16.
17. else
18. {
19. digitalWrite(LED, LOW);
20. delay(500);
21. }
22. }

Arduino button
The buttons are similar to switches that create and break electrical connections in the circuits.
The button plays a transition between ON and OFF state. A single press turns the state ON,
while another press turns the state OFF. It means that the button connects the two points in a
circuit when we press them.

There are two types of button, which are listed below:

o NO (Normally Open)

We mostly use NO types of buttons. In such type, the state of the button is in rest. It means that
a terminal in such a condition is not connected.

It is shown below:

When we push the button, the terminals become electrically connected.

o NC (Normally Closed)

It is defined as the working state of the button. It connects the terminals of the circuit and
allows current to flow through the load.
It is shown below:

NC and NO are also defined as the momentary type of switches.

Let's understand NO and NC with the help of a circuit.

The NO state of a circuit is shown below:

Due to the open ends of the circuit, the current cannot flow through it. The state of the circuit is
in rest.

The NC state of a circuit is shown below:

The current can easily flow through the circuit due to its connected ends. The LED will be ON
until we push the button again.

Another type of button is pushbutton, which is widely used in projects and circuits.

Structure of pushbutton
Let's understand the structure of pushbutton.

The pushbutton is a square shape button with four terminals, as shown below:

The two pins are next to each other on one side and another two pins on the other side. The
pins across to each other are connected. The pins next to each other can only be connected,
when we press the button.
We can also connect two opposite terminals of the pushbutton, as shown below:

Let's understand buttons with an example.

Code Example
Here, we will light an LED by pressing the pushbutton. When we press the push button, it turns
ON the LED connected to the PIN 13 on the Arduino UNO board.

Components Required

The required components are listed below:

o Arduino UNO board. Here, we are using UNO R3.

o 1 x 220 ohm resistor
o 1 x 10 Kohm resistor
o Jump wires
o 1 x pushbutton
o 1 x red LED (we can take LED of any color)
o 1 x Breadboard

The steps for such an example are listed below:

1. Attach the red LED on the breadboard board.

 2. Connect a resistor in series with the LED and connect it to PIN 2 of the breadboard.
3. Connect the negative terminal of the LED to the GND pin.
4. Attach the pushbutton on the breadboard.
5. Connect a 10 kohm resistor in series with the lower right corner of the pushbutton and
connect it to the GND pin.
6. Connect the upper right corner of the pushbutton to PIN 4.
7. Connect lower left corner of the pushbutton to 5V.

The circuit is shown below:

Code
The code for the upper circuit is shown below:
1. const int ledpin = 2; // initializing pin number 2 to the LED
2. const int buttonpin = 4; // initializing pin number 4 to the button
3. int buttonState = 0;
4. void setup()
5. {
6. Serial.begin(9600);
7. pinMode(buttonpin, INPUT);
8. pinMode(ledpin, OUTPUT);
9. }
10. void loop()
11. {
12. // read the state of the pushbutton value
13. buttonState = digitalRead(buttonpin);
14. // check if pushbutton is pressed. if it is, the
15. // buttonState is HIGH
16. if (buttonState == HIGH) {
17. // turn LED on
18. digitalWrite(ledpin, HIGH);
19. Serial.println("LED is ON");
20. //When we press the button, it will print LED is ON.
21. delay ( 500);
22. }
23. else
24. {
25. // turn LED off
26. digitalWrite(ledpin, LOW);
27. Serial.println("LED is OFF"); // When we press the button, it will print LED is OFF.
28. }
29. delay ( 500);
30. }

Output

The LED will light be OFF at the initial state.

When we continuously press the button, LED will light. The message 'LED is ON' will print on the
Serial Monitor after every 500 milliseconds.

Let's watch the output on the serial monitor.

When LED is OFF, the output appears as:

When LED is ON, the output appears as:

Arduino PWM
The PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is a method of controlling the average voltage. It is
a stream of voltage pulses that reduces the electric power supplied by the electrical signal. The
effective voltage is controlled by the width of individual pulses in a stream of voltage pulses of a
PWM signal.

The common use of PWM pins includes controlling LEDs and DC Motors.

The PWM in LED controls the frequency of the light. It means the LED will be ON/OFF at a
frequency detectable by our eyes.

The PWM in DC Motors acts like a pulse train of a DC signal. The DC motors receive a high or
low electrical power input based on the width of the PWM pulses.

We can also use PWM for voltage regulation, audio signal generation, devices control (pump,
hydraulics, etc.), servo motor, etc.

Principle of PWM
The state of the Digital Input/Output pins in Arduino is either HIGH ( 1 ) or LOW ( 0).

Here,

HIGH means the voltage is approx to 5V.

LOW means the voltage is equivalent to 0 volts.

The PWM is a square wave signal, which is represented as:

The duty cycle of the rectangular pulse is shown below:

Here,

to: It is the duration of the signal when the signal is HIGH.

tc: It is the total duration of the signal as the sum of HIGH and LOW.

Duty cycle of a PWM wave

As defined above, the duty cycle is the ratio of the pulse width to the total width of a signal.

Consider the below image:

The above image displays the wave at different duty cycles.

We can control the effective voltage of the DC motor in Arduino by regulating the PWM duty
cycle.

For example,

Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO board consists of 14 digital Input/Output pins, where pin 11, 10, 9, 6, 5, and 3 are
PWM pins. The pinMode(), digitalRead(), digitalWrite() functions control the operation of non-
PWM pins.
 The pinMode() function is used to declare the specific pin as input/output. The digitalRead is
used to read the HIGH or LOW state of a pin.

We need to use the analogWrite() to set the duty cycle of a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
pulse.

Let's discuss analogWrite() in detail.

analogWrite()
It writes a PWM value or analog value to a pin. We can light an LED with varying brightness with
the help of analogWrite(). It is also used to drive a motor at varying speeds.

When an analogWrite() function is called, a stable rectangular wave of particular duty cycle is
generated by the specified PWM pin until the next analogWrite() is called on that same pin.

The PWM pins are present on every Arduino Board. The frequency can also vary for some PWM
pins present on the particular board.

For example,

The PWM pins on the Arduino Leonardo/Micro are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, and 13. The frequency on pin
3 and 11 will be 980Hz, while other PWM pins have 490Hz of frequency.

The syntax is:

1. analogWrite(pin, value)

where,

pin: Specified PWM pin on the board

value: It determines the value of the duty cycle between 0 and 255.

The data type used here is int.

Note: The analogWrite( ) function is not related to the analogRead() or analog pins.

What is the difference between analogRead() and analogWrite()?

The main differences between analogRead() and analogWrite() are listed below:

o The analogRead() is used to read the analog value, while analogWrite() function is used
to write the PWM value.
o The value of analogRead() ranges from 0 to 1023, while analogWrite() ranges from 0 to
255.
 Let's understand with an example.

In the case of the PWM pin, we will specify the value instead of HIGH or LOW.

For example,

HIGH = 255

LOW = 0

Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. pinMode(10, OUTPUT); // the declared pin must be among the PWM pins.
4. }
5. void loop()
6. {
7. analogWrite(10, 255); // 255 is the highest value.
8. //We can modify the value as per the required brightness.
9. delay(1000);
10. analogWrite(10, 0);
11. delay(1000); // time delay of 1 second or 1000 milliseconds
12. }

Here, the LED will light at full brightness.

Let's discuss an example to control the brightness of the LED.

How to calculate Arduino PWM?

The analogWrite() function discussed above is used to generate a PWM signal in Arduino.

The value associated with the analog signal is from 0 to 255. It means 256 levels of values.

The maximum voltage read by the Arduino is 5V.

We can determine the output PWM voltage by using the below formula:

PWM voltage = ( Duty cycle/ 256) x 5V

 Code Example
Let's discuss a method to control the brightness of an LED connected to the PWM pin.

Here, we have connected the LED to the PWM pin 6.

Consider the below code.

1. void setup()
2. {
3. pinMode(6, OUTPUT); // the declared pin must be among the PWM pins.
4. }
5. void loop()
6. {
7. analogWrite(6, 255); // brightness increases as value increases
8. delay(1000);
9. analogWrite(6, 180);// brightness level
10. delay(1000);
11. analogWrite(6, 80);
12. delay(1000);
13. analogWrite(6, 20); // brightness decreases as value decreases
14. delay(1000);
15. }

In the above example, the brightness of the LED will decrease according to the specified value
of brightness.

