CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. The Concept of Semantics

In linguistics, semantics is generally considered as the study of meaning

in a language. Semantics is the study of linguistics meaning which is the meaning

of the word, phrases, and sentences. It does not only study the concrete things, but

it also studies the abstract things. The term of semantics has been used by H.G

Well in Palmer (1976 : 2) in the shape of things to come speaks of the sentences

ofsignifies, but he says that it was lost sight og and not revived until twenty first

century.

According to Keith D. Foote (2016), Generally speaking, Semantics is

the study of language and its meaning. As a word, Semantics was first used

by Michel Bréal, a French philologist in 1883, and can be used to describe how

words can have different meanings for different people, due to their experiential

and emotional backgrounds.

In addition, According toErnest Lepore (2009), (Semantics, also

called semiotics, semology, or semasiology, the philosophical and scientific study

of meaning in natural and artificial languages. The term is one of a group of

English words formed from the various derivatives of the Greek verb sēmainō (“to

mean” or “to signify”).The noun semantics and the adjective semantic are derived

from sēmantikos; semiotics comes from semeiotikos, semiology from sema (sign)

and logos (account).

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 Furthermore, it is difficult to formulate a distinct definition for each of

these terms, because it uses largely overlap in the literature despite individual

preferences. Semantics is a relatively new field of study, and its originators, often

working independently of one another, felt the need to coin a new name for the

new discipline—hence the variety of terms denoting the same subject.

Moreover, according to F.R. Palmer in his book entitled “SEMANTICS”,

French semantique is from 1893, coined from Greek by M. Breal's in 1893. The

following year, the word was first used in English, in a paper read at the American

Philological association in 1894. M. Breal's 1897 (french) book, tr. 1900

as Semantics: studies in the science of meaning - is a superb little book (now

neglected), which treated semantics as the 'science' of meaning, and was not

primarily concerned with diachronic change. Yet the term did not catch on. The

famous 1923 book by Ogden and Richards, The meaning of meaning, never uses

the term, though it appears in an appendix by Malinowski. HG Wells used

"significs" in The shape of things, others used semiotics or semiology.

Based on the statements above, it can be concluded that semantics is the

study of language and its meaningwhich treated semantics as the 'science' of

meaning, and was not primarily concerned with diachronic change and can be

used to describe how words can have different meanings for different people, due

to their experiential and emotional backgrounds.

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2.1.1. The Scope of Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning. Seen by breal in the late 19thcentury

as an emerging science (french 'semantique') opposed to phonetics ('phonetique')

as a science of sounds similarly for bloomfield in 1930, it was a field covering, as

one account of meaningful forms, and the lexicon also seen more narrowly in a

traditional lasting into the 1960s, as the study of meaning in the lexicon alone,

including changes in the word meaning. Later, in accounts which in the study of

distribution was divorced from that of meanings, opposed either to grammar in

general or within grammar and especially within a generative grammar from the

1960s onwards, to syntax specifically of the uses current at the beginning of the

21st century, many restrict semantics to the study of meaning is abstraction from

the contexts in which words and sentences are uttered in opposition,therefore,to

pragmatics. Others include pragmatics as one of its branches. In others its scope is

in practice very narrow thus one handbook of contemporary semantic theory in

the mid-1990s deals almost solely with problems in formal semantics, even the

meanings of lexical units being neglected.

Furthermore, semantics is the study of the linguistics meaning. It is not

concerned with what sentences and other linguistics object expressed. It is not

concerned with the arrangements of syntactic parts, or with their pronounciation.

Semantics could cover more extensive areas, from structure and function of

language as well as the interrelationship with other discipline. In this thesis, the

scope of semantics is about the meaning itself in linguistics. Meaning of linguistic

object can be various. Every people may have different way to analyze the

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meaning of alinguistic because there is no very general agreement about the

nature of meaning or the way in which it should be described.

Moreover, there are at least two major approaches to the way in which

meaning in language is studied, each of which is often very influential in

determining which fact of meaning are relevant for semantics The first is

linguistics approach, it concern with the way in which meaning in a language is

structured. The second is philosophical approach, it investigates the relation

between linguistics expression, such as the words of language, and person, things,

and events in the world to which these words refer.

Katz (1972 : 11) states that theory of semantics concerns with the

semantics structure of natural language in general. It is not a theory which

concerns with the semantic structure of any particular language and it does not

concern with individual’s meaning. Hence semantics scopes down its attention to

the sentence meaning as a part of linguistic system rather than utterance meaning.

