HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

CENG55 - Lecture 01 - Introduction

TRANSPORT So, why are highways so important?
 Is a science that concerns with the efficient Highways are vitally important to a country’s
movement of people and goods that is economic development. The construction of a high
undertaken to accomplish objectives to complete quality road network directly increases a nation’s
tasks that require transfer from one location to economic output by reducing journey times and costs,
another. making a region more attractive economically. The
actual construction process will have the added effect
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING of stimulating the construction market.
 Is concerned with the application of scientific
principles to the planning, design, operation, and 2. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
management of transportation system. It is a sub-
specialty of civil engineering. However, it is
inherently multidisciplinary overlapping diverse
fields as economics, psychology, geography, city
planning, public administration, political science,
industrial, and electrical engineering.

1. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
Tapping natural resources and markets and
maintaining a competitive edge over other regions
and nations are linked closely to the quality of the
transportation system. The speed, cost, and
capacity of available transportation have a significant
impact on the economic vitality of an area and the
ability to make maximum use of its natural
resources. Examination of most developed and
industrialized societies indicates that they have been
noted for high-quality transportation systems and
services. Without the ability to transport manufactured
goods and raw materials and without technical know-
how, a country is unable to maximize the comparative
advantage it may have in the form of natural or
human resources. Countries that lack an abundance
of natural resources rely heavily on transportation in
order to import raw materials and export
manufactured products.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 01 - Introduction

3. CHARACTERS OR ROAD TRANSPORT

Road transport is one of the most common
mode of transport. Roads in the form of trackways,
human pathways etc. were used even from the pre-
historic times. Since then, many experiments were
going on to make the riding safe and comfort. Thus,
road construction became an inseparable part of
many civilizations and empires.

1. Roads are used by various types of road vehicles

like cars, buses, truck, two and three wheeled
automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles.
But railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives
and wagons, waterways are used only by ships and
boats.

2. Road transport requires a relatively small

investment for the government. Motor vehicles are
much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives
and wagons, water and air carriers. Construction and
maintenance of road is also cheaper than that of
railway tracks, docks, harbors and airports.

3. Road transport offers a complete freedom to road

users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to another
and from one road to another according to need and
convenience. This flexibility of changes in location,
direction, speed, and timing of travel is not available
in other modes of transport.

4. In particular for short distances travel, road

transport saves time.

5. Speed of movement is directly related with the

severity of accident. The road safety decreases with
increasing dispersion in speed. Road transport is
subjected to a high degree of accidents due to
flexibility of movements offered to the road users.

6. Road transport is the only means of transport that

offers itself to the whole community alike.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 02 - Highway and Its Development

ROAD or PAVEMENT THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE ROMANS ROADS :

 Pavement or Road is an open, generally public  They were built straight regardless of gradients.
way for the passage of vehicles, people, and  They were built after the soft soil was removed and
animals. a hard stratum was reached.
 The total thickness of the construction was as high
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD as 0.75 to 1.2 meters at some places, even though
CONSTRUCTION the magnitude of wheel loads of animal drawn
vehicles was very low.
 The wearing course consisted of dresses large
stone-blocks set in lime mortar.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS BASED ON:

The general appearance of such a metalled road and
footway is shown in an existing street of Pompeii. SPEED AND ACCESSIBILITY
1. Native earth - leveled and, if necessary, rammed  Freeways/Expressways
tight.  Highways
2. Statumen - stones of a size to fill the hand.  Arterials
3. Audits - rubble or concrete of broken stones and  Local Streets
lime.  Collector Roads
4. Nucleus - kernel or bedding of fine cement made of
pounded potshards and lime. MATERIALS USED
5. Dorsum or agger viae - the elliptical surface or  Earthen Roads
crown of the road (media stratae eminentia) made of  Gravel Roads
polygonal blocks of silex (basaltic lava) or rectangular  Water bound Macadam (WBM)
blocks of saxum quadratum (travertine, peperino, or  Bituminous Roads
other stone of the country). The upper surface was  Cement Concrete Roads
designed to cast off rain or water like the shell of a
tortoise. The lower surfaces of the separate stones, USAGE
here shown as flat, were sometimes cut to a point or  All-weather Roads
edge in order to grasp the nucleus, or next layer, more  Fair-weather Roads
firmly.
6. Crepido, margo or semita - raised footway, or CARRIAGEWAY
sidewalk, on each side of the via.  Paved Roads
7. Umbones or edge-stones.  Unpaved Roads