Arduino Library
The Library is considered as the advanced feature, which extends the capabilities of the Arduino
IDE. It means that the libraries provide extra functionality to the programming platform of
Arduino.
 The libraries in Arduino are written in C or C++ (.cpp). These libraries allow us to manipulate
data and work with the hardware.

To implement any Library in the Arduino IDE, go to the Sketch -> Import Library.

There are several libraries available for download. We can also create our own library.

Let's discuss some of the libraries.

Standard Libraries
The standard libraries are listed below:

EEPROM
It stands for Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The EEPROM is
associated with the microcontroller present on the AVR or Arduino Boards. The EEPROM library
allows us to read the bytes stored in the memory when the power of the board is off.

The size of EEPROM varies in different boards, such as 1KB or 1024 bytes on the ATmega328P.
It can also be of 4KB or 4096 bytes on the Microcontroller ATmega2560, etc.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <EEPROM.h>

For example, EEPROM Read, EEPROM Clear, EEPROM Write, EEPROM Get, EEPROM Update,
EEPROM Put, EEPROM Iteration, etc.

Ethernet Library
The Ethernet library works with the Arduino Ethernet shield and other related devices. The
Ethernet library allows us to connect the Arduino board to the Internet.

The SPI bus acts as an intermediate between the board and the shield.

The associated library is:

1. #include <Ethernet.h>
2. #include <SPI.h>

For example, TelnetClient, WebServer, WebClientRepeating, WebClient, ChatServer,

DnsWebClient, UdpNtpClient, UdpSendReceiveString, etc.
 Firmata Library
For the programming environment, we can create custom firmware without producing our own
objects and protocols.

It is used to implement the firmware protocol, which communicates with the software on the
host computer.

The associated library is:

1. #include <Firmata.h>

GSM Library
The GSM library exists on the IDE version 1.0.4 and up.

The GSM library allows us to perform the operations on the Arduino board similar to the GSM
phone, such as internet connection, send and receive messages, and to place voice calls.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <GSM.h>

Liquid Crystal Library

It is a library that permits Arduino to communicate with LCDs, which are based on a compatible
chipset called Hitachi HD44780. Such chipsets are found on most types of text-based LCDs. It
works with either an 8-bit mode or 4-bit mode. Here, the bit mode signifies the data lines in
addition to the enable, rs, and rw control lines (optional).

The library is declared as:

1. #include <LiquidCrystal.h>

The examples are Hello World, Cursor, Blink, etc.

SD Library
It allows writing to or reading from SD cards. For example, Arduino Ethernet Shield. The file
names include the paths separated by the forward slashes, which are passed to the SD Library.
But, SPI is used for the communication between the SD card and the Arduino.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <SPI.h>
2. #include <SD.h>
 The examples are Dump files, List Files, Read Write, etc.

Servo Library
The Servo library permits Arduino to work with servo motors. It allows controlling the integrated
shaft and gears. We can also position shaft at different angles between 0 and 180 degrees. The
servo library on Arduino boards can support upto 12 motors, while on Arduino Mega board, it
can support upto 48 motors.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <Servo.h>

SPI Library
The SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a serial data protocol. The microcontrollers use the
serial protocol to communicate over short distances with one or more peripheral devices
quickly.

The required connection of SPI is a full-duplex that allows devices to simultaneously sent and
receive data.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <SPI.h>

The examples are Dump files, List Files, Read Write, etc.

Stepper Library
The Stepper library in Arduino permits to control of bipolar or unipolar stepper motors.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <Stepper.h>

The Stepper includes stepper speed control, stepper one revolution, etc.

Software Serial Library

The Software Serial Library permits serial communication over digital Input/output pins. The 0
and 1 pins are inbuilt on Arduino for the serial interface. We can include multiple serial ports in
our code that can operate with speed upto 115200 bps (bits per second).

The library is declared as:

1. #include <SoftwareSerial.h>

TFT LCD Library

The TFT LCD library is included in the IDE version 1.0.5 and later. It allows the Arduino to
communicate with the TFT LCD screen. It further helps to draw images, shapes, lines, and text
to the screen.

The SD card slot present on the onboard screen can be used by implementing the SD library.

The TFT library for communication depends on the SPI library with the SD card and screen.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <SPI.h>
2. #include <TFT.h>

WiFi Library
The WiFi library permits Arduino to establish a connection with the internet. It can either be a
server to receive the incoming connections or a client to perform outgoing connections.

The personal encryptions supported by the WiFi library are WPA2 and WEP except for WPA2
Enterprise. Arduino uses the SPI bus to communicate with the WiFi shield.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <WiFi.h>

The examples include WiFiWebClient, WiFiWebServer, etc.

Audio Library
The Audio library is compatible with the Arduino Due board only. It enables the board to
playback .wav files from the specific storage devices, such as the SD card.

It plays sounds by using the DAC0 and DAC1 pins.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <Audio.h>

The example is a Simple Audio Player.

 Audio Zero Library
It enables the board (Arduino Zero, MKR1000, and MKRZero) to playback .wav files from the
storage devices, such as the SD card.

Arduino Zero and MKR1000 board play sound by using the DAC0 pin.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <AudioZero.h>

The example is the Simple Audio Player Zero.

Arduino Sound Library

The Arduino Sound Library permits the board to analyze and play audio data, which is provided
by Arduino on SAMD21 based board using the I2S bus. The SAMD21 based boards are Arduino
Zero, MKR1000, MKRZero, or Genuino Zero.

The library is declared as:

1. #include <AudioSound.h>

The examples include WavePlayBack, ClapDetector, WhistleDetector, etc.

Now, let's discuss the process to install the library in Arduino.

How to install a library in Arduino?

The steps are listed below:

Arduino Library Manager

o We need to open the library manager to install a new library in Arduino. Click
on Sketch -> Include Library -> Manage Libraries, as shown below:
o A dialog box containing various libraries will appear, as shown below:
o A list of libraries will appear that are ready to install. We need to select the specific
library -> select the version -> click on Install button, as shown below:
Sometimes there is only one version available for download. In such case, the dropbox of the
version will not appear. Hence, it's normal.

We need to wait for the library to download. The downloading will depend on the connection
speed.

The 'INSTALLED' tag will appear in front of the library that is already installed on our computer.

Importing a .zip Library

If we want to add our own library, we can select the desired folder from our computer. The
particular zip file containing the library can be imported in the Arduino.

It is shown below:
We can also recheck from the option Sketch -> Include library to see that the added libraries are
present or not on the list.

We are not required to unzip the downloaded library. The file will remain in the .zip format.

We can download the 3rd party libraries starting with the Arduino IDE version 1.0.5.

Arduino LCD Display

The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of display that uses the liquid crystals for its
operation.
 Here, we will accept the serial input from the computer and upload the sketch to the Arduino.
The characters will be displayed on the LCD.

The library that allows us to control the LCD display is called Liquid Crystal Library, which is
discussed below:

The library is declared as:

1. #include <LiquidCrystal.h>

The library is based on a compatible chipset called Hitachi HD44780. It is found on most of the
LCDs that are based on text. It works with either an 8-bit mode or 4-bit mode. Here, the bit mode
signifies the data lines in addition to the enable, rs, and rw control lines (optional).

LCD Structure
The LCD display has a 16-pin interface.

The structure of the LCD is shown below:

The Liquid Crystal Display has a parallel interface. It means that the microcontroller operates
several pins at once to control the LCD display.
The 16-pins present on the LCD display are discussed below:

o RS

The Register Select (RS) pin controls the memory of the LCD in which we write the data. We can
select either the data register or the instruction register. The LCD looks for the upcoming
instruction, which is present in the instruction register.

o R/W

The Read/Write pin selects the reading or writing mode.

o E

The Enable (E) mode is used to enable the writing to the registers. It sends the data to the data
pins when the mode is HIGH.

o D0 to D7

These are eight data pins numbered as D0, D1, D3, D3, D4, D5, D6, and D7. We can set the state
of the data pin either HIGH or LOW.

Pin 1 of the LCD is the Ground pin, and pin 2 is the Vcc or the voltage source pin.