Based on the statements above, it can be concluded that the most suitable

approach to get the meaning conventionally is linguistic approach. The first is

linguistics approach, it concern with the way in which meaning in a language is

structured. The second is philosophical approach. theory of semantics concerns

with the semantics structure of natural language in general.

2.1.2. The Goals of Semantics

Semantics can be limited both in theory and practice to sense relations.

One example is to be found in a well known article by J.J Katz and J.A Fordor

entitled "The Structure of a semantic theory" (1963).

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 According to Leech (1969 : 5), “The aim of semantics is to explain and

describe the meaning in natural language. To make our starting point in ordinary

usage more explicit, it may even says that the goal of semantics is to explain what

underlies the use of the word means and related term (sense, nonsense, signify,

ambiguous, antonimy, synonymy, etc) in English and other language.”

Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that semantics

should be able to give more explanations and define any expressions in language.

semantics also should be able to define their meaning properties and relation. Any

kinds of expressions should have meaning. In this case,semantics should be able

to specify those meanings based on their properties.

2.1.3. Meaning in English

Saeed (2009) said that "semantics is the study of meaning communicated

through language". It is the fact that meaning is a part of language. In studying a

language, the meaning of the language itself must be studied too. Language

without meaning can not be understood.

According to Nick Riemer (2010) in his book “Introducing Semantics”,

English uses the verb “to mean” refer to a relationship involving at least one of

three different types of thing; language, the world (including people, objects, and

everything outside of ourselves) and our own minds or intention.

Ordinary English, then, makes available at least three different ways of

talking about language; meaning, use and truth. Each of these three categories of

ordinary language description highlights a particular aspect of the occurence.

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Description in terms of truth places the emphasis on the objective facts of the

situation by concetrating on the relation between language and reality.

Based on the inferred above, it can be concluded thatlanguage, the world

(including people, objects, and everything outside of ourselves) and our own

minds or intention are the three different types of Semantics relation. It can be

substituted that the book as the speaker that derived the meaning and the reader as

the hearer that accept the meaning based on the condition (the same knowledge,

experience, and information) to get the right and suitable meaning.

2.2. Lexical Relations

Discourse is more than a random set of utterances; it shows

connectedness. A central objective of linguists working on the discourse level is

to characterize this connectedness. Linguists have traditonally approached this

problem by looking at overt linguistic elements and structures. In their tamous

Cohesionin English, Halliday and Hasan (1976) describe text connectedness in

terms of reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:13), these explisit clues make a text,

Cohesion occurs "when the interpretation of some element in the discourse is

dependent on that of another" (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:4).

While lexical cohesion is obviously achieve by the selection of

vocabulary, the other types of cohesion are considered as grammatical cohesion.

the notion of lexical cohesion might need some further explanation. collocation is

the most problematic part of the analysis lexical cohesion (halliday and hasan,

1976: 284). The analysis for the first example of lexical cohesion above would be

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that girls and boys have a relationship of complementary and are therefore related

by lexical cohesion. the basis of lexical cohesion is in fact extended to any pair of

lexical items that stand next to each other in some recognizable lexicosemantic

relation.

The class of general noun, for instance, is a small set of nouns having

generalized reference with in the major noun classes, such as human

nounstructure that are specific to spoken language include the occurrence of

adjacency pairs, minimal pairs like question-answer and summons-response

(sacks,schegloff and jefferson,1979) and prosody. these topics are subject to

ongoing investigations (see aspecially ford, fox and thompson, 2001) that we

concider important because they relate linguistic subdisciplines like grammar and

the study of conversation.

In conversations, this use of connectives is also found, but at the same

time, connectives frequently function as sequential markers: for instance,they

signal the move from a digression back to the main line of the conversation or

even signal turk-taking. in this type of use, connectives are often referred to as

discourse markers Schiffrin(2001) (see particles in spoken discourse). In sum, we

have discussed the principled difference between two answers to question 'how to

account for connectedness oof text and discourse?' we have seen that, while

cohesion seeks the answer in overt textual signals, a coherence approach opens

the way to afruitful interaction between text linguistics,discourse psychology , and

cognitive science, but at the same does not

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 According to M.A.K. Halliday, R. Hasan (1976) Lexical Cohesion is a

linguistic device which helps to create unity of text and discourse.

