IT Chapter 14th Communication Technology Fahim Siddiq +923336581412

Network: A set of computers and devices connected together so they can

communicate and share resources.
Network Architecture: The design of a network.
Standalone Computer: A single computer is known as a stand-alone computer.

Advantages of a network Disadvantages of a network

Users can share their data with other Setting up a larger network can be
users on the network. expensive, especially if the network
requires cabling, several servers,
switches and wireless access points.
Users can access their data from Networks can have security risks. An
different computers on the network. unauthorized user gains access to a
networked file server.
File servers can be used to store data Viruses could easily spread from one
at a central location. This makes it networked computer to another, if a
easier to keep the data secure and to network is not sufficiently protected.
create a back-up copy.
Application servers can be used to A whole network could fail if one
store software in a central location. element (server) of the network fails.
Communications can be sent from one A high amount of network traffic may
computer to another such as IM. cause a network to run slowly and
cause frustrating delays.
Printer can be shared with all the
computers of a network.

Components in a Network
SWITCH
A switch connects devices in any wired Ethernet network. A switch will have several
ports into which network cables are plugged. Each network cable will connect to
another device (e.g., printer, computer, another switch). A switch examines each
data packet that it receives and sends the data packet to the desired port (after
seeing the MAC Address) where it will be transferred to the next device.
HUB
A hub is like a switch, but it does not examine each data packet that is received.
Instead, it simply transmits each data packet to all connected ports. A hub can also
be classed as a multi-port repeater.

Wireless Access Point

A wireless access point connects Wi-Fi (wireless) enabled devices to a network. It
uses radio waves. A wireless access point (WAP) is usually connected to a
router/switch by a cable.

Network Interface Card:

NIC is an electronic circuit board that is inserted into a device’s motherboard. More
modern devices can have the NIC already built into the motherboard, which
removes the need to have a separate component. When a manufacturer provides
a device with a network interface card, it also provides the card with a media access
control (MAC) address. This address is unique to the NIC and is made up of the
manufacturer’s ID and the serial number. The MAC address is used to uniquely
identify the device when it is connected to a network. A cable, called an ethernet
cable, is connected into a port on the NIC. The cable can then simply be connected
to another computer, or to another network component, such as a router or a
switch. This is the basis of creating a simple network of computers. If a WNIC is
used, rather than a wired NIC, there is no requirement for an ethernet cable, as the
devices can be connected using the wireless capabilities of the cards.

Repeaters
As signals sent by devices travel around a network, they can be prone to
deterioration. This can often occur because of interference that can occur in the
transmission media (the cables that are used to transmit data around a network).
To try and retain the original quality of the signal as it travels around a network, a
component called a repeater can be used. A repeater can be used at various points
in a network to boost the signal as it passes through the repeater. A repeater can
be used to boost a wired signal, or a wireless signal, and they are capable of
retransmitting both analogue and digital signals.

Bridges
Some organizations may have a site for their business that has several different
buildings. This may mean that they have a LAN network that is split up and
segregated between the different buildings. This can result in the parts of the LAN
being too far apart to operate effectively, the signal can deteriorate too much,
travelling from one device to another. The parts of the LANs can be connected more
effectively using a network component called a bridge. A bridge also uses MAC
addresses to forward data to the correct destination, like a switch. It works slightly
differently to a switch in one way though. It examines the data packets it receives,
checking them against the MAC address source table.

Gateway
A gateway connects two networks of a different type. It is typically used as a router
to connect a LAN to a WAN. When data leaves one network to move onto another
network, it must passthrough the gateway.

Routers
One of the primary roles of a router is to assign each device that is connected to it
with an IP address. This is an address that is unique to the device and can be used
to identify its location in the network. A router is used to connect LANs and to
connect LANs to WANs. A router acts in a similar way to a switch, but with two main
differences. The first is that a switch will only forward on data packets to their
destination within a single network. However, a router is used to forward data
packets outside the current LAN to other networks. The second is that a switch
examines data packets and looks for the MAC address to establish the packet’s
destination, but a router looks for the IP address of the destination device and
uses this to send it there. Routers use routing tables to do this, which allow them
to establish the most efficient route the data packet should take to reach its
destination.
Wired Media

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (wires) are
twisted together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference
from external sources or other twisted pairs.

Coaxial cable has mainly been replaced for use in long-distance telephone cabling
but is still used extensively by cable television companies and is often used in
metropolitan area networks.