The pin 3 of the LCD is the VEE or the contrast pin. For example, we can connect the
potentiometer's output to the VEE and can adjust the contrast of the LCD.

The A and K pins are also called as Backlight pins (Bklt+ and Bklt-).

Principle of LCD
The process includes putting the data (to be displayed on the LCD screen) into the data
registers. The instructions in the Register Select are kept in the instruction register. The liquid
crystal library has simplified process to display the characters on the LCD.

The LCDs can be controlled in 4-bit or 8-bit modes, which requires 7 and 11 Input/Output pins
from the particular Arduino board.

Let's discuss a project to display the text on the LCD.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o LCD Screen (Hitachi HD44780 compatible driver display)

 o 1 x 220 Ohm Resistor
o 1 x 10K Ohm Resistor
o Arduino UNO board or Genuino board
o Jump wires
o Pin header required to solder the LCD display pins
o breadboard

Structure of the project

The structure of the project is shown below:

Procedure
The connection is explained below:
 We need to first connect the data pins of LCD to the digital pins.

o Connect the RS pin of LCD to pin 13 of the Arduino board.

o Connect the Enable pin of LCD to pin 12 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D4 pin of LCD to pin 6 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D5 pin of LCD to pin 4 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D6 pin of LCD to pin 3 of the Arduino board.
o Connect D7 pin of LCD to pin 2 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the middle terminal of the potentiometer to the VEE (contrast pin).
o Connect the two ends of the potentiometer to the Ground and 5V.
o Connect one end of a resistor to the A and K of the LCD and another end to 5V.

Sketch
The code to display the specified message on the LCD display is given below:

1. // here, we will include the liquid crystal library:

2. #include <LiquidCrystal.h>
3. // initialize the library with the pins on the Arduino board
4. LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 6, 4, 3, 2);
5. void setup() {
6. // Here, 16 and 2 are the columns and rows of the LCD
7. lcd.begin(16, 2);
8. // It prints the message on the LCD.
9. lcd.print("hello Arduino");
10. // We can modify the message as per our choice.
11. }
12. void loop() {
13. // It sets the cursor to column 0, line 1
14. // Since counting begins with 0, line 1 is the second row
15. lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
16. // print the number of seconds
17. lcd.print(millis() / 1000);
18. // Here, millis() is the return type of the timer in milliseconds
19. }
Connection Diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator so that the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Output

The message 'Hello Arduino' will be printed on the LCD display, as shown below:
Arduino Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a device that is used to measure the voltage or electric potential. It
provides a variable resistance when the shaft of the device is turned.

Here, we will measure the amount of resistance as an analog value produced by the
potentiometer. We will connect the potentiometer to the Arduino UNO board and will measure
the state of the potentiometer. The required code will be uploaded from our computer to the
Arduino board.

The variable resistance measured by the potentiometer can be easily read as an analog value
into the Arduino board.

What is Potentiometer?
The potentiometer is a three-terminal device. It has a rotating contact that acts as an adjustable
voltage divider.

The potentiometer structure consists of a sliding contact (called wiper), a resistive element,
electrical terminals, and a housing.

The sliding contact moves along the resistive element, while the housing consists of the wiper
and the element.

Working: The fixed input voltage is applied across the two ends terminal of a potentiometer,
which further produces the adjustable output voltage at the wiper or slider.

As the slider moves from one end to another, the divider can vary the output voltage from
maximum to Ground.

The connection of potentiometer with Arduino board is shown below:

The middle terminal of potentiometer is connected to the analog pin to read the analog data.

Potentiometer with LED

In this example, we will use a potentiometer that controls the value at which LED blinks.

Hardware Required

The required components are listed below:

o 1 x red LED
o Arduino UNO R3 board
o 10K Ohm Potentiometer
o Jump wires
 o 220 Ohm resistor

Connection

o One outer pin of the potentiometer is connected to ground (GND), and other external pin
is connected to 5V of the Arduino board.
o The middle pin of the potentiometer is connected to the analog input pin A2 of the board.
o The positive terminal of the LED is connected in series with 220 Ohm resistor to pin
number 13 of the board, and the negative terminal is connected to the GND.

Procedure

The analog input will turn the LED ON and OFF, which is connected to the pin number 13 of the
Arduino UNO board. The time (delay time) at which LED is ON/OFF depends on the value
acquired by the analogread( ).

We have connected the potentiometer to the analog pin number 2 of the Arduino UNO board.

When the shaft is turned, the amount of resistance on either side of the potentiometer changes.
The distance between the pin connected to 5V and GND gives the analog input. We read input 0
when the shaft is turned in one direction, while we read input 1023 when the shaft is turned in
another direction.

In between the turning input between 0 and 1023, we get the desired value returned by the
analogRead( ). It is proportional to the voltage being applied to the pin.

Code

We will now upload the code to the board.

The code is given below:

1. int potentiometerPIN = 2;
2. // It select the input pin connected to the middle terminal of the potentiometer
3. int LEDpin = 13; // It selects the LED pin
4. int value = 0; // value initialized to store the coming value from the sensor
5. void setup()
6. {
7. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT); // The LED pin is declared as the output pin
8. }
9. void loop()
10. {
11. value = analogRead(potentiometerPIN); // It reads the value from the sensor
12. digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); // turn the LEDpin ON
13. delay(value); // delay time in milliseconds
14. digitalWrite(LEDpin, LOW); // turn the LEDpin OFF
15. delay(value);
16. // the delay time depends on the value stored from the sensor
17. }

Connection diagram

The connection diagram is shown below:

Arduino Interrupt
The interrupts() in Arduino allows to certain essential tasks to be executed in the background,
and these are enabled by default.

The disabling of the interrupts() can interfere with the Arduino functions and may impact
communication. It means that some functions in Arduino will not work if the interrupts() is
disabled.

Interrupts can sometimes disturb the code timings. To prevent such disturbances, interrupts
can be disabled for a critical section of the code.
 The syntax is:

1. interrupts()

Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code:

1. void setup()
2. {
3. }
4. void loop()
5. {
6. interrupts();
7. // code is written here
8. nointerrupts();
9. // it includes sensitive code
10. // critical section of code
11. }

Features of Interrupts()
The features of interrupts() are listed below:

o It saves timing problems.

o It includes reading a rotary encoder or monitors a user input.
o It can free the processor to get some other stuff without missing the input.
o It helps the system to react quickly and efficiently.

External Interrupts
The external interrupts are listed below:

o attachInterrupt()
o detachInterrupt()

attachInterrupt()
The first function to set the interrupt is: attachInterrupt( )
 We are required to use the digitalPinToInterrupt(pin) to translate the real digital pin to the
interrupt number (a specified number).

For example,

If we want to connect it to pin number 5, we need to use the parameter as:

1. digitalPinToInterrupt(5)

It is the first parameter that is passed to the attachInterrupt().

Digital pins usable for Interrupts

Let's discuss some digital pins for various Arduino boards, which are usable for Interrupts.

o Arduino UNO, Mini, or Nano

PIN- 2, 3

The pin number will be similar for all the boards based on 328 Microcontroller.

o Arduino Mega ADK, Mega 2560, or Mega

PIN- 2, 3, 18, 19, 20, 21

o Arduino Zero

It includes all digital pins except the pin number 4.

o Arduino MKR Family boards

PIN- 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A1, A2

o Arduino Due

It includes all digital pins that can be used as interrupts.

Note: The variables modified within the attached function should be declared as volatile.
Here, the delay( ) function will not work inside the attached function. It needs an interrupt to work.

The syntax is:

1. attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(pin), ISR, mode)

The above syntax is mostly recommended.

 The syntax that is not recommended is:

1. attachInterrupt(interrupt, ISR, mode)

The syntax that is suitable for Due, Uno WiFi Rev2, Arduino SAMD Boards, and 101 is:

1. attachInterrupt(pin, ISR, mode)

where,

interrupt: It includes the number of the interrupt.

The data type used here is int.

pin: It includes the specified pin number of the Arduino board.

mode: It determines when the interrupt might be triggered in Arduino.

ISR: It stands for Interrupt Service Routine. It is called when the interrupts arise. It does not
include any parameters.