RIGIDITY
 Hilly Roads
 Plain Area Roads

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 02 - Highway and Its Development

ECONOMY
 Low-cost Roads
 Medium-cost Roads
 High-cost Roads

TRAFFIC VOLUME
 Low traffic Roads
 Medium traffic Roads
 High traffic Roads

TRAFFIC TYPES
 Cycle tracks
 Pedestrian tracks
 Motorways

ROAD PATTERNS RADIAL PATTERN OR STAR PATTERN:

 There are different types of road pattern used in  In this road pattern, the network of roads is in the
highways, when the road is constructed in a form of circles originating from the center of the
pattern like rectangular pattern, radial pattern, area.
hexagonal pattern, etc. for proper management of  It is a mixture of radial and block patterns wherein
traffic it is called a road pattern. a radial network of roads exits from the middle with
 Roadways are very essential in the development of a block pattern network of roads in between the
the settlements in a city. radial main roads.
 However, recent development does not give
important to the study of road patterns, giving rise
to roads that are not interconnected.

RADIAL AND GRID PATTERN:

 The radial and grid pattern is a combination of
radial and grid patterns through which the radial
network of roads originates externally from the
RECTANGULAR PATTERN OR GRID PATTERN: center.
 This type of pattern is a scheme where the streets  The main radial roads are interconnected by
and roads are moving perpendicular to each other offering a grid pattern between the principal roads.
in the form of a grid or block thus forming a block  The radial and the circular pattern is the road
or grid pattern. pattern in which the main roads originate from a
central point and connected together by narrow
roads that radiate outward.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 02 - Highway and Its Development

TRAFFIC OR ROAD USE STUDIES

 Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average
daily traffic, peak and design hourly traffic volume
 Origin and destination studies
 Traffic flow patterns
 Mass transportation facilities
 Accidents, their cost analysis and causes
 Future trend and growth in traffic volume and
goods traffic, trend in traffic pattern
 Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the
choice of modes

ENGINEERING STUDIES
HEXAGONAL ROAD PATTERN:  Topographic Surveys
 This pattern is a network of roads that grow is such  Soil Surveys
manner in different directions forming hexagons.  Location and Classification of Existing Roads
 Estimation of possible developments in all aspects
due to the proposed highway development
MINIMUM TRAVEL ROAD PATTERN:
 In this road pattern, the town is contented by sector  Road life studies
centers, suburban facilities and neighborhood  Traffic studies, Origin and Destination studies
centers by highway which required minimum time  Special problems in drainage, construction and
reach the city center. maintenance of roads

PLANNING SURVEYS
Highway Planning Phase includes:
 Assessment of road length requirement for an area
(it may be a district, state or the whole country)
 Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of
plan in annual and or five year plans.

ECONOMIC STUDIES
 Population and its distribution in each village, town
or other locality with the area classified in groups.
 Trend in population growth
 Agricultural and industrial products and their listing
in classified groups, area wise.
 Industrial and agricultural development and future
trends
 Existing facilities with regard to communication,
recreation and education etc.
 Per capita income.

FINANCIAL STUDIES
 Sources of income and estimated revenue from
taxation on road transport
 Living standards
 Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle
registration and fines.
 Future trends in financial aspects

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 03 - Highway Alignment and Surveys
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT  SAFE
 The position or the layout of the center line of the  Should be safe enough for construction and
highway on the ground is called the alignment. maintenance from the view point of stability.
 The Horizontal Alignment includes the straight path,  ECONOMICAL
the horizontal deviations, and curves.  The total cost including initial cost,
 Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost
under vertical alignment of roads. is lowest.

FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT

 OBLIGATORY POINTS
 There are control points governing the
alignment of the highways. These control
points may be divided broadly into two
categories:
 Points through which the alignment is to
pass.
 Points through which the alignment
should not pass.

