C H A P T E R

14
Glass Recycling
Thomas D. Dyer
Division of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK

14.1 INTRODUCTION must also play a role. This chapter examines

the issues relating to the practicability and
Glass is one of the oldest synthetic materials, viability of closed-loop glass recycling, and ex-
with evidence of its production in ancient Egypt amines open-loop options.
dating back to at least 3000 BC (Martin and Mac-
Farlane, 2002). Its optical clarity, hardness and
strength mean that it has made its way into 14.2 TYPES OF GLASS
every aspect of human activity, with significant
roles in glazing, packaging, vehicles, house- The different applications for glass require
wares, electrical equipment and fibers in different chemical compositions. The largest
insulation products and composite materials. glass product output is container glass, which
Moreover, the material has played an instru- is based on a fairly consistent composition of
mental role in many advances in science and about 15% sodium oxide (Na2O), 9% calcium
technology. oxide (CaO) and slightly more than 70% silicon
Whilst the recycling of glass has been con- dioxide (SiO2). The only significant variation in
ducted almost since its discovery, and reuse of composition results from the different colors
glass containers has been carried out throughout that are produced. These are most commonly
the nineteenth and twentieth century(Emmins, clear (known as “flint”), brown (“amber”) and
1991), large-scale recycling in recent times green, although other colored products are man-
started only in the 1970s. This has partly been ufactured in smaller quantities. Green glass is
driven by legislation aimed at diverting waste achieved through the addition of small quanti-
away from landfill. Glass is a readily recycled ties of chromium, whilst amber glass contains
material, in that it can be remelted and reformed both chromium and iron. In the case of flint
into articles with the same characteristics as glass, there is a requirement for very low con-
the original materiald“closed-loop” recycling. centrations of other metals in the raw materials.
However, to maximize recycling levels, it has Like flint container glass, flat glass for glazing
been found that alternative “open-loop” routes is required to be free from metallic impurities to

Handbook of Recycling
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-396459-5.00014-3 191 Copyright Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
192 14. GLASS RECYCLING

achieve optical clarity. However, the composi- silica, 13% boron trioxide oxide (B2O3), 4% so-
tion is usually not dissimilar to container glass. dium oxide and 2% alumina (Al2O3) (Edgar
There is typically a proportion of magnesium et al., 2008). Borosilicate glasses are also used
oxide (MgO), which is largely absent from in scientific and medical glassware.
container glass.
Glass fiber can take two forms. Continuous-
filament glass fiber can be used as reinforcement 14.3 GLASS MANUFACTURE
in composite materials as well as, in woven
form, in protective clothing and electrical insu- Glass is manufactured by melting a suitable
lation (Edgar et al., 2008). Glass wool is finer combination of raw materials in a furnace and
and tends to be used in applications such as using various processes to form it before it is
building insulation. Glass wool is usually based cooled. A wide variety of raw materials are
on soda-limeesilicate formulations. However, used, but, in soda-limeesilicate glass, the most
continuous-filament glass fiber can have a range commonly encountered materials are silica
of compositions depending on the purpose sand (SiO2), soda ash (sodium carbonate,
the fiber is to be put to. High stiffness fibers Na2CO2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3). In bo-
(“E-glass”) are normally composed of alumino- rosilicate glasses, boron trioxide is obtained
borosilicate glass. Raising the alumina content from borax (Na2B4O7$10H2O). Al2O3 is obtained
leads to higher strengths (“S-glass”), whilst from feldspar minerals or alumina derived from
reducing it leads to enhanced corrosion resis- refinement of bauxite.
tance (Shelby, 1997). A wide variety of techniques are available for
The type of glass used in vehicles depends on manufacturing glass articles. This includes the
where it is used, although it is normally soda- automated blowing of glass containers in split
limeesilicate. Windshields are composed of molds, the manufacture of flat glass through the
laminated glass, whereas side and rear win- float glass method (molten glass is floated over
dows are normally tempered glass. a bath of molten tin) and the manufacture of fibers
The composition of glass components used through rotary wool forming (where centrifugal
in electronic equipment also varies. Conven- force is used to force molten glass through very
tional light bulbs are normally made from fine holes in a rotating drum) and mechanical
soda-limeesilicate glass, although fluorescent drawing, where molten glass is allowed to flow
lighting tubes and low-energy bulbs are usually under the action of gravity through holes in a
made from borosilicate glass. Cathode ray tubes platinum plate (known as a “bushing”) and the
(CRTs), although becoming less common, are of resulting filaments wound together into a strand
a similar composition, but contain quantities of that is, in turn, wound onto a drum (Bralla, 2007).
metals such as barium, strontium, zirconium
and lead (Edgar et al., 2008). CRTs are progres-
sively being replaced by alternative screen tech- 14.4 GLASS RECOVERY FOR REUSE
nologies such as liquid crystal display (LCD) AND RECYCLING
screens, which usually contain borosilicate
glass substrates. Glass is a material that, in many of its forms,
Glass used in housewares is again dependent is reusable. This is particularly true of bottles
on the application. However, one important and other glass vessels, which are still able
group of products is glass cookware that is resis- to satisfy their role as a container long after
tant to thermal shock. These articles are made their original use is over. This has led to manu-
from borosilicate glass, which is typically 80% facturers and governments recognizing that