Lexical cohesion includes:

2.2.1. Repetition; Is the reoccurrence of words in the text.

Example: Sun - Sun

2.2.2. a.) Synonym;

Is a relation between lexical elements whose sense is the same or

nearly the same.

Example: Life - Existence

b.) Antonym; relates two items with opposite senses.

Example: Black - White

c.) Hyponym; is lexical cohesive relations between an item and a

more general item.

Example: Sun - Star

2.2.3. Collocation; is two or more words that often go together. These

combinations just sound right to native English speakers, who use

them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be

unnatural and just sound wrong.

Types of collocation there are several different types of collocation.

Collocation can be adjective , adverb, noun verb, noun and so on.

Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample

sentences :

a.) Adverb + adjective

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 Example: Are you fully aware of the implications of your action.

Fully deals to adverb, and aware deals to adjective.

b.) Adjective + noun

Example: The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.

Regular deals to adjective, and exercise deals to noun.

c.) Noun + noun

Example: I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

Bars deals to noun, and soap deals to noun.

d.) Noun + verb

Example: The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

Dog deals to noun, and barking deals to verb.

e.) Verb + noun

Example: The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.

Committing to verb, and murder deals to noun.

f.) Verb + expression with preposition

Example: We had to return home because we had run out of

money.

Had run deals to verb, and out of money deals to expression with

preposition.

g.) Verb + adverb

Example: Mary whispered softly in John ear.

Whispered deals to verb, and softly deals to adverb.

Another remark on the identification of lexical cohesive relations

concerns genre. Similar to the general observation that cohesion varies with

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genre, lexical cohesion tends to vary with genre as well. Conclusions of

previous studies claiming that non-systematic relations are overwhelming

compared to systematic relations Morris & Hirst (2004) are precipitous. The

proportion of the lexical relations in the cohesive pattern in a text strongly

depends on its genrecharacteristics.

In our view three subsystems build up the overall cohesion of a

text: referential cohesion, relational cohesion and lexical cohesion. The

elements of referential cohesion are cohesive by sharing identity of

reference.

Furthermore, general problems are considered that are relevant to

all the relations. The first question concerns the relevance of context in the

analysis of the lexical relations. Studies McCarthy (1988), Tanskanen

(2006) with a discoursespecific approach as opposed to the lexical-semantic

approach analyze lexical cohesive relations in their context. Their aim is to

focus on the “communicative potential” rather than on the “meaning

potential” of the items which is the case in the lexical-semantic approach.

Based on the explanations above, it can be concluded thatLexical

Cohesion is a linguistic device which helps to create unity of text and

discourse.The other types of cohesion are considered as grammatical

cohesion.three subsystems build up the overall cohesion of a text: referential

cohesion, relational cohesion and lexical cohesion. The elements of

referential cohesion are cohesive by sharing identity of reference.

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2.3. Text Book

In the world of English language teaching, the term textbook and course

books is interchangeably used. Nevertheless, some EFL experts define textbooks

as a set of instructional material of English taught as subject matter at school.

Further, they are also specifically designed for specific target audiences in specific

context. For instance, textbooks are generally used in a specified educational

context throughout the country. While textbook refer to materials used in teaching

English as subject matter in a specific educational context, course book are

specifically developed for generalized target groups utilized in both English as

well as non-English speaking countries.

Textbooks are inseparable parts of education nowadays. They also

become the integral part of teaching learning process comprising the output aspect

of an instructional system (banathy, 1986 : 30). As they are a part of an

instructional system, textbooks have played significant roles in the educational

system. Further, some experts believe that textbooks have continued to take part

in a wider education context both in the classroom and outside the classroom

(byrd in celcemurcia, 2001, graves in nunan, 2003, littlejohn, 2012).

Textbooks also provide some road maps for both teachers and students to

be followed. Ur(1996: 184) says that textbooks contain a clear framework

providing information on the structure and the progress of their course. In

addition, she adds that textbooks provide a syllabus containing the selection of

language aspects which are carefully planned and balanced. Acklam (1994: 12)

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suggests that textbooks become a visible outline offering a clear map of what to

be learned and serve as a bank of resource materials and ideas.

In short, textbook are learned materials specifically designed for specific

educational settings in order to be used through out the country. Textbook are

seen beneficial in the teaching and learning process for several reasons. First,

they provide a guideline or a map to be followed during the lesson. Second,

textbooks provide a statement of belief comprising theories, principles, or

approaches as a framework for developing a course. Next, they also provide both

input and output of language for the students which will facilitate language

acquicition process.