Fiber optics is a technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit
data. A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is
capable of transmitting messages modulated onto light waves.
Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:
1. Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means
that they can carry more data.
2. Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference.
3. Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
4. Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather
than analogically.

The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In
addition, they are more fragile than wire and are difficult to splice.
Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology for local-area networks. In addition,
telephone companies are steadily replacing traditional telephone lines with fiber
optic cables. In the future, almost all communications will employ fiber optics.

Wireless Media

Radio waves are an electromagnetic radiation with differing wavelengths. Radio

waves are used for many processes. For example, they are used to broadcast TV, in
communication between satellites and it enables computers to share information
without wires. However, since they do not have a high frequency, they cannot
transmit as much data.

Microwave radio also carries computer network signals, generally as part of

long-distance telephone systems. Microwave transmission refers to the technology
of transmitting information using electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are
measured in centimeters. Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point
communications. The attenuation of microwave is less than twisted pair or coaxial
cable. A disadvantage is that microwaves cannot pass around hills or mountains as
lower frequency radio waves can. It is also affected by anything blocking the line of
sight, such as rainfall.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi uses radio signals and is the most used wireless communication method. Each
device that wants to make a wireless connection will broadcast a radio signal. A
router or a WAP will receive these wireless signals and process them. The router
or WAP will also broadcast radio signals that will be received and processed by each
device when it is receiving data that has been transmitted. Wi-Fi currently transmits
data at frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. These frequencies are much higher than
those used by mobile networks. These are considered high frequencies, which are
required to send larger amounts of data.

Advantages Disadvantages
Several wireless capable devices can The speed at which data can be
connect to a single router or WAP. transferred decreases as more devices
connect to a wireless network.
The high level of frequency used means Less secure than a wired connection.
that large amounts of data can be
transmitted at a time.
More recent Wi-Fi standards are Radio signals can be subject to
backward compatible with previous interference.
ones.
Has quite a large range of
approximately 100 m.
It doesn’t require a line of sight, so it
can work through obstacles.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth also uses radio signals to create a wireless connection between two
devices. It uses the radio frequency 2.45 Ghz. To establish a connection, devices
need to be within 10 m of each other and there is currently a limit of eight devices
that can be connected at any given time using Bluetooth. To create a connection,
the Bluetooth transmitter is turned on in a device. This device will then begin to
transmit the radio signals. Any device that has a matching profile, within range, will
pick up the radio signals and will then identify with the sender as a possible device
to connect to. The required device for connection can then be chosen. The devices
will then be paired together. This can sometimes require entering a pin code for
added security.
Advantages Disadvantages
It requires a low level of power Has a limit of 10 m for a connection.
consumption.
It doesn’t require a line of sight, so it A limit of eight devices can be
can work through obstacles. connected at a time.
Can be made more secure by requiring Has a lower level of bandwidth
a pin code for connection. available than Wi-Fi.
There will be less interference as other
wireless connections transmit on
different frequencies.

Infrared

Infrared connections use infrared radiation as their method of connection. Two

different types of infrared connection can be made. These are line-of-sight mode
and scatter mode. In line-of-sight mode, there must be a direct line of sight
between the sending device and the receiving device. This means that there can be
no obstacles in the way. In scatter mode, a device broadcasts infrared into a certain
area and any device may receive it directly or through reflection of an obstacle.

As a result, there are two main protocols that are designed to improve the level of
security of a wireless network. These are wired equivalent privacy (WEP) and
wi-fi protected access (WPA):

This protocol is designed to provide a wireless network with a compatible

WEP level of security to a wired LAN. It does this by encrypting data
transmissions sent using a wireless connection.
This is a standard required of devices equipped with a wireless internet
WPA connection. It is designed to provide a more sophisticated encryption
method than WEP.
 Advantages Disadvantages
It is the most secure form of Cannot be transmitted through
connection. obstacles.
Low cost to manufacture and purchase. If it uses line-of-sight mode, there must
be a direct line of sight between the
two devices.
It requires a low level of power It can only be used to
consumption. connect two devices.
It doesn’t get any interference from It has a short range with a limit of
radio frequencies. approximately 1 m.
May be subject to interference from
bright sources.

Local area network (LAN): A network that covers a small geographical area.
LANs are usually found in homes, schools, universities, and small businesses.
Advantages:
a- Ease of communication between different users.
b- Sharing of files, data and other resources.
c- Network administrator can monitor the traffic of the network.