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.4 GLASS RECOVERY FOR REUSE AND RECYCLING 193
savings in terms of energy and resources could permitting collection of “comingled” glass con-
be achieved through the recovery and reuse or tainers. Curbside glass collection is now carried
recycling of glass containers. out by a number of local authorities in the UK.
As mentioned previously, one of the earliest These schemes include both color-sorted and
examples of initiatives devised to recover glass mixed collection (Waste and Resources Action
was container deposit schemes. Soft drink Programme).
advertising in Ireland and England provides Much of the recent growth in the recovery of
clear evidence of manufacturers’ efforts to container glass has been driven by legislation. In
recover containers through such means from Europe the driver has been the Packaging and
as early as 1800 (Emmins, 1991). Packaging Waste Directive (1994), which is dis-
In many parts of the world, container-deposit cussed in more detail later. However, other EU
legislation requires consumers to pay a small de- directives have driven the growth in recycling
posit on containers at the point of sale, refunded of glass from other sectors. In particular, the
when the container is returned at a redemption Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
point. Redemption points can take a number of Directive (2003) and the End-of-Life Vehicles
forms, including establishments selling depos- Directive (1997) both set targets for recycling
ited products and automated “reverse vending of materials from these sources.
machines” where a user disposes of an end-of- Currently recycling of glass from electrical
life container and is presented with a receipt and electronic equipment is relatively limited.
that can be exchanged for cash. This is partly because glass from these products
Container-deposit legislation has been put is often contaminated with other substances.
into effect in The Netherlands, Norway, Moreover, many electrical and electronic prod-
Denmark, Sweden and Germany, as well as ucts contain scarce elements whose high market
parts of the United States, Canada and value detracts from the recovery of glass. For
Australia. The materials involved need not be instance, the interior of fluorescent tubes is
glass, but glass has, in most cases, been the start- coated in a layer of phosphor, which itself will
ing point of many of these initiatives. also have become contaminated with toxic mer-
Whilst the first deposit schemes had refill of cury. This renders the quality of glass unsuitable
glass articles in mind, and refilling still con- for recycling, and emphasis is thus placed on
tinues, there has been a shift toward recycling recovering valuable mercury and rare earth
the materials back into manufacture. Whether phosphors from the lighting elements. Nonethe-
this is a favorable development is debatabledas less, technologies are being developed to effi-
will be discussed later, the benefits of recycling ciently remove the contaminated phosphor
glass are considerable, but it is unlikely that layer, which may realize better opportunities to
they exceed those of reuse. recover the glass (Rey-Raap and Gallardo, 2013).
Financial incentives to return glass containers Tempered glass from vehicles is readily
are not always necessary. Bottle banks began to recovered for recycling. Laminated windscreens
appear in the 1970s, and numbers have grown: require slightly more specialized techniques to
the first UK bottle bank was installed in 1977, separate the glass from the polymer layer. This
and growth in numbers has been almost expo- usually involves breaking up the glass using a
nentialdthere are now more than 50,000. roller or similar mechanical action, followed
In some instances, particularly in the catering by removal of the glass.
and drinks industry, sorting glass containers in The recovery of flat glass for recycling must be
terms of color presents practical problems. In conducted in a manner that prevents it from being
the UK, this problem has been addressed by mixed with other construction materials. This is

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

194 14. GLASS RECYCLING

because the physical characteristics of glass make to melt and mix with the other raw materials.
it indistinguishable from the bulk of the other This recycling processdsometimes referred to
inorganic, nonmetallic materials in demolition as “remelt”dcan be repeated indefinitely
waste. Therefore, much of the glass arising from without any loss of performance.
construction for recycling tends to come from The quality of the glass product required de-
the replacement of glazing during maintenance fines whether glass recycling can be employed
and refurbishment. Additionally, contamination for a given manufacturing process. For instance,
of glass with putty and other materials has acted the inclusion of cullet in the manufacture of flat
as an obstacle to recycling, but progress is now be- glass is not always possible, because of the strict
ing made (Tandy and Way, 2004). The construc- requirements in terms of raw material purity
tion industry is now moving toward a needed to achieve the desired optical properties.
philosophy of designing structures for decon- However, return of cullet to container manufac-
structiondensuring that at the end of a struc- ture is eminently possible, and can tolerate
ture’s life it can be systematically dismantled, soda-limeesilicate glass from other sources.
with optimal separation of materials. For cullet to be recycled back into container
manufacture, it is essential that color sorting of
glass is conducted. This is because each color of
14.5 REUSE OF GLASS glass can tolerate limited levels of contamination
with other colors. As a result of this, quality re-
Before discussing recycling, it is worth briefly quirements limit the level of cullet in green con-
discussing the alternative option of reuse. Reuse tainers to 90%. Amber glass and flint glass are
of returnable glass containers is a practice that more sensitive to contamination, and so technical
has become well established in many parts limits on cullet content are 70 and 60%, respec-
of the world. This approach is often a highly tively. Color sorting can be achieved by collection
sustainable one, since the material undergoes schemes that require the public to sort their
no reprocessing prior to return into the system. returned bottles. Collection of mixed-color glass
A recent study in the UK on delivered-to- from commercial sources has led to the introduc-
doorstep containers for milk found that tion of automated “electronic eye” sorting equip-
returnable glass containers compared well in ment that is able to identify rogue particles and
environmental impact terms with competing remove them through air jets, or similar.
products (Fry et al., 2010). The shift toward glob- Automated color sorting of glass will make
alization has meant that glass containers for food up just one stage of several in the cullet process-
and drink are diverse in size and shape and ing scheme. These are required because glass
often originate from remote locations, making from containers is likely to be present alongside
container return uneconomical and impractical other materials. These include materials used
in terms of logistics. Thus, in many countries, re- for labeling and closure, such as metals, plastics
covery of intact glass bottles has seen a decline, and paper. There may also be other materials
magnifying the need for recycling. present in the recovery streams, including stone,
ceramics and other types of glass, such as boro-
silicate materials, which cannot be recycled in
14.6 CLOSED-LOOP RECYCLING OF soda-limeesilicate glass manufacture. Processes
GLASS include:

The introduction of waste glass (“cullet”) • Hand sortingdto remove obvious

back into the glassmaking furnace will cause it contamination;

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.7 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF CLOSED-LOOP RECYCLING OF GLASS 195
• Crushing; not decompose to produce greenhouse gases
• Sievingdto also remove some foreign and is unlikely to leach harmful substances
materials such as metals and plastics; that could threaten groundwater quality. None-
• Magnetic sortingdto remove ferrous metals theless, the disposal of glass in this way repre-
• Eddy current sorting sents a wasteful practice that utilizes land
• Vacuum sorting which could otherwise be put to more produc-
tive use. Landfill space in many areas of the
world is at a premium, and reducing disposal
is considered an essential part of moving to-
14.7 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS ward sustainable land use.
OF CLOSED-LOOP RECYCLING OF Disposal of waste containing glass through
GLASS combustion is also an undesirable fate for the
material. Glass is clearly noncombustible, and
The closed-loop recycling of soda-limeesili- so where combustion is carried out in a waste-
cate glass has a number of environmental bene- to-energy plant with the aim of generating elec-
fits. First, it is returning a mineral resource back tricity and local heating, no benefit is gained
into the loopda practice that is an essential from its presence. However, glass has a further
aspect of sustainable development. This is argu- detrimental effect, in that its high specific heat
ably of less importance than for other materials, capacity acts as a sink for heat that would other-
since none of the raw materials used to make wise be put to beneficial use (Edwards and
glass are notably scarce: silica sand and lime- Schelling, 1999).
stone are mineral resources of which there are The most significant benefit to the environ-
large mineral reserves. Soda ash either is pro- ment deriving from the return of cullet to the
duced using the Solvay process, which uses glassmaking process is the reduction in energy
readily available raw materials, or is produced demand and the consequent reductions in
from the mineral trona (Na3(CO3)(HCO3)$ pollution.
2H2O), which is present as large deposits The processes for extracting and processing
around the globe (United States Geological Sur- raw materials for glass manufacture all require
vey, 2012). However, despite this apparent energy. More significantly, melting these raw
abundance, it should be stressed that not all of materials in the glass furnace requires large
these minerals are readily accessible or suitable quantities: temperatures between 1400 and
for glass manufacture. For instance, only a small 1600  C are required. Whilst the temperature
proportion of available sand deposits are suit- requirement is not affected by the inclusion of
able for glass manufacturedonly six UK sites cullet, energy savings are realized as a result
produce silica glass suitable for the manufacture of the behavior of cullet at elevated tempera-
of flint container glass (British Geological tures in contrast to other raw materials. To in-
Survey, 2009). crease the temperature of cullet, energy is
There are other more significant environ- required exclusively to raise the temperature.
mental benefits to recycling. One of these is In the case of soda ash, calcium carbonate and
the reduction of waste. Glass is an inert waste, dolomite, additional energy is required to ther-
since it is insoluble and chemically unreactive mally decompose them. The resulting energy
under normal conditions. From the perspective saving is shown in Figure 14.1. Similarly, a study
of the contemporary philosophies with regard by flat glass producers determined that for each
to landfill disposal, this is of lesser concern 10% increase in cullet used in glass manufac-
when compared to noninert wastesdglass will ture, there was a 2e3% saving in energy, with