Based on the explanations above, it can be concluded thattextbooks as a

set of instructional material of English taught as subject matter at school. The

textbooks contain a clear framework providing information on the structure and

the progress of their course. Textbook are seen beneficial in the teaching and

learning process for several reasons.

2.3.1. The Characteristic of Text Book

From many learning sources which are used in educational domain,

teachers and teaching materials/books are still considered as learning source. It

can be seen in the teachers’ teaching design. The learning source that is generally

used is so called textbook.

According to A.J Loveridge (in Sundari 2010 : 16) a textbook is a book

that contained of material of the subject of lesson, in writing form that must

complete a specific situation requirement and systematically. According to shores

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(in Yusup : 1988 : 22) textbook is a book for one subject that used to make the

learning and teaching achievement between teacher and students more easy.

Whitaker said (in Sundari2010 : 17) a textbook is a planning book that used to

help the students to study efficiently.

According Mills and Douglas (in Hanafi1981 : 14) the good criteria of

the textbook are :1) Textbook consists of the learning material that make teacher

is easier to make learning planning that will be taught to the students. 2) Textbook

loads every problem that happened in education. 3) Textbook consists of media

the help teacher to teach the students. 4) Textbook is a permanent record that will

make the teacher to review the lesson in the future.5) Textbook can be used by the

students to study at home. 5) Textbook release the teacher from the duty to look

for the material so the teacher can use the time for teach the students.

In meantime, Thomas and Swarout (in Sundari2010 : 18) stated that the

advantages of the textbook :1) A textbook is a foundation of learning classroom.

2) A textbook provide the material that must teach to the students and also how to

teach them to the students. 3) The material in the textbook is rarely accurate. 4)

The material in the textbook is in order. 5) There are many media in the textbook.

6) Textbook make the students to decrease the students job in making note.

Based on the explanations above, it can be concluded that textbook is a

book that contained of material of the subject of lesson. There are 6 good criteria

and 6 advantages of the textbook.

2.4. Pathway to English Textbook

Pathway to English Textbook is one of textbook that published by

Erlangga. Pathway to English is a qualified book, because the content and

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packaging of this books is interesting layout, full image, futuristic, and so on.

With the book, students can helped to be able to understand and to apply English

in many aspects of life easier and then this book is very easy to understand, full

color and full image.

2.5.Conceptual Framework

Text Book

Text

Spoken Material Written Material

Cohesion

Grammatical Cohesion Lexical Cohesion

- References - Repetition
- Ellipsis - Synonym
- Substitution - Antonym
- CONJUNCTION - Hyponym
- Collocation

Note:

The Source Data of the Study

Focus

Based on the framework above, the limitation of the research is the yellow

colour, there are : repetition, synonym, antonym, hyponym, and collocation as the

part of lexical cohesion or lexical relation.

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 The textbook is the main source material used in teaching learning

process. It can be great value teaching, particularly to the beginning teacher. A

textbook plays an important role in the teaching and learning process.

Text is the orinal words of something written, printed, or spoken. Text

may be defined as any sequence of sentences having a certain coherence, and in

this weak sense of the term each folk-tale is a text. On the other hand, text may be

defined more rigorously as any unchangeable sequence of sentence which has a

strong cohesion and the unchangable character of which is related to a value

system of some sort.

There are 2 forms of material; spoken material and written material that

used in textbook in order to get the student’s ability in speaking and writing.

Sometimes, the content of spoken material such as 2 pairs, speaker and

interlocutor, meanwhile the written material is the text that read and written by the

student as conclusion.

Written material refers to the material that provide the surfaces on which

humans use writing instrument to inscribe writings. The gross characterization of

written materials is by the material constituing thw writing surface such as: paper

and the number, size, and usage and storage configuration of multiple surface.

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence

that holds a text together and gives it meaning. There are two main types of

cohesion: grammatical cohesion, which is based on structural content and lexical

cohesion, which is based on lexical content and background knowledge.

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 Lexical cohesion is non-grammatical in nature due to which it is different

from other cohesive devices. Lexical cohesion hints towards the cohesive effect

received through the choice of specific vocabulary.

Classification of Cohesion by Halliday and Hassan (1976)

According to Halliday, Hasan (1976) Lexical Cohesion is a linguistic

device which helps to create unity of text and discourse.