 TRAFFIC
 The alignment should suit traffic requirements.
Origin and destination should be carried out in
the area and the desire lines be drawn
DISADVANTAGES OF IMPROPER ALIGNMENT
 Increase in construction cost showing the trend of traffic flow. The new road
 Increase in maintenance cost to be aligned should keep in view the desired
 Increase in vehicle operation cost lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
 Increase in accident rate

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL

ALIGNMENT BETWEEN TWO TERMINAL
STATIONS:
 SHORT
 It is desirable to have a short (or shortest)
alignment between two terminal stations.
 EASY
 Should be such it is easy to construct and
maintain the road with minimum problems.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 03 - Highway Alignment and Surveys
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN  The probable alignment can be located on the
 Gradient map from the following details available on the
 Radius of curve map.
 Sight distance a) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
 As far as possible, the gradient should be flat b) When the road has to cross a row of hills,
and less than the ruling or design gradient. possibility of crossing through a mountain
pass
 ECONOMICS c) Approximate location of bridge site for
 In working out the economics, the initial cost, crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if
the cost of maintenance and vehicle operation any.
should be taken into account. d) When a road is to be connected between two
stations, one of the top and the other on the
 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be
 Drainage considerations, suggested keeping in view the permissible
 Hydrological factors gradient.
 Political considerations
 Monotony

ENGINEERING SURVEYS
THE STAGES OF ENGINEERING SURVEYS:
 MAP STUDY
 If the topographic map of the area is available,
it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the
route.
 The main features like rivers, hills, valleys etc.

 RECONNAISSANCE
 Examine the general character of the area for
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed
studies.
 A field survey party may inspect a fairly broad
stretch of land along the proposed alternative
routes of the map in the field.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 03 - Highway Alignment and Surveys

Barometer  Procedure of conventional methods of preliminary

survey:
a. Primary traverse – The length of the center
line should be measured by using very good
and accurate methods.
b. Topographical features – All geographical and
other man-made features along the traverse
 From the details collected during are surveyed and plotted.
reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after c. Levelling work – Carried out side-by-side to
study may be altered or even changed give the center line profiles and typical cross-
completely. sections.
 As a result of the reconnaissance a few d. Drainage studies and Hydrological data–
alternate alignments may be chosen for study estimate type, number and approximate size
based on practical considerations observed at of cross drainage structures.
the site. e. Soil survey – Helps in working out details of
earthwork, slopes, suitability of materials,
 PRELIMINARY SURVEYS subsoil and surface drainage requirement and
 To survey the various alternate alignments type and approximate thickness requirements.
proposed after the reconnaissance and to f. Material Survey – for naturally occurring
collect all the necessary physical information materials like stone aggregates, fine
and details of topography, drainage and soil. aggregates, identification of suitable quarries.
 To compare the different proposals in view of Availability of manufactured materials like
the requirements of a good alignment. cement.
 To estimate quantity of earth work materials g. Traffic survey – Forms the basis for deciding
and other construction aspects and to workout the number of traffic lanes and roadway width,
the cost of alternate proposals. pavement design and economic analysis of
 To finalize the best alignment from all highway project.
considerations. h. Determination of final center line – after
 Preliminary Survey Methods: completing the preliminary surveys and
 Conventional Approach – a survey party conducting the comparative studies of
carries out surveys using the required alternative alignments, the final center line of
field equipment, taking measurements, the road is to be decided in the office before
collecting topographical and other data the final location survey.
and carrying out soil survey.

 Modern rapid approach – aerial survey

taking the required aerial photographs
and by photogrammetric methods and
photo-interpretation techniques for
obtaining the necessary topographic and
other maps including details of soil and
geology.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
CENG55 - Lecture 03 - Highway Alignment and Surveys
 Procedure of Aerial photographic survey:
a. Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land
to be surveyed with the required longitudinal
and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are
necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
b. The photographs are examined under
stereoscopes and control points are selected
for establishing the traverses of the alternate
proposals. The control points are located on
the maps.
c. Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels
and subsequently contour lines may be
obtained. Also from the stereo pairs the
topographical details may be noted down on
the maps.
d. Photo-interpretation methods are used to
assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.

 FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED SURVEYS

 The alignment finalized at the design office
after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the center
line.
 Next detailed survey should be carried out for
collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plans and construction details
for the highway project.
 Location - The center line of the road finalized
in the drawings is to be translated on the
ground during the location survey.
 Detailed Survey - The date during the
detailed survey should be elaborate and
complete for preparing detailed plans, design
and estimates of the project.

LESLIE ANN C. RAVELO

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