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

196 14. GLASS RECYCLING

FIGURE 14.1 Diagram illustrating the reductions in energy demand realized through the incorporation of cullet in the
raw material feedstock (UNID, 1993).

a consequent 230 kg reduction in CO2 emissions In many European countries, levels of recycling
(Glass, 2010). were highd77% by 1994 in the Nether-
landsdalthough performance was varied. The
UK is a useful example, since it has moved
14.8 THE GROWTH OF GLASS from a relatively low glass recycling rate to a
RECYCLING currently more respectable level. This has in
part been driven by legislation, namely the Pro-
Archaeological evidence of the recycling of ducer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging
glass has been found in sites deriving from the Waste) Regulations (1997), which implemented
earlier days of the Byzantine Empire and the the EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Direc-
later Roman Empire (Degryse et al., 2006). How- tive (1994) in the UK. The regulations placed re-
ever, in contemporary times, glass recycling sponsibilities on the producers and handlers of
started on a major scale in the 1970s, driven packaging to achieve periodically updated recy-
partly by concerns about energy security. cling targets.
Levels of recycling have steadily increased The Directive initially set targets to recover
since then in most of the more developed world. 50e65% of packaging waste overall by 2001,

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.8 THE GROWTH OF GLASS RECYCLING 197
with 25e45% being used for recycling. This levels of UK glass recycling relative to the total
target was subsequently revised in 2004 to amount of glass in the waste stream and
recover a minimum of 60% by 2008, with recy- container glass production. The influence of
cling levels at 55 and 80% by the same date. Spe- the Directive on levels of recycling after 1997 is
cific targets for recycling container glass were clearly evident.
also set at 60%. Not all of this recycling is closed-loop recy-
The Producer Responsibility Obligations cling. The major reason for this is that, in the
(Packaging Waste) Regulations have undergone UK, there exists a barrier to total absorption of
periodic amendments and revisions, each cullet arisings into remelt. This is the result of
increasing UK recovery targets for container significant differences between container glass
glass from 38% in 1999 to 81% in 2010. This high- products made in the UK and those on sale to
est target is not set to change until at least 2017, consumers.
the result of indications that this level is optimal. The majority of container glass output in the
This fits well with theoretical calculations that UK is flint, whereas the majority of container
have shown, when the energy requirement of glass entering the waste stream is green. This is
collection of glass is compared to the energy due to the importation of products such as
savings of closed-loop recycling, the optimum wine, and the exportation of flint glass-
benefit is obtained at this level (Edwards and contained products. This disparity led to con-
Schelling, 1999). cerns that a green cullet surplus would arise as
The overall effect of these developments is recycling rates increased. This did not occur,
shown in Figure 14.2, which plots the rise in and the reason is evident from Figure 14.3,

FIGURE 14.2 Total glass recycled in the UK alongside the total amount of glass in the waste stream (British Glass
Manufacturers’ Confederation, written communication).

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

198 14. GLASS RECYCLING

FIGURE 14.3 Recycling routes for glass in the UK (British Glass Manufacturers’ Confederation, written communication).

which shows the emergence of two outlets for in the presence of other materials, with different
the surplus material: export and recycling in effects depending on the manufacturing condi-
alternative applicationsdopen-loop recycling. tions. Additionally, there are a number of appli-
Open-loop recycling is also often necessary for cations that exploit the properties of granular
the recycling of borosilicate glass products and broken glass. Finally, the possibility of exploit-
soda-limeesilicate glass with more exotic chem- ing the chemistry of glass in the manufacture
ical additions. of commercially useful compounds has also
The development of alternative outlets for been explored by researchers. All of these out-
glass has involved considerable research and lets for glass are examined below.
development work to match the physical and Whilst in some cases, the application is an
chemical characteristics of the material with established or growing practice, in other in-
the needs of a wide range of different sectors. stances the outlet has been explored only from
These outlets are discussed in detail in the a research and development perspective or at
next section. a pilot scale. Nonetheless, such uses have been
included on the grounds that feasibility has
14.9 OPEN-LOOP GLASS been demonstrated.
RECYCLING
A number or alternative outlets for glass
14.9.1 Alternative Glass Products
exist. Some of these also involve remelting glass, One alternative glass product in which cullet
but involve forming into very different prod- can be recycled by remelting is in the manufac-
ucts. Other applications involve melting glass ture of ballotinidsmall glass spheres (typically