Disadvantages:
a- Easier to spread virus.
b- Printer queues developing.
c- Slow access to external network.
d- If main server breaks down, the whole network will no longer function.
Wide area network (WAN): A network that covers a large geographical area. A
WAN is a network that covers a larger geographical area. A WAN may be contained
within a country or can spread across several countries. Organizations such as
banks, police forces and hospitals use WANs to share data. The internet is a global
WAN. Several LANs can be connected to get her to form a WAN.
Advantages:
a- All computers can access the same services and resources.
b- It increases the flexibility to use the network as user does not have to remain
at their desk.
c- Adding new computers and devices is very easy.
Disadvantages:
a- Security can be an issue as anyone can access the WAP.
b- Problems of interference can happen.
c- Data transfer rate is slower than a wired LAN.
Comparison of LAN & WAN
LAN WAN
Data transfer rates Up to 1 Giga Byte Up to 200 Mbps
Few errors as data is More errors as data is
Data transmission errors transferred over shorter transferred over longer
distance. distances.
Restricted to small Expanded to wider
location few networking location. Expensive and
Connection method devices and cables are large number of
used. (Hubs, switches, networking devices are
copper cable, radio used. (PSTN,
waves) microwaves, satellites)
Easier to implement Comparatively low as
security protocols. security is difficult to
Security implement across a
higher number of devices
and
connections.
 Mostly owned by individuals Elements of the network
or individual organizations. often use communication
infrastructures owned by
Ownership
others.

Client-Server Network
Server: A computer on a network which provides resources that can be used by
client devices.
Client: A computer that is connected to a server.

A client-server network is one that contains two types of computers, a client and a
server. The server or servers in a client-server network are a central point of control
and provide a dedicated function for the network. All other computers in the
network are called clients. The client computers in the network are all connected
to the server to allow it to perform its dedicated function.
There are several types of servers that could be included in a client-server network
that perform a dedicated function. These include:

Stores and manages data files. This saves the need for extensive
storage space on client computers. They allow a user to use any
File server client computer in the network and still be able to access their
files and also any publicly shared files available. They also allow a
central backup of all data to be made.
Web server Stores, processes and transmits web pages.
Sends and receives emails. It stores incoming emails for the user
that can be downloaded when requested. It forwards outgoing
messages to the correct destination. Most mail servers have
Mail server
security checking software that will scan emails for issues such as
known viruses and malware. They can also be set to check for
inappropriate content and spam.
Application Installs and runs software applications. They provide a platform to
server run both desktop and web applications.
Receives print jobs from client computers and sends them to the
correct printer. This allows many client computers in a network to
use the range of printers available. They can be set to print to a
Print server specific printer. They can also be set to find the next available
printer, or the closest printer to the client. If many jobs are sent
to the print server at a time, it will queue the jobs until it can
deliver them to a printer.
 Manages the transfer of data that uses the file transfer protocol
FTP server (FTP). It keeps a log of all activity involving FTP. Uses a lot in the
transfer of files over the internet.
Acts as an intermediary between clients and other servers by
receiving client requests and forwarding them on to the relevant
Proxy server server. It provides an added level of security in a network,
protecting clients directly accessing resources on another server.
For this reason, it can also be set to act as a firewall.
Shares the hardware of another server. Created using
virtualization software on another server. Multiple virtual servers
could be created on one physical server. A virtual server can be
Virtual given the capabilities of any of the above physical servers.
server Businesses sometimes use third party virtual servers that will act
as a web server, for the business to host its website. This allows
the hosting company the ability to host several businesses
websites on the hardware of a single physical server.

Advantages of a Client-Server Disadvantages of a Client-Server

Network Network
Centralized database of users can be Expensive to set up and maintain.
maintained for login and security.
User data is kept private. Failure of a central server may make
the whole network fail.
Levels of access can be applied to Requires specialist technical staff to
resources. maintain.
Users do not have to worry about
security as a network manager
maintains the network.
Users do not have to make backups as
back-ups are centralized and handled
by the network manager.
On larger networks several servers can
be used for different functions to
maintain
network efficiency.
Peer-to-Peer Networks:
Peer: A computer in a network that is not connected to a server and does not
control another computer.

A peer-to-peer network has no central server to manage the network. Each

computer on the network shares its data and resources with all the others. No
computer has control over another. Each computer is known as a peer. On a peer-
to-peer network, users store data on their own computer, but may allow another
user’s access to it. Alternatively, they may choose to keep their data private.
BitTorrent is an example of peer-to-peer network.