There are four modes or constants, which are listed below:

o LOW

It is used to trigger the interrupt when the specified pin is low.

o FALLING

It is used to trigger the interrupt when the specified pin goes from high to low.

o CHANGE

It is used to trigger the interrupt when the specified pin changes the value.

o RISING

It is used to trigger the interrupt when the specified pin goes from low to high.

Code Example
Let's understand with an example.

Consider the below code:

1. const byte LEDPin = 13;
2. const byte PINofInterrupt = 2;
3. volatile byte state = LOW;
4. void setup() {
5. // other declaration
6. attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(PINofInterrupt), blink, CHANGE);
7. }
8. void loop()
9. {
10. digitalWrite(LEDPin, state);
11. }
12. void blink()
13. {
14. // condition specified here
15. }

detachInterrupt()
The detachInterrupt( ) is used to turn off the given or current interrupt.

The syntax is:

1. detachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(pin))

The above syntax is probably recommended.

The syntax that is not recommended is:

1. detachInterrupt(interrupt)

The syntax that is suitable for Due, Uno WiFi Rev2, Arduino SAMD Boards, and 101 is:

1. detachInterrupt(pin)

where,

interrupt: It includes the number of the interrupt that we want to disable.

pin: It is the pin number of the Arduino board, which is used for the interrupt to disable.

Arduino SPI
The SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a serial data protocol. The microcontrollers use the
serial protocol to communicate over short distances with one or more peripheral devices
quickly.

The required connection of SPI is a full-duplex that allows devices to simultaneously sent and
receive data. It uses four conductors for data receiving, data sending,
synchronization, and device selection for communication.

The SPI uses a master-slave architecture, where one Master device controls the peripheral
devices.

The SPI has four lines, which are listed below:

o MISO

It stands for Master Input/ Slave Output. The slave line in the MISO pin is used to send the data
to the master.

o MOSI

It stands for Master Output/ Slave Input.

The MOSI and SCK are driven by the Master.

o SCK

It stands for Serial Clock. These are the clock pulses, which are used to synchronize the
transmission of data.

In slave, it works as the input of the clock generator. In master, it works as the output clock. The
data generated by the master is synchronized by the SCK.

o SS

It stands for Slave Select. It is the Slave Select line, which is used by the master. It acts as the
enable line.

When,

SS = LOW

The device interface with the master, when SS is low.

SS = HIGH

The device does not notice the master. It allows us to share the same MISO, CLK, and MOSI
with the multiples SPI devices.
The SPI is a synchronous interface that has a structure of one master and multiple slave
communication.

Working of SPI
The SPI uses four lines for communication that are listed above (MISO, MOSI, CLK, and SS). A
master in the connection is popularly a microcontroller, and the slave can be a sensor, ADC
(Analog to Digital Converter), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), DAC (Digital to Analog Converter), etc.

Let's understand the connection of the Master SPI with a slave.

Consider the below examples.

Example 1: Master SPI with a single slave.

Consider the below image:

The arrow sign of MISO is in the opposite direction because it is a slave line that sends data to
the master.

All other lines are directed from the master only.

Example 2: Master SPI with two slaves.

Here, the SPI Master is communicating with two SPI slaves. The individual pins of the SPI
master are connected to SS of each slave.

SPI Pins
Let's discuss the SPI Master and Slave pins on the Arduino board.

The ICSP Header includes 6 pins. The structure is shown below:

 The pin number of the SPI pins is listed below:

MOSI - 4
MISO - 1
SCK - 3

The SPI pins on different Arduino boards are listed below:

Arduino UNO

MOSI - 11
MISO - 12
SCK - 13

Arduino Due

MOSI - 4
MISO - 1
SCK - 3

Arduino Zero

MOSI - 4
MISO - 1
SCK - 3

Arduino Mega2560 or Mega1280

MOSI - 51
MISO - 50
SCK - 52

SPI Library
The library of SPI is:

1. # include <SPI.h>

The SPI library allows us to communicate as a master device with the Arduino and the SPI
devices.

SPI Modes
There are four modes of SPI, which combine the clock phase (CPHA), and clock polarity (CPOL).
These modes are called the four modes of transmission in SPI.

The clock phase is determined as the data clock signal and clock polarity determines the idle
state of the high or low signal.

The SPI modes control the shifted in and out state. The state lies on the rising and falling edge
of the clock polarity and clock phase.

The four modes are discussed below:

Mode 0 - Here, the clock polarity is 0 (CPOL = 0), while the clock phase is 0 (CPHA = 0). The
data is captured at the Rising edge, and the output edge is Falling.

Mode 1- Here, the clock polarity is 0 (CPOL = 0), while the clock phase is 1 (CPHA = 1). The data
is captured at the Falling edge, and the output edge is Rising.

Mode 2- Here, the clock polarity is 1 (CPOL = 1), while clock phase is 0 (CPHA = 0). The data is
captured at the Falling edge, and the output edge is Rising.

Mode 3- Here, the clock polarity is 1 (CPOL = 1), while clock phase is 1 (CPHA = 1). The data is
captured at the Rising edge, and the output edge is Falling.

SPI Programming
We have to declare the SPI library before beginning with the SPI programming in Arduino.

SPI Speed
The SPI automatically uses the best speed, which is less or equal than the specified speed
number in the SPISettings. If we are using a chip rate of 15MHz, we can use the data speed of
15000000.

If we are using a chip rate of 20MHz, we can use the data speed of 20000000.

Functions
The functions used for SPI programming are given below:

o begin()

The SPI.begin() function is used to initialize the bus by setting the SS, SCK, and MOSI pins to the
outputs.

It pulls the lines at the state shown below:

SS = High

SCK, MOSI = Low

The syntax is:

1. SPI.begin()
o SPISettings

It is the object that is used to configure the SPI port for the particular SPI device. It includes
three parameters, which are combined with this object.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.beginTransaction(SPISettings(12000000, MSBFIRST, SPI_MODE0))

The SPISettings can be directly declared inside the SPI.beginTransaction() function if the three
parameters are constant. We can create the SPISettings object if any of the settings are
variables.

The syntax is:

1. SPISettings mySettting(speedMaximum, dataOrder, dataMode)

where,

speedMaximum = It defines the maximum speed of communication.

dataOrder= LSBFIRST (Least Significant Bit First) or MSBFIRST (Most Significant Bit First).

Most of the data bits in SPI uses the MSBFirst.

dataMode= It includes four modes.

SPI_MODE1, SPI_MODE2, SPI_MODE3, and SPI_MODE4

o beginTransaction()

The beginTransaction() function is used to initialize the SPI bus by using the defined
SPISettings.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.beginTransaction(mysettings);
o end()

The end() function is used to disable the SPI bus without changing the pin modes.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.end()
 o transfer()

The transfer() function is used to transfer the data. We can call the function number of times.

o endTransaction()

The endTransaction() function is used to stop the bus.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.endTransaction()
o setClockDivider()

The setClockDivider() function is used to set the clock divider with respect to the system clock.

The clock in AVR boards can be divided with the available divider value of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and
128. The default value is 4, which is represented as SPI_CLOCK_DIV4 (for example, 5MHz for
the board at 20MHz). Similarly, other value will be represented.

The clock in Arduino due can be divided with the available divider values from 1 to 255, where
21 is the default value.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.setClockDivider(divider value)
o setDataMode()

The setDataMode() function is used to set the data mode in the SPISettings.

The syntax is:

1. SPI.setDataMode()
o setBitOrder()

The setBitOrder() function is used to set the order of the bits. These bits are shifted in and out
of the Serial Peripheral Interface Bus.

The order of bits is set either as LSBFirst (Least Significant Bit First) or MSBFirst (Most
Significant Bit First).

The syntax is:

1. SPI.setBitOrder(order)
What are the Arduino sensors?
Arduino is the open-source platform used for making custom electronics projects. Before
learning about the Arduino Sensors, lets first understand the sensors as a general term.

What are the sensors?

The sensors are defined as a machine, module, or a device that detect changes in the
environment. The sensors transfer those changes to the electronic devices in the form of a
signal.

A sensor and electronic devices always work together. The output signal is easily readable by
humans.

Nowadays, Sensors are used in daily lives. For example, controlling the brightness of the lamp
by touching its base, etc. The use of sensors is expanding with new technologies.