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.9 OPEN-LOOP GLASS RECYCLING 199
1e60 mm in diameter) that are highly reflective 14.9.2 Ceramics
and used in applications that include road
markings and signs, reflective safety clothing The use of glass cullet as an ingredient in
and projection screens. Ballotini are normally ceramic products is also a possible outlet. Two
required to be colorless, and so only flint cullet different approaches to using the material can
can be used in their manufacture. be employed: use as a sintering additive in fired
Glass wool insulation consisting of short ceramics, and in the manufacture of “glass
glass fibers can also be manufactured from ceramics”.
cullet. Tolerances for recycled glass are rela- Cullet plays two roles when used as a sinter-
tively high, and there is no color requirement. ing additive. Firstly, it becomes fluid at lower
One manufacturer is currently using up to 80% temperatures than the other constituents, acting
cullet. Continuous filament glass fiber cannot to bind the solid particles together, reducing
currently be made using cullet, as a result of porosity. Additionally, solid particles dissolve
strict manufacturing requirements (Rodriguez into the liquid glass, leading to sintering at rela-
Vieitez et al., 2011). tively low temperatures (Figure 14.4).
Glass wool insulation comes under the Research has been conducted into the use of
broader category of mineral wools. Research cullet in conventional clay-based fired ceramics,
has been carried out recently into means of con- with much success. Trials of the manufacture
verting inorganic byproducts into mineral of sanitary ware containing 4.5% glass have
wools using waste glass as a melting aid and been shown to reduce the energy requirement
to reduce the viscosity of the melt. Such mate- (compared to the conventional raw material
rials include incinerator bottom ash, sludge composition) by reducing the firing tempera-
from dredging (Scarinci et al., 2000) and wastes tures (Hancock, 2011). Another study has exam-
from hydrometallurgy (Pelino, 2000). ined the use of glass as a replacement for
Foamed glass is an established commercial feldspars in porcelain stoneware tiles (Tucci
product that can tolerate 98% cullet in its manu- et al., 2004). The optimal level of replacement
facture. The manufacture of foamed glass nor- was 10% of the feldspar (1.8% of the total).
mally involves the introduction of foaming Similar results were obtained for tiles made us-
agent particles into glass, which is then heated ing up to 10% cullet (Brusatin et al., 2005).
to a temperature of between 700 and 900  C, Laminated windscreen glass has been
where the glass becomes a viscous fluid and employed in brickmaking, with the polymer
the foaming agent evolves gas that forms bub- layer used as a combustible component that de-
bles (Hurley, 2002). composes during firing to leave pores in the
Foamed glass can take the form of loose brick (Mörtel and Fuchs, 1997). This gives the
aggregate, pelletized aggregates and blocks product a higher strength at reduced density.
and shapes. Lightweight aggregates are dis- Glass ceramics are ceramic materials
cussed in a later section. The foaming agents comprising both crystalline and amorphous
used include silicon carbide (SiC), manganese phases. They are manufactured by holding
oxide (MnO2), hematite (Fe2O3) calcite or other glassy materials within temperature ranges at
forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and cal- which conversion of some of the amorphous
cium sulfate (CaSO4) (Hurley, 2002; Marceau, material to crystalline phases occurs. Much
1967). Foamed glass blocks and shapes are research has been conducted into the use of
mostly used for insulation purposes, since they cullet in glass ceramics containing other waste
have low thermal conductivities coupled with products and byproducts, as outlined in
relatively high compressive strengths. Table 14.1.

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

200 14. GLASS RECYCLING

FIGURE 14.4 Reduction in softening temperature with cullet content in ceramic materials manufactured using mixtures
of cullet and sludge from paper production (Asquini et al., 2008).

TABLE 14.1 Conditions for the Production of Glass Ceramics Incorporating Glass Cullet from Various Studies

Other Inorganic Cullet Content, Nucleation Crystallization

Material % by Mass Temperature,  C Temperature,  C Reference

NUCLEATION-CRYSTALLIZATION
Incinerator fly ash/ 35 560, 35 min 1000, 120 min Romero et al. (1999)
pollution control
residue
Incinerator bottom 50, 90 1000, up to 8 h Barbieri et al. (2000)
ash
SINTER CRYSTALLIZATION
Dredging sludge 20 940, 5 h Brusatin et al. (2005))
Sunflower husk ash 30, 40, 50 1400, 1300, 1250 (for Quaranta et al. (2011)
30, 40 and 50% cullet
respectively), no time
specified
PETRURGIC METHOD
Coal-derived 0e60% Cooling from 1500  C Francis et al. (2002)
bottom ash to ambient at 1e10  C/
min

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.9 OPEN-LOOP GLASS RECYCLING 201
All of the studies that have examined the pos- resistance (measured using the Los Angeles
sibility of using cullet in this way cite the manu- test), resistance to freezing and thawing (a result
facture of ceramic tiles as the most likely of the absence of pores in the material) and non-
application for such a product. susceptibility to “frost heave” (Henry and
Morin, 1997).
In many cases a minimum California bearing
14.9.3 Glass as Abrasive Media ratio (CBR) value may also be required, which is
a measure of strength. The minimum require-
Glass is a hard material, which makes it suit-
ment will normally be at least 15%, and values
able for use as abrasive media. This normally
for glass (Table 14.2) come relatively close to
takes the form of using crushed cullet in a con-
this. The most effective solution is to combine
ventional shot-blasting configuration. However,
recycled glass with crushed rock. Typically a
more advanced use of recycled glass in this area
glass content of up to 15% by mass of rock yields
has also been initiated, including the use of par-
CBR values identical to that of the rock alone
ticles of aluminum oxide embedded in “sponge
(Clean Washington Center, 1998; Younus Ali
media” made from recycled glass to clean metal
et al., 2011).
surfaces (Anonymous, 2005). Successful results
The direct shear strength of recycled glass is
have also been achieved with media made
also provided in Table 14.2, indicating behavior
from molded and sintered glass powder used
typical of a well-graded angular sand or gravel,
for vibratory mass finishing in place of polyester
making the material suitable for unbound sub-
resin-bonded ceramic particles (Benjarungroj
base applications, as well as for embankment
et al., 2012).
fills, structural and nonstructural fill and back-
fill (Disfani et al., 2012; Wartman et al., 2004).
14.9.4 Glass as Unbound Aggregate
The strength, stiffness and hardness of glass
14.9.5 Glass in Bituminous Highway
make it highly suited for use as an aggregate,
once crushed into a granular form. Some of the
Pavements
properties of glass with respect to aggregate The use of recycled glass aggregate in bitumi-
performance are shown in Table 14.2. nous mixtures for highway construction is
One of the higher value routes to using loose becoming an increasingly accepted practice.
recycled glass aggregate is as granular sub-base Glass can be used in the base, binder course
material in highway construction. In the UK, re- and surface course in highway construction,
quirements for these materials are defined in the although the levels used in the surface course
Highways Agency document, “Specification for tend to be lower (10e15%) (Huang et al., 2007)
Highway Works” (Highways Agency, 1998). than in the other layers (up to 40% for one UK
The document defines various types of granular example) (Cemex). When used in the surface
material, although Types 1 and 2 are the most course, since large glass particles can produce
commonly used. Type 1 is the coarser of the glare, limit skid resistance and possess the po-
two types suitable for use in most sub-base ap- tential to damage tires and cause injury to peo-
plications, whereas Type 2 is finer and used ple, particle sizes are normally limited to less
only in the construction of lightly trafficked than 4.75 mm (Cemex; USDTFHA, 1997).
pavements. One of the main disadvantages of glass over
Glass satisfies the requirements for both conventional aggregates in this application is
types of material, namely high abrasion that glass particles are essentially free of