Advantages of a Peer-to-Peer Disadvantages of a Peer-to-Peer

Network Network
Cheap to set up and maintain. Does As there is no central server it is
not require expensive servers. harder to maintain security.
Failure of an individual peer only Users have to worry about making
removes access to the resources and backups
data which that peer handles. The rest as no centralized backup service exists.
of the network remains unaffected.
Does not require specialist The more computers there are on a
technical staff to maintain. peer-to peer network, the slower it
will run.

Virtual Private Networks (VPN): It is used by organizations to provide LAN

access to travelling employees, employees who telework and users that want to
access LAN resources at home.

Issues of accessing LAN remotely: Companies or organizations may want to

allow users to access a network, often a LAN, from a remote location. They will
need to use external resources to create this connection. The external resources
will not be owned or maintained by the owner of the LAN, which can make access
to the LAN network much less secure. This can be of great concern to the owner of
the LAN and the users who want to remotely access it.

To us a VPN, a user needs to open their VPN client. This is the software that they
have used to create the VPN. The VPN software will encrypt any data that the user
wants to transmit before it gets sent across the internet. The data will first be sent
to the VPN server. From here, it will be sent to its required destination. The data
sent is encrypted and the when the data arrives at the destination, it only shows
that it was sent from the VPN server, and not the details of the original sender.

Advantages of a VPN Disadvantages of a VPN

VPNs maintain a high level of security Performance of the VPN may be
for data transmission over the dependent on the external resources
internet. that are used.
Companies do not need to purchase or A certain amount of technical
implement secure, dedicated expertise is
connections, called leased lines, for required to setup and maintain VPNs.
users who want to
access the network.
The cost of maintaining the external
resources is covered by someone else.
Adding extra clients’ costs very little as
the network is virtual.

Mobile Networks
A mobile network is a wireless WAN that uses radio to transmit and receive
communications from portable devices, such as smartphones. Mobile networks
now cover a considerable amount of the inhabited areas of world.

Cell: The geographical area covered by a radio transmitter.

Mobile networks are broken down into small areas called cells. At the heart of each
cell is a radio base station that transmits and receives messages. The base stations
connect to public telecommunications services allowing access to the internet.

There have been several generations of mobile networks, each providing faster
access speeds and greater reliability:
1. 1G Networks. These were the first-generation mobile networks that used
analogue signals. These networks were largely limited to voice and text
message communications.
2. 2G Networks. The second-generation mobile networks switched from
analogue to digital transmission, improving signal quality. 2G networks
were able to connect with each other, allowing a phone to use other
networks.
3. 3G Networks. Third generation networks increased data transmission
speeds up to 2Mbps, allowing internet access, video transmission and
online gaming.
4. 4G Networks. Fourth generation networks are the current, latest
generation of mobile network technology. In theory, they allow data
transmission speeds of up to1Gbps, allowing greater use of video
streaming facilities.

Advantages of Mobile Networks Disadvantages of Mobile Networks

Mobile networks have enabled Quality of reception can vary and can
users to communicate with others be poor towards the edge of a cell,
and access the internet while on leading to interrupted or delayed
the move, often using transmissions.
smartphones.
Breaking the network down into The use of frequency must be
cells allows for lower power radio carefully planned to avoid
transmitters to be used, bringing interference between cells.
energy and cost savings.
By using several, low power
transmitters a wider area can be
covered.
The use of multiple transmitters
means the network is more robust.
Failure Of one base station only
 affects one cell, leaving other areas
of the network unaffected.

Fundamental Network Models

There are two fundamental network models that many networks are built upon.
These are the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) suite and
the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. Both outline rules and standards
about how communications should take place over a network.

The four layers of the TCP/IP protocol are:

 Layer Function
The application layer makes sure that the data is sent in a
format that will be understandable by the recipient. This
Application Layer will mean formatting data to be sent in a standard way
applicable to that application, for example HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, POP3 etc.
It is responsible for maintaining end to- end
communications between devices. There are two main
Transport Layer protocols that are used at this level. The first is the
transmission control protocol (TCP) and the second is the
user datagram protocol (UDP).
It breaks data down into packets and transmits it network
to network. There are two main protocols that are used at
Network Layer
the level. The first is the internet protocol (IP) and the
second is the internet control message protocol (ICMP).
This layer can also be known as the physical layer, and it
condenses the role of the data link layer and physical layer
Link layer
from the OSI model. A protocol used at this level is the
address resolution protocol (ARP).

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

The complexity of networking requires a very large number of protocols. A protocol

suite is a collection of related protocols. TCP/IP is the dominant protocol suite for
Internet usage.