What is a sensor made of?

The sensor is a device, which is made up of Single Crystal Silicon. It is considered as a widely
used semiconductor material. It has superior mechanical stability, machinability, etc. It can also
combine electronics and sensing elements on the same substrate.

Where are the sensors used?

The sensors are used to measure the physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature, sound,
humidity, and light, etc.

An example of sensors is Fire Alarm, a detector present on the fire alarm detects the smoke or
heat. The signal generated from the detector is sent to the alarming system, which produces an
alert in the form of alarm.

The types of detectors are smoke detectors, heat detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, multi-
sensors detectors, etc.

How are the sensors used in Arduino?

The data signal runs from the sensor to the output pins of the Arduino. The data is further
recorded by the Arduino.

We will discuss various sensors further.

What are the types of sensors in Arduino?

Some of the types of sensors in Arduino are listed below:
 o Light sensor

The light sensor is used to control the light. It is used with LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) in
Arduino.

o Ultrasonic sensor

The ultrasonic sensor is used to determine the distance of the object using SONAR.

o Temperature sensor

The temperature sensor is used to detect the temperature around it.

o Knock Sensor

The knock sensor is used to pick the vibrations of the knocking. It is a common category of a
vibration sensor.

o Object Detection Sensor

It is used to detect the object by emitting infrared radiations, which are reflected or bounced
back by that object.

o Tracking Sensor

It allows the robots to follow a particular path specified by sensing the marking or lines on the
surface.

o Metal Touch Sensor

It is suitable for detecting the human touch.

o Water Level Sensor

It is used to measure the water or the depth of the water level. It is also used to detect leaks in
containers.

o Vibration Sensor

The vibration sensor is used to measure the vibrations.

o Air Pressure sensor

It is commonly related to meteorology, biomedical fields. It looks like the below image:
 o Pulse Sensor

The pulse sensor is used to measure the pulse rate. It looks like the below image:

o Capacitive soil moisture sensor

It is used to measure the moisture level of the soil.

o Microphone sensor

The microphone sensor in Arduino is used to detect the sound. The analog and digital are the
two outputs of this module. The digital output sends the high signal when the intensity of sound
reaches a certain threshold. We can adjust the sensitivity of a module with the help of a
potentiometer.

o humidity sensor

The humidity sensor is used to monitor weather conditions.

o Motion sensor
The motion sensor detects the movement and occupancy from the human body with the help of
Infrared radiation.

o Vibration sensor

The vibration sensor is used to detect the vibrations.

o Sound sensor

The sound sensor is suitable to detect the sound of the environment.

o Pressure Sensor

The pressure sensor is used to measure the pressure. The sensor in Arduino measures the
pressure and displays it on the small LCD screen.

o Magnetic field sensor

The magnetic field sensor measures the magnetic field strength and produces a varying voltage
as the output in Arduino.

Arduino LDR
Arduino LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) project uses the photoresistor to light an LED. The LED
will light up whenever there is dark or no light over the sensor.

What is photoresistor?

It is defined as a light-controlled resistor, which is also called as LDR. It is a variable resistor

that controls the resistance in accordance with the received light intensity. It means, the
resistance decreases as intensity of light increases.

Let's start with the project.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 1 x red LED
o 1 x 220 Ohm Resistor
o 1 x 10K Ohm Resistor
o Arduino UNO R3 board
o Jump wires
 o 1 x photoresistor

We can use any color LED as per our choice.

Structure of the project

The structure of the project is shown below:

How to calculate the output voltage using photoresistor?

The structure of photoresistor is shown below:

The formula to calculate the dark output voltage is given below:

where,

Vin = 5V

Vout = Output voltage

Here, R2 is the resistance connected in series with the photoresistor = 10K Ohm.

R1 is the resistance of the photoresistor.

Note: The resistance decreases with increasing light. Hence, the output voltage will increase. It
means that the output voltage calculated at the light will be higher than the output voltage calculated
at dark.

Here, dark and light specify the light falling on the sensor.

Connection
The connection of the above project is discussed below:

o Connect the positive leg of the LED in series with the resistor to the pin number 12 of the
Arduino board.
o Connect the negative leg of the LED to the Ground.
o Connect one edge of the photoresistor to the 5V pin on the Arduino board.
o Attach a 10K ohm resistance in series with another edge of the photoresistor and
connect it to the GND.
o Connect the edge of the photoresistor to the analog pin A0.
 Note: We have connected the LED only to enhance the project. We can also create the project
without using the LED. It will not impact the output.

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. const int LEDpin = 12;

2. const int photoPIN = A0;
3.
4. void setup() {
5. // initializing the serial communication:
6. Serial.begin(9600);
7. pinMode(photoPIN, INPUT);
8. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);
9. }
10. void loop() {
11. // read the sensor:
12. int sensorStatus = analogRead(photoPIN);
13. // now, it will check the reading or status of the sensor is < 200
14. // if it is, LED will be HIGH
15. if (sensorStatus <200)
16. {
17. digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); // LED is ON
18. Serial.println(" LED is ON, status of sensor is DARK");
19. }
20. else
21. {
22. digitalWrite(LEDpin, LOW);
23. Serial.println(" ***************");
24. }
25. }

Connection Diagram
The connection diagram is shown below:
Output

The output on the serial monitor will appear as:

LED is one because there is dark over the sensor.

Arduino Accelerometer
In this topic, we will discuss a project based on an accelerometer. The value will be read from
the series of accelerometer and received in the Arduino IDE's serial monitor. It means the data
will be read and received over the serial port.

We will use a three-axis accelerometer that gives acceleration for each Axis as an analog
voltage for separate pins.

We would be using the ADXL3xx accelerometer series. For example, ADXL320, ADXL322,
ADXL321, ADXL335, etc.

In this project, we are going to work with the ADXL335 accelerometer.

What is accelerometer?

The accelerometer is the device capable of detecting changes in motion in the form of
acceleration. It can also measure the vibration of a structure.

The acceleration is defined as the change in speed or velocity over time.

The motion sensors are present inside the accelerometer.

How does accelerometer work?

The acceleration (change in motion) or the vibration generates the force that causes the
piezoelectric material to be stressed. The microscopic crystals structure present in it creates
the voltage from the stress. The accelerometer interprets this voltage. The voltage is further
used to determine the orientation and velocity.

Usage of Accelerometer

The uses of the accelerometer are listed below:

o It is used to detect earthquakes due to the presence of a motion sensor.

o It is present on the laptop, which protects the hard drives from damage.
o It is used to create custom projects.
o It can determine the movements (uphill, etc.) of the object.

ADXL335 Accelerometer
The structure of ADXL335 is shown below:
The position of the three axis (X-axis, Y-axis, and Z-axis) will change according to the ADXL335
accelerometer's position.

If we hold the board in a different position, the direction of the three-axis will also change.
Moving the board in a particular direction will cause a change in the voltage of the respective
axis. We can measure the changed voltage on the Arduino.

When we hold the board up and flat, the measured acceleration of 9.8m/s^2 will appear on the Z
-axis.

It is also called as the gravity. Here,

1.0G = of 9.8m/s^2

where,

G is the acceleration due to earth gravity.

The sensitivity of ADXL335 accelerometer is:

s = 0.33V/G.

Gravity force per ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) unit is:

It is because the sensors need 3.3V to operate.

The accelerometer at rest will read half of its maximum analog voltage.

Note: Some accelerometers work at 5V while some at 3.3V. We need to make sure about the voltage
because the 3.3V accelerometer may be damaged with a 5V supply.

Let's start the project.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 1 x ADXL335 accelerometer
o 1 x Arduino UNO R3

Principle
We can directly plugged-in the accelerometer onto the Arduino. It is because the accelerometer
operates on minimal current.

The Arduino UNO has six analog pins. The three analog pins will be connected to the Vcc, Self-
Test, and the Ground pin. The other three analog pins will be used to read the analog output of
the accelerometer.