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

202 14. GLASS RECYCLING

TABLE 14.2 Aggregate Characteristics of Recycled Glass of Three Different Maximum

Particle Sizes (Disfani et al., 2011, 2012)

Particle Size

Coarse, 19 mm Medium, 9.5 mm Fine, 7.75 mm

Characteristic Down Down Down

Specific gravity 2.48 2.50 2.50

Flakiness index, % 94.7 85.4 N/A
Modified Proctor
test values
gd,max, kN/m3 N/A 19.5 17.5

wopt, % N/A 8.8 10.0

LA abrasion value, % 24.8 25.4 27.7
California bearing ratio e 31e32 18e21
(CBR), %
Direct shear test
sn (30e120 kPa) N/A 52e53 45e47
sn (60e240 kPa) N/A 50e51 42e43
sn (120e480 kPa) N/A e 40e41

porosity, making it impossible for bitumen to

form a strong bond. This results in a susceptibil-
14.9.6 Glass in Concrete
ity to “stripping”dthe deterioration of the bond The use of glass aggregate in concrete is also
between aggregate and bitumen as a conse- possible, although concerns regarding damaging
quence of contact with water, leading to a loss alkaliesilica reaction (ASR) have limited this.
of strength. However, the addition of lime at a ASR is a reaction that occurs between aggregates
level of about 2% rectifies this problem (Su containing reactive silica and hydroxide ions
and Chen, 2002). associated with alkaliemetal ions from the
Benefits of using glass in bituminous high- cement. The reaction leads to the disruption of
way pavements include improved skid resis- the glass structural network, leading to the forma-
tance and light reflectivity in surface courses tion of an open gel (Glasser, 1992). This undergoes
(Su and Chen, 2002). The permeability of pave- hydration, leading to swelling, the development
ments containing glass tends to be higher, which of stresses and, eventually, cracking.
is potentially a benefit to safety since it allows The best means of avoiding ASR is to include
water to drain more freely from road surfaces additions in the cement fraction of the concrete
in rainy weather. It has also been found that that are capable of controlling ASR. These
the stiffness modulus of asphalt increases include fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
with glass content, and that asphalt mixes con- slag (GGBS) and metakaolin (Hansen et al.,
taining glass become less susceptible to fatigue 1999; Dhir et al., 2009; Ling et al., 2011). Lithium
(Arabani, 2011; Arabani et al., 2012). admixtures are also effective (Topcu et al., 2008).

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.9 OPEN-LOOP GLASS RECYCLING 203
Another feature of the ASR behavior of glass 2012b; Chen et al., 2011). The lead content of
is that it displays a “pessimum” particle size, CRT glass is normally considered an environ-
below which expansion is not observed. For mental concern. However, research has
soda-limeesilicate glass, this is typically about attempted to exploit this by using it as fine
1 mm, and so by using glass as fine aggregate aggregate in concrete and mortar used for radi-
(sand) below this size, ASR is avoided ation shielding in structures where X-rays are
(Figure 14.5). used (Ling and Poon, 2012a; Ling et al.,
The effect of glass aggregate on the fresh 2012b). Pretreatment in dilute nitric acid to
properties of concrete depends on particle size. remove lead at the glass surface permitted it
Glass used as coarse aggregate generally has to be used as 100% of the fine aggregate
the effect of improving workability (de Castro (Ling and Poon, 2012b).
and de Brito, 2013; Topcu and Canbaz, 2004),
whilst finer particle sizes reduce workability
(Tan and Du, 2013; Park et al., 2004).
Enhanced characteristics include reduced 14.9.7 Light-Weight Aggregate
thermal conductivity, increased heat capacity In a previous section, the foaming of molten
(Alani et al., 2012) and improved retention of glass using gas-evolving particles has been dis-
strength after exposure to fire (Ling et al., 2012a). cussed. This process can also be employed to
Similar research has also been conducted us- produce light-weight aggregate, and often em-
ing CRT glass and glass from LCD screen sub- ploys glass cullet. Such aggregates are now
strates (Ling and Poon, 2012a,b; Ling et al., well-established products and have applications

FIGURE 14.5 The 52-week expansion of concrete tested in accordance with BS 812-123 containing glass fine aggregate
present as narrow particle size fractions. The dashed line represents the threshold of concern in UK guidance.

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

204 14. GLASS RECYCLING

in concrete construction as well as in horticultur- reaction with calcium hydroxide to form cal-
al applications. cium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel (Dyer and
Light-weight aggregate can take two different Dhir, 2001). CSH is the main contributor to
formsdgranulated aggregate and pelletized strength development in hydrated Portland
aggregate. Granulated aggregate is one possible cement, and calcium hydroxide is another of
product of the manufacture of continuous its hydration products, meaning that glass
foamed glass sheets, which are broken up into combined with Portland cement is a viable
suitable particle sizes (Hurley, 2002). cement. The pozzolanic reaction is identical to
Pelletization involves forming granules ASR, the difference being that the particles
comprising powdered cullet and a foaming are sufficiently small to prevent the formation
agent. These granules are then passed through of large volumes of gel before it dissolves to
an inclined rotary furnace during which melting form CSH gel (Douglas and El-Shamy, 1967;
and gas evolution occur. Idir et al., 2013).
Whilst pelletized aggregates can be made The possibility of using glass powder as a
with just glass and foaming agent, it is increas- means of controlling ASR (in the same way as
ingly common for other materials to be GGBS and fly ash) has been suggested (Idir
included. Research into such products has et al., 2010). The ASR-controlling capability of
included fly ash from coal-fired power genera- glass powder has been confirmed, although it
tion (Kockal and Ozturan, 2011; Kourti and is less than that of fly ash (Shi et al., 2005). More-
Cheeseman, 2010), sludges from aggregate and over, testing indicates that the duration over
stone processing (Ducman and Mirtic, 2009) which the controlling effect is observed is finite
and dredging sludges (Wei et al., 2011; Chiou (Dyer and Dhir, 2010).
and Chen, 2013). Investigation of borosilicate glass (from light-
Low density coupled with high strength and ing tubes) as a filler in concrete has identified
relatively low water absorption are desirable the material as being particularly pozzolanic,
characteristics, which can be achieved through exceeding the performance of silica fume,
finer glass particle sizes and higher glass content which is generally a highly reactive material
(Kockal and Ozturan, 2011; Wei et al., 2011; (Shakhmenko et al., 2012).
Chiou and Chen, 2013).
As for normal-weight glass aggregate, there
exists a concern regarding ASR, when light-
14.9.9 Filtration Media
weight aggregate containing glass is used in
concrete. Mixed results have been obtained The ability of volumes of granular glass to
with regard to this in the literature (Limbachiya permit rapid percolation of fluid has meant
et al., 2012; Mladenovic et al., 2004; Ducman that the material has found application in
et al., 2002), and it probably necessary to estab- filtration applications. Studies examining the
lish ASR reactivity for a given product where ability of recycled glass as a filter medium
this reaction may be an issue. have found that it is potentially extremely
effective at removing suspended solids from
water.
14.9.8 Glass as a Cement Component in A study examining the effect of particle size
on the use of glass filter beds on the tertiary
Concrete
treatment of wastewater identified that a parti-
Soda-limeesilicate glass is a pozzolanic ma- cle size of 0.5e1.45 mm was most appropriate
terial: in a finely divided form, it will undergo a (Horan and Lowe, 2007). This represented a