Halliday and Hassan (1976) have given the following categories for

cohesion:

A. 1. Referencing

Reference is the term used as a referential item to something or someone

within the framework of the discourse (Cook, 1989: 16; Millward,

2003).Basically there are three types of referenceshomophoric referencing means

information sharing through cultural context,exophoricreferencing means

information sharing from on the spot situational context, and endophoric

referencing means when information can be retrieved from within the text. The

cohesion theory focuses upon the endophoric referencing is of three types:

anaphoric,cataphoric, and exophoric.

Example: Arthur’s very proud of his Chihuahuas. I don’t like them

2. Subtitution and Ellipsis

Substitution and ellipsis creates a semantic link at the lexico grammatical

level.Substitution is the use of a word or phrase that substitutes another in the

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same grammatical slot for material elsewhere in the text (Johnstone, 2002:

102).If something is substituted from the text, it is expected that it should

serve the function the text as the presupposed item. Basicallythere are three

purposes of substitution and ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal. In nominal

substitution, themain words “one and ones” are used as alternative of nouns.

In verbal substitution, the most frequently used substitute is the verb “do”. In

clausal substitution, the whole clause is substituted by the presupposed

anaphoric reference.

Example: - Tell a story,

- I don’t know one

- How did you enjoy the paintings?

- A lot (of the paintings) were very good but not all (the pantings)

3. Conjunction

Conjunction is the element showing how sentences are related in meaning

to other sentences (Johnstone, 2002: 102). Halliday and Hasan designate that

“conjunctive relations are not tied to any particular sequence in the

expression”. Conjunctive elements are non-cohesive strategies in

themselveswhich presuppose the sentence of other components in the

discourse. Halliday and Hassan (1976)discriminate five types of conjunctive

cohesive devices: additive, temporal, adversative, causaland continuotion.

Example: You and me

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Lexical cohesion includes:

B. 1. Repetition; Is the reoccurrence of words in the text.

Example: Sun - Sun

2. a.) Synonym;

Is a relation between lexical elements whose sense is the same or nearly

the same.

Example: Life - Existence

b.) Antonym; relates two items with opposite senses.

Example: Black - White

c.) Hyponym; is lexical cohesive relations between an item and a more

general item.

Example: Sun - Star

3. Collocation;

Is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just

sound right to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other

hand, other combination may be unnatural and just sound wrong.

Types of collocation there are several different types of collocation made

from combinations of verb, noun, adjective etc. Some of the most common

types are :

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 a.) Adverb + adjective

b.) Adjective + noun

c.) Noun + noun

d.) Noun + verb

e.) Verb + noun

f.) Verb + expression with preposition

g.) Verb + adverb

2.6. Review of Previous Research

This is library research or qualitative research. The writer concerns with

the lexical relations in "An Analysis Of Lexical Relations Of Reading Text In

Pathway To English" in English textbook published by Erlangga, through library

analysis. There are some researches which are relevant to the topic supporting the

idea analysis.

Windy Aginta (2009)English Department Faculty of Letters USU“AN

ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL RELATIONS AND MEANING PROPERTIES IN

ARTICLES IN THE JAKARTA POST DAILY NEWSPAPER”She found that,

there are 18 lexical relations in Jakarta Post Daily. 8 Antonyms (44,4%), 8

Synonyms (44,4%), 2 Hyponyms (11,1%), 0 Homonyms (0%), 0 Meronyms

(0%),

Sutadi (2013)English Department Faculty of Adab and Cultural Sciences

State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga“AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL

RELATIONS IN ABDULLAH YUSUF ALI’S TRANSLATION OF SURAH

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YA-SIN OF THE HOLY QUR’AN”. He found that , there are 543 cases of lexical

relations. Those consist of 217 cases of Antonym (39,90%), 212 cases of

Synonym (39,00%), 86 cases of Homonym (15,80%), 10 cases of member

collection (1,82%), 9 cases of Meronym (1,65%), 9 cases of Polysemy (1,65%), 1

case of Portion Mass (0,18%), and 0 case of Hyponym (0%).

Nurlaila Ridwan (2015)English Letters Department Faculty of Adab and

Humanities State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah”AN ANALYSIS TO

DICTION AND LEXICAL RELATION TOWARD EDITORIAL IN JAKARTA

GLOBE. She found that, the result of the study shows some kinds of lexical

relations and diction that used in the editorials. The lexical relations that found

were synonym, antonyms, hyponyms, meronyms, and retronyms.

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