Structure
The structure of the project is shown below:
Connection
The connection for the above project is explained below:

o Connect X of the accelerometer to the analog pin A3 of the Arduino board.

o Connect Y of the accelerometer to the analog pin A2 of the Arduino board.
o Connect X of the accelerometer to analog pin A1 of the Arduino board.
o Connect Vcc of the accelerometer to analog pin A5 of the Arduino board.
o Connect GND of the accelerometer to analog pin A4 of the Arduino board.
o Connect ST of the accelerometer to analog pin Ao of the Arduino board.
 Sketch
We will upload the code on the Arduino connected with the accelerometer. The output can be
clearly seen on the Serial Monitor in the Arduino IDE.

Consider the below code:

1. const int GND = A4;

2. const int PowerPIN = A5;
3. const int pinOfX = A3;
4. const int pinOfY= A2;
5. const int pinOfZ= A1;
6. void setup()
7. {
8. Serial.begin(9600);
9. pinMode(GND , OUTPUT);
10. pinMode(PowerPIN , OUTPUT);
11. digitalWrite(GND , LOW); // configuring the GND pin as LOW
12. digitalWrite(PowerPIN , HIGH); // configuring the power pin HIGH (5V/3.3V)
13. }
14. void loop()
15. {
16. // It prints the values of the sensors
17. Serial.print(analogRead(pinOfX)); // print a tab between values:
18. Serial.print("\t");
19. Serial.print(analogRead(pinOfY));
20. Serial.print("\t");
21. Serial.print(analogRead(pinOfZ));
22. Serial.println(); // It delays before next reading
23. delay(100);
24. }

Arduino Ultrasonic distance sensor

The Ultrasonic sensor or HC-SRO4 is used to measure the distance of the object using SONAR.

It emits the Ultrasound at a frequency of 40KHZ or 40000 Hz. The frequency travels through the
air and strikes the object on its path. The rays bounce back from the object and reach back to
the module.
The four terminals of HC-SRO4 are VCC, TRIG, ECHO, and GND. The voltage supply or VCC is
+5V. We can connect the ECHO and TRIG terminal to any of the digital I/O pin on the specific
Arduino board.

The Ultrasonic sensors work best for medium ranges.

The resolution is 0.3cm.

The medium ranges of the sensor are 10cm to 3m. It works best at this duration.

The maximum range the sensor may detect is 4.5m.

How does Ultrasonic sensor work?

Let's understand how the sensor works.

o It sends ultra-high frequency samples.

o When samples strike the object, it bounces back from the object.

o The distance sensor reports the time it takes between the sending and receiving of the
samples.

Example
Let's consider an example.
An object is 40cm away from the Ultrasonic sensor. The speed of sound in air is 340m/s. We
need to calculate the time (in Microseconds).

Solution:

v = 340m/s = 0.034cm/us (centimeter/microseconds)

time = distance/speed
time = 40/0.034
time = 1176 microseconds

The speed of sound from the echo pin will double because the wave travels forward and
backward (bounces).

So, to calculate the distance, we need to divide it by 2. It is shown below:

distance = time x speed of sound/2

distance = time x 0.034/2

Structure of Ultrasonic Sensor

The structure of HC-SRO4 is shown below:

Ultrasonic sensor Timing Diagram

We will set the TRIG pin to HIGH for some time (about 3 to 100 microseconds). As soon the
TRIG pin is LOW, the Ultrasonic sensor sends the pulses and sets the ECHO pin to HIGH. When
the sensor gets the reflected pulses, it sets the ECHO pin to LOW. We need to measure the time
for which the ECHO pin was HIGH.

The timing diagram of the ultrasonic sensor HC-SRO4 is shown below:

Let's start creating the Arduino ultrasonic sensor to measure distance.

Hardware Required
The components required to create the project are listed below:

o Arduino UNO R3 board (We can also use any Arduino board)
o Jump wires
o Ultrasonic sensor HC-SRO4
o Breadboard

Principle
We need to first set the TRIG (triggered) pin at HIGH. It will send out the burst of 8 cycles called
the sonic burst, which will travel at the sound speed. It will be further received by the ECHO pin.
The time traveled by the sound wave is considered the ECHO pin's output time in microseconds.
 We will use the PulseIn() function to read the time from the output of the ECHO pin. It will wait
for the specified pin to go HIGH and LOW. The function would return the timing at the end.

The TRIG pin is set LOW for 4 microseconds and then HIGH for 15 microseconds.

The timing will be calculated in microseconds.

Procedure
The steps to connect the Ultrasonic sensor to the board are listed below:

o Connect the VCC pin of HC-SRO4 to 5V of the Arduino board.

o Connect the GND pin of HC-SRO4 to GND of the Arduino board.
o Connect the TRIG pin of HC-SRO4 to pin 6 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the ECHO pin of HC-SRO4 to pin 5 of the Arduino board.

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. #define ECHOpin 5 // it defines the ECHO pin of the sensor to pin 5 of Arduino
2. #define TRIGpin 6
3. // we have defined the variable
4. long duration; // variable for the duration of sound wave travel
5. int distance; // variable for the distance measurement
6. void setup()
7. {
8. pinMode(TRIGpin, OUTPUT); // It sets the ECHO pin as OUTPUT
9. pinMode(ECHOpin, INPUT); // It sets the TRIG pin as INPUT
10. Serial.begin(9600); // // Serial Communication at the rate of 9600 bps
11. Serial.println("Test of the Ultrasonic Sensor HC-
SR04"); // It will appear on Serial Monitor
12. Serial.println("with the Arduino UNO R3 board");
13. }
14. void loop()
15. {
16. // It first sets the TRIG pin at LOW for 2 microseconds
17. digitalWrite(TRIGpin, LOW);
18. delayMicroseconds(4);
19. // It now sets TRIG pin at HIGH for 15 microseconds
20. digitalWrite(TRIGpin, HIGH);
21. delayMicroseconds(15);
22. digitalWrite(TRIGpin, LOW);
23. // It will read the ECHO pin and will return the time
24. duration = pulseIn(ECHOpin, HIGH);
25. // distance formula
26. distance = duration*(0.034/2); // (speed in microseconds)
27. // Speed of sound wave (340 m/s)divided by 2 (forward and backward bounce)
28. // To display the distance on Serial Monitor
29. Serial.print("Distance: ");
30. Serial.print(distance);
31. Serial.println(" cm"); //specified unit of distance
32. }

Steps to upload the code to the project

The steps are listed below:

o Open the Arduino IDE.

o Select the type of board from Tools -> Board -> Arduino UNO.
 o Select the port from Tools -> Port -> COM..
o Upload the sketch to the connection diagram.

Connection Diagram
The connection diagram is shown below:

Output

The output on the serial monitor will appear as:

Arduino Ultrasonic Range finder

In previous topic of Arduino Ultrasonic Distance Sensor, we have used a four-terminal Ultrasonic
sensor.
Here, we will use a three-terminal Ultrasonic sensor, which is shown below:

It has three terminal GND (Ground), 5V, and SIG (signal). The process and the function of this
sensor is similar to the Ultrasonic Distance Sensor.

The frequency waves travel through the air and strike the object on its path. The waves bounce
back from the object and reach back to the module.

The Ultrasonic Range sensor pings the obstacles or objects with the ultrasound.

It detects the range from 3 cm or 4m or 400 cm.

The example of such a sensor is:

SEN136B5B

It is a sensor from SeedStudio. We need to switch the state between HIGH and LOW to notice
the output.

Let's start the project.

Hardware Required
The components required to create the project are listed below:

o Arduino UNO R3 board (We can also use any Arduino board)
o Jump wires
o Ultrasonic sensor
o Breadboard
Structure of the project
The structure of the project is shown below:

Procedure
The steps to connect the Ultrasonic sensor to the board are listed below:

o Connect 5V pin of the sensor to 5V of the Arduino board.

o Connect the GND pin of the sensor to the GND of the Arduino board.
 o Connect the SIG pin of the sensor to pin 8 of the Arduino board.