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 14.9 OPEN-LOOP GLASS RECYCLING 205
compromise that avoided the rapid blocking 14.9.10 Zeolites and Other Silicate
(or “blinding”) by trapped solids of finer Products
glass particles and the low particle-capture ef-
ficiency of coarser particle sizes. The amount It has already been seen that solubilization of
of media required was 10% less compared to silicate ions from glass occurs at high pH
sand. This approach has been developed into (Figure 14.6). This is further enhanced at
a two-stage filtration system with the first filter elevated temperatures (Mavilia and Corigliano,
containing medium-grade (0.5e1 mm) glass 2001). For this reason, a number of researchers
particles and the second containing a finer have examined the possibility of producing
grade (0.2e1 mm) (Lavender, 2009). chemical products through hydrothermal reac-
Other researchers have found that the tion of glasses in high pH conditions. A range
smooth surface of glass appears to limit the of chemical compounds can be produced,
extent to which solid particles become attached, including double-layer silicates and zeolites,
although this can be rectified through the use of which have applications as absorbents, ion ex-
coagulants (Soyer et al., 2010), or through the change media and desiccants. The conditions
use of dual-media beds containing glass and used for the synthesis of three such substances
coarser anthracite (Soyer et al., 2013). Similarly, from cullet are shown in Table 14.3.
glass in combination with larger clay balls in a Similar conditions have also been used to
pebble matrix filter has been shown to be suit- produce articles with relatively high tensile
able for pretreatment of drinking water strength (Veloza et al., 1999). The process
(Rajapakse and Fenner, 2011). involved using hydrothermal hot pressing to

FIGURE 14.6 Influence of pH on the dissolution of SiO2 from soda-limeesilicate glass into water (Bacon, 1968).

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

206 14. GLASS RECYCLING

TABLE 14.3 Conditions Used to Produce Various Products from Glass Cullet Using Hydrothermal Processes

Product Temperature Other Reactants References

Rhodesite, 150  C NaOH Grutzeck and Marks

zeolite NaeP1 (1999)
Tobermorite 100  C NaOH, CaO Coleman (2011)

Zeolite A Extraction at 105 or 140 C, Extraction of silica using Mavilia and Corigliano
subsequent reaction temperature NaOH followed by reaction (2001)
with Na2O2Al2O3 not specified, with Na2O$Al2O3
but probably 20e175  C

shape mixtures of glass and water at tempera- Anonymous, 2005. Shipyard takes softer, greener approach
tures of about 200  C. to surface prep. Journal of Protective Coatings and Lin-
ings 22, 12e15.
Arabani, M., 2011. Effect of glass cullet on the improvement
of the dynamic behaviour of asphalt concrete. Con-
14.10 CONCLUSIONS struction and Building Materials 25, 1181e1185.
Arabani, M., Mirabdolazimi, S.M., Ferdowsi, B., 2012.
Modeling the fatigue behaviours of glasphalt mixtures.
The closed-loop recycling of glass into glass- Scientia Iranica 19, 341e345.
making is clearly a sustainable practice, but bar- Asquini, L., Furlani, E., Bruckner, S., Maschio, S., 2008.
riers exist to the complete return of all recovered Production and characterization of sintered ceramics
glass to glassmaking. For this reason a number from paper mill sludge and glass cullet. Chemosphere
of alternative outlets for cullet have become 71, 83e89.
Bacon, F.R., 1968. The chemical durability of silicate glass e
established, and further outlets are being devel- part one. Glass Industry 49, 438e446.
oped. Whether the alternatives under develop- Barbieri, L., Corradi, A., Lancellotti, I., 2000. Bulk and sintered
ment will become established depends on the glass-ceramics by recycling municipal incinerator bottom
associated economic and practical benefits. The ash. Journal of European Ceramic Society 20, 1637e1643.
issue of economic viability of alternatives is Benjarungroj, P., Harrison, P., Vaughan, S., Ren, X.J.,
Morgan, M., 2012. Investigation of thermally treated
one which has not been explored in this chapter. recycled glass as a vibratory mass finishing media. Key
In some instances, researchers have included Engineering Materials 496, 104e109.
economic analyses. However, a critical influence Bralla, J.G., 2007. Handbook of Manufacturing Processes.
on viability is the market price for cullet, and Industrial Press.
this varies considerably around the world and British Geological Survey, 2009. Mineral Planning Factsheet:
Silica Sand.
can fluctuate considerably over relatively short Brusatin, G., Bernardo, E., Andreola, F., Barbieri, L.,
periods of time. For this reason, the economics Lancellotti, I., Hreglich, S., 2005. Reutilization of waste
of open-loop recycling of glass are probably inert glass from the disposal of polluted dredging spoils
best explored on an individual case basis. by the obtainment of ceramic products for tiles appli-
cations. Journal of Material Science 40, 5259e5264.
Cemex. Glasphalt product datasheet. http://www.
cemexliterature.co.uk/pdf/Asphalt_Glasphalt_Data_
References Sheet.pdf. (accessed 2013.).
Alani, A., MacMullen, J., Telik, O., Zhang, Z.Y., 2012. Chen, S.-.H., Chang, C.-.S., Wang, H.-.Y., Huang, W.-.L.,
Investigation into the thermal performance of recycled 2011. Mixture design of high performance recycled
glass screed for construction purposes. Construction and liquid crystal glasses concrete (HPGC). Construction
Building Materials 29, 527e532. and Building Materials 25, 3886e3892.