The TCP/IP suite comprises several protocols, including the following:

• Application layer: HTTP, SMTP, DNS, FTP, POP3

• Transport layer: TCP, UDP
• Network layer: IP

Structure of a Data Packet:

The header could include:

1. The IP address of the sender. This is called the source IP address.
 2. The IP address of the receiving device. This is called the destination IP
address.
3. The sequence number of the packet. This is so the receiving device can
reorder the packets to obtain the original data.
4. The MAC address of the sender and the receiver.
5. Any protocols used.

The payload will include:

1. The actual data from the file that is being transmitted.

The trailer could include:

2. A flag that tells a device it has reached the end of the packet.
3. Any error checking methods that are used.

The data sent in the header and trailer are all designed to make sure that payload
data arrives at its intended destination without any errors.

The OSI Model

Layer Function
This is the top layer of the model that directly interacts with data
from the user. Software applications, such as web applications
and email clients, rely on the applications layer to communicate.
However, user applications, such as word processing packages,
Application are not included in this function. The applications layer is
responsible for managing the protocols that allow meaningful
data to be presented to the user. It manages protocols such as
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP).
The primary function of the presentation layer is to prepare data
ready for use in the applications layer. This could involve the
translation, encryption, and compression of data. It makes sure
that the data is translated into a form that will be understood by
Presentation
the receiving device. If the devices are communicating over a
secure connection, the data will be encrypted. It will also decrypt
any data that is received. It will also compress any data that is
required to increase the speed of transmission.
 This layer is responsible for opening and closing communication
links between devices. The time that passes between a
communication link being opened and closed again is called a
Session
session. This layer makes sure that the session is open for long
enough to allow all the data to be transmitted and then closes it
immediately, as soon as transmission is completed.
This layer is responsible for breaking down the data from the
session layer into segments. These segments are then given to the
network layer. It is also responsible for reassembling the segments
Transport at the receiving device. This layer is also responsible for flow
control (the best speed for transmission) and error checking. It
checks that all the data has been received and will request a
retransmission if it is not complete.
The network layer breaks down the segments from the transport
layer into smaller units, known as packets. It is also responsible for
reassembling the packets after transmission. This layer is also
responsible for routing, which is the process of finding the best
Network
path across the network. The network layer performs these tasks
when data is transmitted from network to network. A router is one
of the key network components in this layer. You will learn more
about the role of a router later in the chapter.
This layer performs a very similar role to the network layer, but
rather than transmitting data from network to network, it is
responsible for transmitting data from node to node within a
Data link network. It takes the packets created at the network layer and
converts them into frames. A switch is one of the key components
in this layer. You will learn more about a switch later in the
chapter.
This layer involves the physical equipment that is used to transmit
the data, such as the cables. In this layer, data is broken down into
Physical
bits to be transmitted as binary. This layer is also responsible for
reassembling the bits into frames, after transmission.
Transmission Modes

For communication over an internetwork there are two possible approaches:

circuit switching or packet switching.

Circuit Switching: Circuit switching is the method used in the traditional

telephone system. The concept is illustrated in Figure below, which shows end-
systems connected to local exchanges which have a switching function, and which
are connected via several intermediate nodes with a switching function.

Circuit Switching Steps

1) The sender provides the identity of the intended receive.
2) The system checks whether the receiver is ready to accept data.
3) If the receiver is available, a sequence of links is established across the network.
4) The data is transferred.
5) The links are removed.

Packet Switching: The packet-switching method allows data transmission

without a circuit being established. Data cannot be sent in a continuous stream.
Instead, data is packaged in portions inside packets. A packet consists of a header
which contains instructions for delivery plus the data body. Furthermore, the nodes
will have an extended functionality compared to that required in a circuit-switched
transmission. How a router acts as a node and supports packet switching.

Packet Switching Steps

1. Data split into chunks (packets).

2. Each packet has a from address, to address and payload (data chunk).
3. If data requires multiple chunks, then the order of each packet is noted.
 4. Packets sent onto the network, moving from router to router taking different
paths (set by the router). Each packet's journey time can therefore differ.
5. Once packets arrive, they are re-ordered.
6. Message sent from recipient to sender indicating that the message has been
received.
7. If no confirmation message, sender transmits data again.

When packet switching is used, there are two ways that the network can provide a
service: connectionless service or connection-oriented service. If a connectionless
service is provided, a packet is dispatched with no knowledge of whether or not
the receiver is ready to accept the packet and has no way of finding out if the
transmission has succeeded. In a connection-oriented service the first packet sent
includes a request for an acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is received,
the sender transmits further packets. If no acknowledgement is received, the
sender tries again with the first packet.