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. const int pinTOping = 7;

2. void setup() {
3.
4. Serial.begin(9600); //Serial communication at 9600 bps rate
5. Serial.println("Test for the Ultrasonic range sensor");
6. }
7. void loop()
8. {
9. // initialzing the variables using long data type
10. long TIMEduration, in, cm;
11. // The PING))) is triggered by a HIGH pulse valu2 of 2 or more microseconds.
12. // We have specified short time to clean HIGH pulse:
13. pinMode(pinTOping, OUTPUT);
14. digitalWrite(pinTOping, LOW);
15. delayMicroseconds(4);
16. digitalWrite(pinTOping, HIGH);
17. delayMicroseconds(8);
18. digitalWrite(pinTOping, LOW);
19. // We have used the same pin to read the signal from the PING)), which is a HIGH pulse

20. // the time is measured in microseconds

21. pinMode(pinTOping, INPUT);
22. TIMEduration = pulseIn(pinTOping, HIGH);
23. // convert the time into a distance
24. in = microsecondsToIn(TIMEduration);
25. cm = microsecondsToCm(TIMEduration);
26. Serial.print(in);
27. Serial.print("inches, ");
28. Serial.print(cm);
29. Serial.print("centimeters");
30. Serial.println();
31. delay(200); //time delay of 200 microseconds
32. }
33. long microsecondsToIn(long microseconds) {
34. // there are 73.746 microseconds per inch according to PING datasheet
35. // we need to divide the distance by 2
36. //It is because the ping travels forward and bounces backward
37. return microseconds / 74 / 2;
38. }
39. long microsecondsToCm(long microseconds) {
40. // The speed of sound is 340 m/s
41. return microseconds / 29 / 2;
42. }

Steps to upload the code to the project

The steps are listed below:

o Open the Arduino IDE.

o Select the type of board from Tools -> Board -> Arduino UNO.
o Select the port from Tools -> Port -> COM.
o Upload the sketch to the connection diagram.

Connection Diagram
The connection diagram is shown below:
Output

The output on the serial monitor will appear as:

Arduino temperature sensor

The temperature sensor in Arduino converts the surrounding temperature to voltage. It further
converts the voltage to Celcius, Celcius to Fahrenheit, and prints the Fahrenheit temperature on
the LCD screen.

We will use a temperature sensor (TMP 36) of low voltage. Such sensors are also stable while
dealing with large capacitive loads. It is also suitable for automotive applications.

The temperature sensors TMP 35, TMP 36, and TMP 37 are the sensors with the same features.

The operating voltage of the TMP 36 sensor ranges from 2.7V to 5.5V.

The sensor will look like the image shown below:

It has three terminals, which are listed below:

o Pin 1: DC voltage
Here, we will connect the DC voltage pin to 5V on the Arduino UNO board.

o Pin 2: Analog voltage output

We will consider the Analog voltage output pin as the output.

o Pin 3: GND

We will connect the GND pin to Ground on the Arduino UNO board.

Let's start the project.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 1 x TMP 36 sensor (Temperature sensor)

o 1 x LCD display
o Arduino UNO R3 board (We can take any Arduino board).
o Jump wires

Principle
We will connect the LCD Display and TMP 36 temperature sensor with the Arduino UNO R3
board. The sensor detects the surrounding temperature and converts it into volts, to Celsius to
Fahrenheit, and displays Fahrenheit temperature on the LCD screen.

We need to open the URL: Arduino LCD display for details about LCD display.

Connection
The steps to set up the connection are listed below:

o Connect the RS pin of LCD to pin 13 of the Arduino board.

o Connect the Enable pin of LCD to pin 12 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D4 pin of LCD to pin 6 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D5 pin of LCD to pin 4 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D6 pin of LCD to pin 3 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the D7 pin of LCD to pin 2 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the Vo pin of LCD to pin 8 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the middle terminal to a sensor to A0(analog pin).
 o Connect one end of the sensor to GND and another end to 5V.
o Connect one end of a resistor to the A and K of the LCD and another end to 5V.

Sketch

Consider the below code:

1. #include <LiquidCrystal.h>
2. // initialize the library with the pins on the Arduino board
3. LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 6, 4, 3, 2);
4. const int temperature = A0; //A0 is the analog pin
5. const int D = 8; // Vo of LCD is connected to pin 8 of the Arduino
6. void setup()
7. {
8. lcd.begin(16, 2);
9. Serial.begin(9600);
10. pinMode(D, OUTPUT);
11. }
12. void loop()
13. {
14. digitalWrite(D,LOW);
15. int Temp = analogRead(temperature);
16. float volts = (Temp / 965.0) * 5;
17. float celcius = (volts - 0.5) * 100;
18. float fahrenheit = (celcius * 9 / 5 + 32);
19. Serial.println(fahrenheit);
20. lcd.setCursor(5, 0);
21. lcd.print(fahrenheit);
22. delay(2000);
23. // time delay of 2000 microseconds or 2 seconds
24. }

We will show the connection using the Simulator because the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Output

The output is now visible on the LCD screen.

For better understanding, let's consider the output on the Serial Monitor.

It is the temperature in Fahrenheit.

Arduino Motion Sensor

We will use a PIR motion sensor in this project. All objects (having temperature higher than
absolute zero) emit radiations from the generated heat. These radiations cannot be detected by
a human eye. Hence, electronic devices such as motion sensors, etc. are used for the detection
of these radiations.
What is a PIR sensor?
The Passive Infra-Red sensors or PIR sensors detect motion or movement of an object that
detect infrared radiations, such as the human body. Hence, the use of sensors is very common.

The advantages of using a PIR sensor are listed below:

o Inexpensive
o Adjustable module
o Efficient
o Small in size
o Less power consumption
o It can detect motion in the dark as well as light.

The PIR sensor is shown below:

The PIR sensor has three terminals, which are listed below:

o VCC
o Digital Output
o GND (Ground)

We will connect the Vcc terminal of the sensor to the 5V on the Arduino board. The PIR's sensor
output can be connected to any of the digital pins on the Arduino board.

The applications of the PIR sensor are automation, security systems, etc. Such sensors work
great in detecting the entrance of a person in an area and leaving it.
The detection range of PIR sensors is from 5m to 12m.

Working of PIR Sensors

The working of the PIR sensor is entirely based on detecting the IR (Infra-Red) radiations, which
are either emitted or reflected by the objects.

The infrared radiations are detected by the crystalline material present at the center of the
sensor.

Consider a person passing in front of the background like a wall, etc. The temperature changes
from room to body temperature and vice-versa within the sensor field. Changes arising in the
arrival infrared radiations are converted by the sensor to the output voltage. It later detects the
human body or object.

Structure of PIR Sensor

A round metal can is mounted on the center with the rectangular crystal that detects the IR
radiations.

A ball like a lens present on some sensors helps in enhancing the viewing angle.

The bottom part of the sensor contains many circuits mounted on it, which is shown below:
Let's start with the project.

Hardware Required
The components required for the project are listed below:

o 1 x PIR motion sensor

o Arduino UNO R3 board (We can take any Arduino board).
o Jump wires
o 1 x red LED (we can take LED of any color)
o 1 x 220 Ohm resistor

Principle
The movement of jumper present on the sensor on the L side will cause a change in the state of
 the sensor whenever the motion is detected. Such a condition is defined as a single trigger
mode.

When the sensor resets the timer after every detection of motion, it is defined as repeated
trigger mode.

The two potentiometers present on the sensor are called as Sensitivity Potentiometer
and Time Potentiometer. We can adjust both the parameters (time and sensitivity) accordingly.

It should be restricted for atleast 15 seconds in front of the PIR sensor for proper calibration in
the output. After 15 seconds, the sensor can easily detect movements.

If any movement is detected, the LED will be HIGH. If there is no such movement, the output will
be LOW.

Connection
The steps to set up the connection are listed below:

o Connect the Vcc terminal of the PIR sensor to the 5V pin of the Arduino board.
o Connect the Output terminal of the PIR sensor to pin 8 of the Arduino board.
o Connect the GND terminal of the PIR sensor to the Ground pin of the Arduino board.
o Connect the positive leg of the LED in series with 220 Ohm resistor to pin 13 of the
Arduino board.
o Connect the negative terminal of the LED to the Ground pin of the Arduino board.