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 REFERENCES 207
Chiou, I.J., Chen, C.H., 2013. Effects of waste-glass fineness by the petrurgic method. Journal of Material Science
on sintering of reservoir-sediment aggregates. Con- Letters 21, 975e980.
struction and Building Materials 38, 987e993. Fry, J.M., Hartlin, B., Wallén, E., Aumônier, S., 2010. Life
Clean Washington Center, 1998. A tool kit for the use of post Cycle Assessment of Example Packaging Systems for
consumer glass as a construction aggregate. Report Milk. Waste and Resources Action Programme.
No.GL-97e5. Glass for Europe, 2010. Recyclable waste flat glass in the
Coleman, N.J., 2011. 11 Å tobermorite ion exchanger from context of the development of end-of-waste criteria.
recycled container glass. International Journal of Envi- Glasser, F.P., 1992. Chemistry of the alkalieaggregate reac-
ronment Waste Management 8, 366e382. tion. In: Swamy, R.N. (Ed.), The Alkali Silica Reaction in
de Castro, S., de Brito, J., 2013. Evaluation of the durability Concrete. Blackie, pp. 30e53.
of concrete made with crushed glass aggregates. Journal Grutzeck, M.W., Marks, J.A., 1999. Synthesis of double-layer
of Cleaner Production 41, 7e14. silicates from recycled glass cullet: a new type of
Degryse, P., Schneider, J., Haack, U., Lauwers, V., chemical adsorbent. Environmental Science and Tech-
Poblome, J., Waelkens, M., Muchez, P., 2006. Evidence nology 33, 312e317.
for glass ‘recycling’ using Pb and Sr isotopic ratios and Hancock, P., July/August 2011. Fluxing issues e container
Sr-mixing lines: the case of early Byzantine Sagalassos. glass in sanitaryware applications. Asian Ceramics, 50e53.
Jounal of Archaeological Science 33, 494e501. Hansen, M.R., Wang, M., Collins, T., Nielsen, M.L., 1999.
Dhir, R.K., Dyer, T.D., Tang, M.C., 2009. Alkali-silica reac- Recycled glass concrete for pavement patching e alkali-
tion in concrete containing glass. Materials and Struc- silica reactivity. In: Bank, L.C. (Ed.), 5th ASCE Materials
tures 42, 1451e1462. in Engineering. ASCE, pp. 847e851.
Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Bo, M.W., Hankour, R., 2011. Henry, K.S., Morin, S.H., 1997. Frost susceptibility of
Recycled crushed glass in road work applications. Waste crushed glass used as construction aggregate. Journal of
Management 31, 2341e2351. Cold Regions Engineering 11, 326e333.
Disfani, M.M., Arulrajah, A., Bo, M.W., Sivakugan, N., 2012. Highways Agency, 1998. Manual of contract documents for
Environmental risks of using recycled crushed glass in highway works. Specification of Highway Works 1.
road work applications. Journal of Cleaner Production Horan, N.J., Lowe, M., 2007. Full-scale trials of recycled
20, 170e179. glass as tertiary filter medium for wastewater treatment.
Douglas, R.W., El-Shamy, T.M., 1967. Reactions of glasses Water Research 41, 253e259.
with aqueous solutions. Journal of American Ceramic Huang, Y., Bird, R.N., Heidrich, O., 2007. A review of the use
Society 50, 1e8. of recycled solid waste materials in asphalt pavements.
Ducman, V., Mirtic, B., 2009. The applicability of different Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52, 58e73.
waste materials for the production of lightweight ag- Hurley, J., 2002. A UK Market Survey for Foam Glass. Waste
gregates. Waste Management 29, 2361e2368. and Resources Action Programme.
Ducman, V., Mladenovic, A., Suput,  J.S., 2002. Light- Idir, R., Cyr, M., Tagnit-Hamou, A., 2010. Use of fine glass as
weight aggregate based on waste glass and its alkali- ASR inhibitor in glass aggregate mortars. Construction
silica reactivity. Cement and Concrete Research 32, and Building Materials 24, 1309e1312.
223e226. Idir, R., Cyr, M., Tagnit-Hamou, A., 2013. Role of the nature
Dyer, T.D., Dhir, R.K., 2001. Chemical reactions of glass of reaction products in the differing behaviours of fine
cullet used as a cement component. Journal of Materials glass powders and coarse glass aggregates used in
in Civil Engineering 13, 412e417. concrete. Materials and Structures 46, 233e243.
Dyer, T.D., Dhir, R.K., 2010. Evaluation of powdered glass Kockal, N.U., Ozturan, T., 2011. Characteristics of light-
cullet as a means of controlling harmful alkali-silica re- weight fly ash aggregates produced with different
action. Magazine of Concrete Research 62, 749e759. binders and heat treatments. Cement and Concrete
Edgar, R., Holcroft, C., Pudner, M., Hardcastle, G., 2008. UK Composites 33, 61e67.
Glass Manufacture 2008-A Mass Balance Study. British Kourti, I., Cheeseman, C.R., 2010. Properties and micro-
Glass. structure of lightweight aggregate produced from lignite
Edwards, D.W., Schelling, J., 1999. Municipal waste life coal fly ash and recycled glass. Resources, Conservation
cycle assessment. Part 2: transport analysis and glass and Recycling 54, 769e775.
study. Transaction of the Institute of Chemical Engineers Lavender, P., 2009. Filter media: treating chemical waste-
77 (Part B), 259e274. waters. Filter Separator 45, 16e18.
Emmins, C., 1991. Soft Drinks. Shire Publications. Limbachiya, M., Meddah, M.S., Fotiadou, S., 2012. Perfor-
Francis, A.A., Rawlings, R.D., Boccaccini, A.R., 2002. Glass- mance of granulated foam glass concrete. Construction
ceramics from mixtures of coal ash and soda lime glass and Building Materials 28, 759e768.