Message Switching:

Message switching is a little like an intermediate method between circuit switching

and packet switching. It is like circuit switching in that all the data packets are sent
along the same path, and it is like packet switching in that any path from Computer
A to Computer B can be taken. The data packets are sent from Computer A to the
first switch device. The device holds the data packets until all of them have arrived.
This switch then sends the data packets onto the next switch, which holds onto the
data packets until all of them have arrived. The data packets are sent from switch
to switch in this way, until they reach Computer B. This is known as the store and
forward method.

Network Protocols

Protocol Description
Tunnelling This is a communications protocol that allows for the
secure transmission of data from one network to
another. It allows private data packets to be sent
across a public network through a method called
encapsulation. This is when private data packets are
made
 to look like public data packets, so that they can be
sent across a public network. Tunnelling is an
important protocol used in VPNs.
Secure sockets layer This is a network protocol that is designed to ensure
(SSL) connections made between web clients, such as user
devices, and web/mail servers are secure. It uses both
public and private keys to encrypt data that is
transmitted over the secure connection. It is still used
in some applications, but it has now mostly been
replaced by the use of TLS.
Transport layer security This is a network protocol that is the updated version
(TLS) of SSL. It uses updated and more secure encryption
algorithms.
Internet protocol This is a network protocol that is designed to encrypt
security (IPsec) and authenticate data packets that are sent across
the internet. IPSec is also part of the tunnelling process
for a VPN.
BitTorrent This is a communications protocol that is often used in
peer-to-peer file sharing. It allows the transfer of large
files such as videos. It does this through distributing
the load of downloading the file across several sources
on the network. Several sources (known as hosts) are
collated to create a swarm. Each host will be given
pieces of the file. The BitTorrent protocol allows the
user to join the swarm and download the file from the
available hosts. The protocol will download the file in
pieces, simultaneously, from various hosts in the
swarm.
Internet control This is an error reporting protocol that is used to
Message protocol generate error messages, to transmit to the sender,
(ICMP) when network problems cause delivery problems with
data packets.
Address resolution This protocol is responsible for translation of an IP
protocol (ARP) address into a MAC address for a device. It is necessary
for use between the network layer and the data link
layer of the OSI model.
Inverse This protocol performs the opposite role to the ARP. It
 Address resolution translates a MAC address into an IP address.
Protocol (InARP)
Dynamic host This is a network management protocol that is used to
Configuration protocol assign IP addresses to devices on a network. It
(DHCP) manages the assignment of the addresses so that a
network administrator does not need to manually
carry out this task.
Hypertext transfer HTTP is the protocol that is used for transferring the
Protocols (HTTP and content of web pages across the internet, from a web
HTTPS) server to a browser. HTTPS is the secure version of this
that incorporates the use of the SSL protocol.
File transfer This protocol is responsible for the transfer of files
protocol (FTP) between a client and a server in a network.
Simple mail transfer This protocol is used to send email from a computer to
Protocol (SMTP) a mail server, and between different mail servers.
Post office This protocol is used to retrieve emails from a mail
protocol (POP) server. When the user checks their mailbox, the email
is sent from the server to their device. The protocol
then deletes the email from the server.
Internet message access This protocol is also used to retrieve email from a mail
Protocol (IMAP) server. It has one main difference from POP and that is
that the email is not deleted from the server by the
protocol. The only time it is deleted is when the user
chooses to delete it.
Telnet This protocol allows a user to connect remotely to
another computer, using the internet.
Secure shell This protocol provides a secure way to access a
(SSH) computer over an unsecure network. It does this using
strong authentication and encryption methods for
communication.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a term that is used to refer to services that are hosted using the
internet. These services could include the storage of data and software, and access
to resources such as servers. Cloud computing can be divided into.
IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
In this model of cloud computing the host provider hosts some of the network
resources that are used by businesses, such as servers. Businesses can gain access
to these resources using the internet.

PaaS (Platform as a service)

In this model of cloud computing the host provider hosts platform resources that
can be used to build software applications. Users can gain access to these resources
using the internet.

SaaS (Software as a service)

In this model of cloud computing the host provider hosts software applications and
makes them available to users using the internet.

One of the most common uses of cloud computing by the individual is to store data.
Many applications now offer the service of storing data linked to the application,
and other personal data, on cloud resources. These are normally a collection of
servers in a remote location.

