DC Fundamentals

What is electricity?

Electricity is a phenomena involving flow of electrons in a material or a

circuit caused by an Electro Motive Force (EMF) generated by a Battery,
Generator or Thermocouple and is measured in volt.

• The flow of electrons is also called an Electrical current

• Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point in a

circuit.

• Voltage is the electrical force that would drive an electric current

between two points.

• Main Differences between EMF and Voltage

• Following are the key differences between voltage and EMF

• EMF is a force that causes current to flow. It is the energy supplied to

the charge by some active device such as a battery.

• EMF maintains Potential Difference (P.D or Voltage) while Potential

Difference causes current to flow.

• Dynamic”& “Static” Electricity

• While the motion of free electrons in an atom is random, electrons can

be influenced to move in a co-ordinated fashion continuously through a
conductive material. This uniform motion of free electrons is called
Dynamic Electricity.

• Dynamic electricity is in contrast to static electricity, which is an

unmoving accumulation of electrical charge.

• Dynamic electricity

• Dynamic electricity is defined as an electrical charge in motion.

• It consists of a flow of negatively charged electrons from atom to atom
through a conductor in an electrical circuit.

• The external force that causes the electron current flow of electric
charge is called the electromotive force (emf) or voltage.

• Static electricity

• Static electricity is when electrical charges build up on the surface of a

material. It is usually caused by rubbing materials together.

• The result of a build-up of static electricity is that objects may be

attracted to each other or may even cause a spark to jump from one to
the other.

• For Example rub a baloon on a wool and hold it up to the wall.

• Effects of electricity

• 1. Heating effect – Whenever current passes through any

conductor, heat is produced in a conductor. Such effect is used
in Heaters, Electric lamps etc.

• 2. Magnetic effect – Whenever current passes through a

conductor, a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor. This effect is used in Solenoids, Relays, Motors etc.

• 3. Chemical effect- When current is passed through an

electrolyte (acid+water), chemical action takes place. Such
action is used in Batteries, electro-plating
• Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current
flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the
voltage applied across it, and also inversely proportional to the
resistance. This relationship between the Voltage, Current and
Resistance forms the basis of Ohms LawOhm’s Law

•
 • Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

• Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the
node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost
within the node“.

• In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and
leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by
Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge. , as the
current is conserved around the junction with no loss of current.

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and
the two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the
algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is
equal to zero. This is because a circuit loop is a closed conducting path
so no energy is lost.

• In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the potential differences around
the loop must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0.

• Note here that the term “algebraic sum” means to take into account the
polarities and signs of the sources and voltage drops around the loop.
 • In a closed loop, whatever energy is supplied by emf must be transferred
into other forms by devices in the loop, since there are no other ways in
which energy can be transferred into or out of the circuit

Kirchhoff’s second rule requires

emf − Ir − IR1 − IR2 = 0. Rearranged, this is

emf = Ir + IR1 + IR2 = 0, which means the emf equals the sum of the IR (voltage)
drops in the loop.

SERIES CIRCUIT

• Current: The amount of current is the same through any component in a

series circuit.

• Resistance: The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum
of the individual resistances.

• Voltage: The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual voltage drops.
The Voltage Divider Circuit

• A series circuit splits the supply voltage proportionally across each

resistor in the series chain with the amount of voltage drop being
determined by the resistors value .

• The Voltage Division Rule, allows us to use the effects of resistance

proportionality to calculate the potential difference across each
resistance regardless of the current flowing through the series circuit.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICES OF SERIES CIRCUIT
The voltage drop across all of the resistors in a parallel resistive network is the
same. Then, Resistors in Parallel have a Common Voltage across them and this
is true for all parallel connected elements.

In a parallel circuit the voltage across all the resistor R1 equals the voltage
across resistor R2 which equals the voltage across R3 and which equals the
supply voltage

• In a parallel circuit the inverse of the equivalent resistance of two or

more resistors connected in parallel is the algebraic sum of the inverses
of the individual resistances.

Currents in a Parallel Resistor Circuit

The total current entering a parallel resistive circuit is the sum of all individual
current flowing in all the parallel branches
. I total = I1 + I2 + I3 ….. + In

Inductor

• An inductor, also called a coil, choke, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric
current flows through it.

• An Inductor is a coil of wire wound around a central core. When current,

( i ) flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux, ( NΦ ) around it
that is proportional to this flow of electrical current.

• An inductor opposes the rate of change of current flowing through it due

to the build up of self-induced energy within its magnetic field.

• Or

• Inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a

steady state DC current.

• It is the property of a coil in which an e.m.f. is induced in it when a flux

linked with it keeps changing.

• Unit of Inductance is a Henry.

• It is represented by L.
 • The effective opposition offered by an inductance to the flow of A.C
current is called the Inductive Reactance and is measured in Ohms.

• Inductive Reactance depends upon the frequency of the supply and the
inductance

• Inductive reactance is the opposition of inductor to alternating current

AC, which depends on its frequency f and is measured in Ohm just
like resistance. Inductive reactance is calculated using: XL = ωL = 2πfL

Faraday's law of induction

• First Law :

• It states that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes
an emf is always induced in it or whenever a conductor is made to
rotate in a magnetic field, hence cuts the magnetic flux and an emf is
induced in the conductor.

• This emf induced is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is
closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit and this current
is called induced current.