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

208 14. GLASS RECYCLING

Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., 2012a. Feasible use of recycled Rodriguez Vieitez, E., Eder, P., Villanueva, A., Saveyn, H.,
CRT funnel glass as heavyweight fine aggregate in 2011. End-of-Waste Criteria for Glass Cullet: Technical
barite concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production 33, Proposals. European Commission Joint Research
42e49. Centre.
Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., 2012b. A comparative study on the Romero, M., Rawlings, R.D., Rincon, J.Ma, 1999. Develop-
feasible use of recycled beverage and CRT funnel glass ment of a new glass-ceramic by means of controlled
as fine aggregate in cement mortar. Journal of Cleaner vitrification and crystallisation of inorganic wastes from
Production 29e30, 46e52. urban incineration. Journal of European Ceramic Society
Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., Kou, S.-C., 2011. Feasibility of using 19, 2049e2058.
recycled glass in architectural cement mortars. Cement Scarinci, G., Brusatin, G., Barbieri, L., Corradi, A.,
and Concrete Composites 33, 848e854. Lancellotti, I., Colombo, P., Hreglich, S., Dall’Igna, R.,
Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., Kou, S.-C., 2012a. Influence of 2000. Vitrification of industrial and natural wastes with
recycled glass content and curing conditions on the production of glass fibres. Journal of European Ceramic
properties of self-compacting concrete after exposure to Society 20, 2485e2490.
elevated temperatures. Cement and Concrete Compos- Shakhmenko, G., Korjakins, A., Kara, P., Bumanis, G., 2012.
ites 34, 265e272. Low-carbon concrete using local industrial by-products.
Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S., Lam, W.-S., Chan, T.-P., In: Jones, M.R., Newlands, M.D., Halliday, J.E.,
Fung, K.K.-L., 2012b. Utilization of recycled cathode Csetenyi, L.J., Zheng, L., McCarthy, M.J., Dyer, T.D.
ray tubes glass in cement mortar for X-ray radiation- (Eds.), Concrete in the Low Carbon Era. University of
shielding applications. Journal of Hazardous Mate- Dundee, pp. 978e988.
rials 199e200, 321e327. Shelby, J., 1997. Introduction to Glass Science and Technol-
Marceau, W.E., 1967. Method of making a molten foamed ogy. Royal Society of Chemistry.
glass. US Patent 3325264. United States Patent Office. Shi, C., Wu, Y., Riefler, C., Wang, H., 2005. Characteristics
Martin, G., MacFarlane, A., 2002. The Glass Bathyscaphe: and pozzolanic reactivity of glass powders. Cement and
How Glass Changed the World. Profile Books. Concrete Research 35, 987e993.
Mavilia, L., Corigliano, F., 2001. High added value products Soyer, E., Akgiray, Ö., Eldem, N.Ö., Saatçi, A.M., 2010.
from off-quality waste glass. In: Dhir, R.K., Crushed recycled glass as a filter medium and compar-
Limbachiya, M.C., Dyer, T.D. (Eds.), Recycling and ison with silica sand. Clean e Soil, Air, Water 38,
Reuse of Glass Cullet. Thomas Telford, pp. 63e73. 927e935.

Mladenovic, A., Suput, 
J.S., Ducman, V., Skapin, A.S., 2004. Soyer, E., Akgiray, Ö., Eldem, N.Ö., Saatçi, A.M., 2013. On
Alkali-silica reactivity of some frequently used light- the use of crushed recycled glass instead of silica sand
weight aggregates. Cement and Concrete Research 34, in dual-media filters. Clean e Soil, Air, Water 41,
1809e1816. 325e332.
Mörtel, H., Fuchs, F., 1997. Recycling of windshield glasses Su, N., Chen, J.S., 2002. Engineering properties of asphalt
in fired bricks industry. Key Engineering Materials 136 concrete made with recycled glass. Resources Conser-
(Part 3), 2268e2271. vation and Recycling 35, 259e274.
Park, S.B., Lee, B.C., Kim, J.H., 2004. Studies on mechanical Tan, K.H., Du, H., 2013. Use of waste glass as sand in
properties of concrete containing waste glass aggregate. mortar: part I e fresh, mechanical and durability
Cement and Concrete Research 34, 2181e2189. properties. Cement and Concrete Composites 35,
Pelino, M., 2000. Recycling of zinc-hydrometallurgy wastes 109e117.
in glass and glass ceramic materials. Waste Management Tandy, B.C., Way, A.G.J., 2004. R&D to Improve Site Prac-
20, 561e568. tices for Collection and Clean Separation of Composite
Quaranta, N., Unsen, M., López, H., Giansiracusa, C., (Glass) Materials in the Construction and Demolition
Roether, J.A., Boccaccini, A.R., 2011. Ash from sunflower Industry. Waste and Resources Action Programme.
husk as raw material for ceramic products. Ceramics Topcu, I.B., Canbaz, M., 2004. Properties of concrete con-
International 37, 377e385. taining waste glass. Cement and Concrete Research 34,
Rajapakse, J.P., Fenner, R.A., 2011. Evaluation of alternative 267e274.
media for pebble matrix filtration using clay balls and Topcu, I.B., Boga, A.R., Bilir, T., 2008. Alkaliesilica reactions
recycled crushed glass. Journal of Environmental Engi- of mortars produced by using waste glass as fine
neering 137, 517e524. aggregate and admixtures such as fly ash and Li2CO3.
Rey-Raap, N., Gallardo, A., 2013. Removal of mercury Waste Management 28, 878e884.
bonded in residual glass from spent fluorescent lamps. Tucci, A., Esposito, L., Palmonari, C., Rambaldi, E., 2004.
Journal of Environmental Management 115, 175e178. Use of soda-lime scrap-glass as a fluxing agent in

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY

 REFERENCES 209
porcelain stoneware tile mix. Journal of European Waste and Resources Action Programme. Case study: color-
Ceramic Society 24, 83e92. separated collection of glass for re-melt: bath and North
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, East Somerset Council. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/
Ministry of Internal Trade and Industry, 1993. Output files/wrap/4379%20WRAP%20Case%20Study%20-%20
Seminar of Energy Conservation in Glass Energy. Glass%20Bath%20_%2008.09.09.pdf (accessed 05.13.).
United States Geological Survey, 2012. Mineral Commod- Wei, Y.-.L., Lin, C.-.Y., Ko, K.-.W., Wang, H.P., 2011. Prepa-
ities Summaries 2012. ration of low-water-sorption aggregates from harbour
US Department of Transportation Federal Highway sediment added with waste glass. Marine Pollution
Administration, 1997. User guidelines for waste and Bulletin 63, 135e140.
byproduct materials in pavement construction. Report Waste and Resources Action Programme. Case study:
FHWA-RD-97e148. colour-mixed collection of glass for re-melt: Hart District
Veloza, Z.M., Yanagizawa, K., Yamasaki, N., 1999. Recy- Council. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/
cling waste glass by means of the hydrothermal hot 4545%20WRAP%20Case%20Study%20-%20Glass%283%
pressing method. Journal of Material Science Lett. 18, 29%20_%2009.09.09.pdf (accessed 05.13.).
1811e1813. Younus Ali, M.M., Newman, G., Arulrajah, A.,
Wartman, J., Grubb, D.G., Nasim, A.S.M., 2004. Select en- Disfani, M.M., 2011. Application of recycled glass e
gineering characteristics of crushed glass. Journal of crushed rock blends in road pavements. Australian
Materials Civil Engineering 16, 526e539. Geomechanics 46, 113e121.

II. RECYCLING e APPLICATION & TECHNOLOGY