Advantages Disadvantages
Individuals and organizations do not Individuals and organizations are
need to purchase additional hardware reliant on a third party to keep their
to store data and software. data secure, and they have little control
over it.
Individuals and organizations do not If the resources provided by the cloud
need to host their own development provider fail, for example, a server fails,
platforms to develop applications then the data or software stored on
software. that server will become unavailable.
Organizations do not need to employ Cloud computing resources can only be
technical staff to maintain the accessed using an internet connection,
hardware used to store data and so if an internet connection cannot be
software that is provided by the cloud found, the resources cannot be
provider. accessed.
Individuals and organizations do not
need to worry about creating a backup
of their data, because this is
automatically carried out by the cloud
provider.
Individuals and organizations can
access their data and software
applications from anywhere in the
world, if they have an internet
connection.
Individuals and organizations do not
need to worry about updating software
applications that are accessed using the
cloud, because this will be carried out
by the cloud provider.
Organizations can quickly boost the
performance of their network by
employing more resources from the
cloud.

Satellite Communication Systems

A communications satellite is a machine that has been transported into space and
set to orbit the earth. These satellites are used to transmit radio waves from one
place on earth to another. The radio waves that are transmitted can carry
telephone calls, internet data and television broadcasts.

Their main components are a solar powered battery, a transponder, and various
antennas.

1. The data is transmitted in the form of radio waves from a ground station on
earth towards the satellite. This process is called the uplink.
2. The radio waves travel through the layers of the atmosphere up to the
intended satellite. This may be a chosen satellite, or the nearest in orbit to
pick up the radio waves.
3. The antennas on the satellite are the component that initially receive the
radio waves.
4. The transponder processes the data, which can often involve boosting the
signal.
 5. The antenna then transmits the radio waves back to the destination ground
station on earth. This process is called the downlink.

GPS

A GPS uses satellites to work out a user’s current location. One of the most well-
known satellite navigation systems is the Navstar GPS.

A process called triangulation is used to find the location of a user. The user will be
in possession of a device, such as a mobile telephone, that receives radio signals.
Each navigation satellite constantly beams radio waves that are sent toward earth.

A user’s device will receive these radio waves. A device must pick up radio waves
from at least three satellites and the GPS will then be able to pinpoint their
location.
If the user’s device receives a signal from satellite A, this means they must be
somewhere in the area currently covered by satellite A. If it also receives a signal
from satellite B and satellite C, the user must be at the point where the area
covered by all three of the satellites meets.

This technology can also be used by others for surveillance purposes. It is possible
to use a GPS to find out where another person is by tracking their device. These
devices often keep a log of all GPS activity, so it is possible for a person to gain
access to that log and see exactly where the device (and therefore possibly the
user) has been.

Network Security

The use of networks, unfortunately, has made accessing data through malicious
means a greater risk. Unfortunately, for this reason, there are people that will
create malicious systems that are designed to either steal data, so that it can be
used for criminal activity, such as identity theft, or to damage data, and therefore
cause damage to a company, often to their reputation.

There are various risks that users should be aware of when using a network. Each
of these risks is designed to damage or steal data.

Malware: A user will normally unknowingly download the malware onto their
computer. The malware is often disguised in a file download or a link that the user
is enticed into clicking. There are several types of malwares, these include viruses,
worms, spyware, and ransomware.

Botnet: An attack may come from a single third party and computer, or it could
be distributed across many computers. Malware is downloaded onto the computer
and will often stay dormant until the third party wants to use the computer in an
attack. Each computer that is infected with this type of malware is called a bot. A
botnet can be used to carry out attacks such as a distributed denial of service
(DDoS) attack. This is when the bots are used to send a huge number of requests
to a web server all at once, causing the web server to struggle to deal with all the
requests and eventually crash.

Third Party Attach: Third parties may also want to hack computers to damage
or steal data. Hackers will try to gain access to a system, normally by installing what
is often known as a backdoor, in software. Third parties may also want to crack into
computers to damage or steal data. Crackers will try a brute force approach to get
into a computer by trying many different combinations of a password. They can
also build software that will carry out this function for them. This allows them to
gain unauthorized access to a computer system by using the user’s log-in details.
Individuals and organizations can put a range of preventative methods in place to
help protect their data.

1. The simplest form of protecting data is the use of physical methods.

Organizations can put a barrier to entry at the opening of their office or
building.
2. Other physical methods that could be used are CCTV, security guard and
alarm systems. CCTV will allow an organization to see who is trying to gain
unauthorized access.
3. Places of this nature could also be secured using an alarm system, this will
alert the organization if unauthorized access is attempted.