• Method to change the magnetic field:

• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil

• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field

• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field

• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet

• Faraday’s Second Law

It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil.

The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the number of turns in the coil
and flux associated with the coil.

How To Increase EMF Induced in a Coil

 1) By increasing the number of turns in the coil i.e N

2) By increasing magnetic field strength i.e B surrounding the coil

3) By increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet

EMF INDUCED IN A COIL

• Let N = No. of turns of coil

φ 1 = Initial value of flux through the coil ( wb )
φ 2 = Final value of flux through coil ( in wb )
t = Time in seconds during which the flux changed from φ 1 toφ 2
Flux linkage means the product of flux and the number of turns
associated with it.
Initial flux likages = Nφ 1

Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction

• Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor which

is exposed to a changing magnetic field.

• Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this

induced current will be such that the magnetic field created by the
induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field which
produced it.
 • Faraday’s law of induction explains the working principle of
transformers, motors, generators, and inductors

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

• As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a

conductor moves inside a magnetic field, there will be an induced
current in it.

• The current in the wire can have two possible directions. Fleming's
right-hand rule gives which direction the current flows.

• Used to find the direction of current flow in generator conductor

 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

• Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field,

a force acts on the conductor, in a direction perpendicular to both the
directions of the current and the magnetic field.

• The direction of this force can be found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
(also known as ‘Flemings left-hand rule for motors’).

• Force on a current carrying conductor is

• Force on a current carrying conductor is

Force on a current carrying conductor is

F = BIL Newtons.
 B = Field Intensity in wb / m2
I = Current in Amps
L = Length of conduct in mts
Types of E.M.F’s
Dynamically and statically Induced E.M.F’s

• An EMF is said to be induced when the magnetic flux linking with a

conductor or coil changes.

• The emf produced by electromagnetic induction can be divided into two

types.

• 1) Dynamically induced emf ( motionally)

2) Statically induced emf ( No motion )

• The magnetic flux through a circuit or coil or conductor may be changed

by various means, and by that change of flux linkages causing the
production of induced emf.

• Self Induced emf

• Self induction is that phenomenon where by a change in the current in

a conductor induces an emf in the conductor itself. i.e. when a
conductor is given current, flux will be produced, and if the current is
changed the flux also changes.

• As per Faraday's law when there is a change of flux, an emf will be

induced. This is called self induced emf.
• The induced emf will be always opposite in direction to the applied emf.
The opposing emf thus produced is called the counter emf of self
induction.

• Consider a coil having N number of turns as shown in the above figure.

When the switch S is closed and current I flows through the coil, it
produces flux (φ) linking with its own turns. If the current flowing
through the coil is changed by changing the value of variable resistance
(R), the flux linking with it, changes and hence emf is induced in the coil.
This induced emf is called Self Induced emf.

• Consider a coil having N number of turns as shown in the above figure.

When the switch S is closed and current I flows through the coil, it
produces flux (φ) linking with its own turns. If the current flowing
through the coil is changed by changing the value of variable resistance
(R), the flux linking with it, changes and hence emf is induced in the coil.
This induced emf is called Self Induced emf.

• Mathematically, self-induced EMF is given by,

• e=Ldi/dt...(1), Where, L is the self-inductance of the coil

•
•

• Mutually Induced EMF

• Consider a coil A&B. Coil B is having N2 number of turns and is placed

near another coil A having N1 number of turns,

• When the switch (S) is closed in the

circuit the current I1 flows through the coil A, and it produces the fluxφ1.
Most of the flux links with the other coil B.

• If the current flowing through the coil A is changed by changing the

value of variable resistor R, it changes flux linking with the other coil B
and hence emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf is called Mutually
Induced emf

• The direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it, that means it opposes the change of current in the first coil.
This effect of opposition caused by its own reason of production is
called Lenz’s Law.

• Since the rate of change of flux linking with the coil, B depends upon the
rate of change of current in the coil A.

•
M is called the Constant of Proportionality and is also called as Mutual
Inductance or Coefficient of Mutual Inductance.

DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

• In dynamically induced e.m.f , the magnetic field system is kept

stationary, and the conductor is moving, or the magnetic field system is
moving, and the conductor is stationary.

• Thus by following either of the two process the conductor cuts across
the magnetic field and the emf is induced in the coil.

• Example : emf induced in armature of dc generator, emf induced in

armature of alternator with static armature.

Electrical Machines

• Dynamic Machines

• 1. Generators

• 2. Motors

• Static Machine

• 1. Transformers
• A Battery

• A Storage device to convert Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy

usually at lower voltage levels,

• Battery is a combination of Cells with packed Chemical composition in a

container filled with an Electrolyte

• Battery serves as a DC source of Power in electrical circuits.

• The capacity of a battery is given as Ampere Hours

• Capacitors

• Capacitors are simple passive device that can store an electrical charge
on their plates when connected to a voltage source

• The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store

energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential
difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small
rechargeable battery.

• a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates

which are electrically separated either by air or by some form of a good
insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some
form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.

• The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is commonly called

the Dielectric.

• Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store electrical energy C =

q/V and is given in Farads.

• The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the maximum

charge that can be stored in a capacitor to the applied voltage across its
plates.

• The opposition offered by a Capacitor to the flow of an ac current is

called the Capacitive Reactance and is measured in Ohms.

• Capacitive Reactance depends on the frequency of the supply and the

capacitance