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. int LEDpin = 13; // LED pin

2. int PIRpin = 8; // The pin of Arduino connected to the PIR output
3. int PIRvalue = 0; // It specifies the status of PIR sensor
4. void setup() {
5. pinMode(LEDpin, OUTPUT);
6. pinMode(PIRpin, INPUT);
7. // the output from the sensor is considered as input for Arduino
8. Serial.begin(9600);
9. }
10. void loop()
11. {
12. PIRvalue = digitalRead(PIRpin);
13. if (PIRvalue == HIGH)
14. {
15. digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH);
16. // turn ON LED if the motion is detected
17. Serial.println("hello, I found you...heyyy..");
18. }
19. else
20. {
21. digitalWrite(LEDpin, LOW);
22. // LED will turn OFF if we have no motion
23. Serial.println("I cannot find you");
24. delay(1000);
25. }
26. }

Steps to upload the code to the project

The steps are listed below:

o Open the Arduino IDE.

o Select the type of board from Tools -> Board -> Arduino UNO.
o Select the port from Tools -> Port -> COM..
o Upload the sketch to the connection diagram.

Connection Diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator so that the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

The output will be based on the detection.

Arduino Stepper motor

The stepper motor does not require any feedback for its operation. It can be controlled with high
accuracy due to its design.

The series of magnets mounted on the shaft of the stepper motor are controlled by the
electromagnetic coils. These coils are negatively and positively charged in a sequence, which
makes the shaft to move in forward and backward in little steps.

We can also hold the position of the motor at any step during rotation. It has a simple, accurate
open-loop system.

The Stepper is categorized into two types, which are listed below:

o Unipolar
 o Bipolar

Each type possesses a different circuit, but the coding is similar.

Unipolar

The Unipolar stepper motor consists of one winding that operates with a center tap per phase.
There are three leads per phase in the motor. For the regular two-phase stepper motor, there are
six leads per phase.

The Unipolar stepper motor has five leads when both the phases are joined internally.

Bipolar

The bipolar stepper motor consists of a single winding per phase. There are two leads per
phase in the motor.

The bipolar stepper motors do not have any center tape connections. Such devices are used
when we require high torque popularly at low speeds.

How Stepper motor works?

The stepper motor can control the angular position of the rotor without a closed feedback loop.

For example,

Consider a motor with six stator teeth and a rotor. It is shown below:

A stepper motor with six stator teeth can be triggered with three different DC power sources.
The rotor in the stepper motor is made up of a stack of steel laminations. It has different teeth
compared to the rotor, which is four.
It is done so that one pair of rotor teeth at a time can be aligned easily with the stator.

If we trigger or energize the coil A and B, the rotor would rotate. The above figure signifies the
step size is 30 degrees. We will energize coil B and C. After that, the coil A will energize again. It
means that the rotor moves to the position with the least reluctance.

The position of the rotor, when coil A is energized is shown below:

The position of the rotor (moves 30 degrees), when coil B is energized is shown below:

When both the coils are excited, the position of the rotor (in between) is shown below:
The energizing of both the coils change the accuracy of the rotor from 30 degrees to 15 degrees.

The common stepper motor type is the hybrid motor type.

In this project, we will use the hybrid motor type. It looks like the image shown below:

Hardware Required
The required components are listed below:

o 1 x Arduino UNO R3 (We can use any Arduino board)

o 1 x Breadboard
o Jump Wires
o 1 x 10K Ohm Potentiometer
 o 1 x Stepper motor
o 1 x power supply (according to the stepper)
o U2004 Darlington Array (For a Unipolar stepper)
o SN754410ne H-Bridge (for a bipolar stepper)

Connection diagram
We will show the connection using the Simulator so that the connections become clearer and
more precise.

We can make the same connection using the hardware devices.

Sketch
Consider the below code:

1. #include <Stepper.h> //library declared for the operation of stepper motor

2.
3. const int stepsPERrevolution = 200; // We can change it according to the required steps
per revolution
4. // for our motor
5.
6.
7. // the initialization of pins 8 to 11 of stepper library
8. Stepper myStepper(stepsPERrevolution, 8, 9, 10, 11);
9.
10. int CountofSTEP = 0; // number of steps the motor has taken
11.
12. void setup()
13. {
14. Serial.begin(9600);
15. }
16.
17. void loop()
18. {
19. // read the sensor value:
20. int ReadingINSensor = analogRead(A1);
21. // we can map it to a range from 0 to 100:
22. int SpeedOFmotor = map(ReadingINSensor, 0, 1023, 0, 100);
23. // to set the speed of the motor
24. if (SpeedOFmotor > 0)
25. {
26. myStepper.setSpeed(SpeedOFmotor);
27. // step 1/100 of a revolution
28. myStepper.step(stepsPERrevolution/ 100);
29. }
30. }

Procedure
The steps to establish the above connection are listed below:

o Connect the negative and positive terminal of the battery to the GND and 5V pin of the
Arduino board.
o One outer pin of the potentiometer is connected to ground (GND), and the other external
pin is connected to 5V of the Arduino board.
o The middle pin of the potentiometer is connected to the analog input pin A1 of the board.
o Connect the 8 to 11 digital pins of the Arduino board to the U2004 Darlington Array,
 which is further connected to the motor.
o Connect other pins of the U2004 Darlington Array to the stepper motor, as shown in the
connection diagram.

Arduino vs. Raspberry Pi

Arduino and Raspberry Pi are used as a tool for creating electronic projects.

The Arduino is considered a part of the Raspberry Pi.

The difference between Arduino and Raspberry Pi are listed in the below table:

Arduino
o The Arduino is defined as a simple microcontroller motherboard.
o The Arduino helps us to make the projects simpler.
o It was developed to create microcontroller kits, which was used to build electronic
devices.
o Most Arduinos come with an 8-bit Microcontroller.
o It has 32K bytes and 2K bytes of flash memory and SRAM. The flash memory consists
 of a stored sketch of Arduino, while SRAM manipulates the processing variables.
o It promotes C++ as the primary programming language.
o It has no Operating system. The software platform requires Windows, Linux, and macOS
operating system to run the program.
o The types of Arduino are Started kits (for beginners), Arduino shields (printed circuit
expansion boards), Standard Arduino boards, and boards with advanced features.
o The Arduino runs a single piece of code over and over again. Due to this, it starts quickly
as soon as we ON the power.
o It is based on IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is limited to the
programming interface.
o The connection to the Internet is quite complicated.
o The Arduino project was started in Italy.
o The design of the Arduino board consists of different controllers and microprocessors.
Some board also includes USB (Universal Serial Bus), models, and serial communication
interfaces.
o The processor speed in Arduino ranges from 8MHz to 400MHz. The average speed of
most of the types of Arduino is 16MHz.
o The projects of Arduino are connected to a computer using the USB port.
o The Analog to Digital converter is inbuilt in the Arduino.
o The Arduino UNO has 14 digital Input/Output pins, 6 analog pins, and power pins.

Raspberry Pi
o The Raspberry Pi is defined as the mini computer.
o It is considered superior at software applications.
o It was developed to encourage basic learning for computer science students and other
growing countries.
o It consists of a 64-bit quad-core processor or microprocessor.
o The Raspberry Pi has about 1GiB of RAM. Here, 1 GiB = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes =
(1024)^3 bytes.
o It promotes Scratch and Python as the chief programming language.
o The foundation of Raspberry Pi provides an operating system such as Linux. It also
provides a non-Linux operating system, such as OpenBSD, NetBSD, HelenOS, etc.
o The types of Raspberry Pi are Raspberry Pi Alternatives, Raspberry Pi Zero W, and
Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+.
o We can run all types of applications in Raspberry Pi, including Microsoft Office, emails,
or specific code for an electronics project.
o We can run a single or different piece of code in Raspberry Pi.
o The Operating system in all the files is saved in the SD card. For one Raspberry Pi, we
can have multiple SD cards for the different operating system or file system.
o It is consistent in many programming languages.
o It can be easily connected to the Internet.
o The Raspberry Pi Foundation developed the Raspberry Pi in the United Kingdom.
o The design of Raspberry Pi board consists of CPU (Central Processing Unit), GPU
(Graphics Processing Unit), the graphics chip, RAM, Xbee port, Ethernet port, power
source connector, UART (Universal Asynchronous Reciever/Transmitter), and GPIO
(General-Purpose Input/Output) pins.
o The processor speed in Raspberry Pi ranges from 700MHz to 1.5GHz.
o The hard drive for the Raspberry Pi is the slot on the board, in which the SD card is
inserted.
o The Analog to Digital converter is attached externally to the Raspberry Pi.
o The Raspberry Pi3 has 40 Input/Output pins on board.