Data can also be protected using software-based methods.

1. An employee may be required to provide biometric data, such as their

fingerprint, iris, or facial features, to access data. Biometric devices are
useful because biological data is unique to the user and very difficult to fake.
2. The effects of malware can be prevented by using software, such as anti-
malware, anti-virus, and anti-spyware software.
3. This type of software is designed to scan a computer system for malware. If
it finds any, it quarantines the malware (put it in a designated safe area) and
allows the user to delete it.
4. A firewall is another method that can be used to prevent unauthorized
access or damage to data. A firewall can be hardware based or software
based. A firewall examines incoming and outgoing traffic to a computer or
a network. The firewall can be set to recognize malicious traffic by providing
it with rules and criteria to check the traffic.

One way that an organization can protect data is to only allow access to those that
directly need that data. This is called access rights. The username that an employee
is given in an organization is often what indicates their access rights.

One final method that an organization and an individual can use to protect their
data is encryption. Encryption will not stop the data from being stolen, but it will
mean that if the data is stolen, it will be meaningless to the third party, unless they
are able to get the key to decrypt it.
The Impact of Security threats on individuals and organizations
Individuals and organizations need to carefully consider the impact of security
threats. There are two main common reasons why perpetrators carry out security
attacks – either to obtain personal data or as an act of sabotage or revenge.

Individuals need to be very cautious of any of their personal data being accessed
and stolen. This could lead to criminal acts such as fraud and theft of their identity.
Organizations need to be very cautious of any of their stored data being accessed
and stolen. They also need to be very cautious of their data being manipulated or
destroyed. Data is a very precious asset to organizations, as it is used in the day-to-
day functioning of the organization. Without it, they are unlikely to be able to
function at all. This could lead to a loss of profits, or if the data is stolen because
the organization’s security is breached, this could lead to a negative reputation for
the organization, which may also lead to a loss of profits.

Disaster Recovery Management

A disaster is anything that may put the operations of the organization at risk. This
could be anything from a cyber-attack, power failure or a natural disaster.

Disaster recovery is a planning mechanism that allows an organisation to plan for

disaster and put in place measures that will minimize the risks.

There are several stages that can be used to identify a risk that could cause a
disaster, these include:

Risk Analysis: This is also known as a risk assessment. The organization will first
identify what they think could be a potential disaster. They will then consider what
or who could be harmed as a result. All parts of a company will be assessed,
including its infrastructure, networks, hardware, software, and people. The type
of things that could cause disaster in an organization may be a power cut, cyber-
attack, fire, flood, denial of access to data, theft of data, corruption of data and
hardware failure.
Perpetrator Analysis: This process is often carried out as part of the risk analysis.
The organization will identify who they think could be a perpetrator that could
cause a disaster to occur. A perpetrator is someone who carries out malicious or
illegal acts.

Risk Testing: In this stage of the process an organization will rehearse the plans
and strategies that have been developed during the risk analysis. This will allow
employees in the organization to understand exactly what they should do in the
event of a disaster. An organization can monitor what happens during the testing
stage and can amend plans to take improved actions, or to correct the behavior of
employees, if they are not acting correctly. The type of plans and strategies that
could be tested are:
• restoration of data
• replacement of hardware
• reinstallation of software
• emergency evacuation of offices
• emergency protection methods for data.

Quantifying The Risk: The process of quantifying a risk involves evaluating the
risk and prevention methods for the risk in terms of cost and time.

• MTD (Maximum Tolerable Downtime) is the maximum time that each part of the
organization could tolerate not having access to the essential parts of a network
that they require.
• RTO (Recover Time Objective) is the estimated maximum amount of time in which
an organization has in which to recover its network and resume operations.

An organization will also need methods in place to prevent against other disasters
that could occur:

• Power surge protection devices could be used to stop a surge in power damaging
hardware.
• A back-up generator could be ready for use if an organization suffers power
failure.
• Back-ups of data could be stored in fire and flood proof cases so that data is not
lost in a fire or flood. Back-ups could also be stored off site.
• Policies and procedures should be developed for staff to follow to prevent
disaster such as fire and damage to equipment.
• Cloud computing could be used as a back-up for data and possible hardware
resources.

In the event of a disaster occurring, data and resources will need to be restored.
This can often mean the:
• The restoration of data from back-ups
• The re-installation of software
• Replacement or repair of hardware.