Reviews: Urogenital Tuberculosis - Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

REVIEWs
Urogenital tuberculosis — epidemiology,

pathogenesis and clinical features
Asif Muneer1, Bruce Macrae2, Sriram Krishnamoorthy3 and Alimuddin Zumla2,4,5*
Abstract | Tuberculosis (TB) is the most common cause of death from infectious disease
worldwide. A substantial proportion of patients presenting with extrapulmonary TB have
urogenital TB (UG-TB), which can easily be overlooked owing to non-specific symptoms,
chronic and cryptic protean clinical manifestations, and lack of clinician awareness of the
possibility of TB. Delay in diagnosis results in disease progression, irreversible tissue and organ
damage and chronic renal failure. UG-TB can manifest with acute or chronic inflammation of
the urinary or genital tract, abdominal pain, abdominal mass, obstructive uropathy, infertility,
menstrual irregularities and abnormal renal function tests. Advanced UG-TB can cause renal
scarring, distortion of renal calyces and pelvic, ureteric strictures, stenosis, urinary outflow
tract obstruction, hydroureter, hydronephrosis, renal failure and reduced bladder capacity.
The specific diagnosis of UG-TB is achieved by culturing Mycobacterium tuberculosis from an
appropriate clinical sample or by DNA identification. Imaging can aid in localizing site, extent
and effect of the disease, obtaining tissue samples for diagnosis, planning medical or surgical
management, and monitoring response to treatment. Drug-sensitive TB requires 6–9 months of
WHO-recommended standard treatment regimens. Drug-resistant TB requires 12–24 months
of therapy with toxic drugs with close monitoring. Surgical intervention as an adjunct to medical
drug treatment is required in certain circumstances. Current challenges in UG-TB management
include making an early diagnosis, raising clinical awareness, developing rapid and sensitive TB
diagnostics tests, and improving treatment outcomes.
Tuberculosis (TB) is among the most common causes annual incidences of TB, between 5% and 45% have
of death from infectious disease worldwide1. The WHO features of extrapulmonary TB (EPTB)5–7 affecting all
Global Tuberculosis Report 2018 (ref.2) states that in organs of the body. Common sites of EPTB are lymph
2017 an estimated 10 million people (5.8 million men, nodes, pleura, bones, meninges and the urogenital tract.
3.2 million women and 1 million children) developed TB affecting the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate,
TB and 4 million people with TB remained undiag- urethra, penis, scrotum, testicles, epididymis, vas def-
nosed and untreated. Of the 10 million people with TB, erens, ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vulva
two-thirds were in eight countries: India (27%), China were initially grouped together as genitourinary TB8–11.
(9%), Indonesia (8%), the Philippines (6%), Pakistan Currently, the term urogenital TB (UG-TB) is thought
(5%), Nigeria (4%), Bangladesh (4%) and South Africa to be more appropriate as urinary tract TB occurs more
(3%). Only 6% of global incidences were in the WHO often than genital TB10.
European Region (3%) and the WHO Region of the UG-TB is a neglected clinical problem and can eas-
Americas (3%). Overall, 464,633 people with HIV also ily be overlooked owing to non-specific symptoms,
had TB, of whom 72% were from Africa. TB occurs in all chronic and cryptic protean clinical manifestations, and
countries and age groups, with 90% of infections being a lack of clinician awareness of the possibility of TB11–26.
reported in adults (aged ≥15 years). About 558,000 peo- A delay in making a diagnosis results in disease progres-
ple developed rifampicin-resistant TB, of whom an esti- sion, ureteral strictures, contracted bladder, obstructive
mated 458,000 had multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) nephropathy, renal parenchymal destruction, irre-
(defined as resistance to two first-line drugs, rifampicin versible organ damage and end-stage renal failure10.
*e-mail: a.zumla@ucl.ac.uk and isoniazid)2. Only 50% of patients with MDR-TB are In this Review, we describe the epidemiology, patho-
https://doi.org/10.1038/ cured after treatment with WHO-approved regimens3,4. genesis, clinical features, diagnosis and management
s41585-019-0228-9 TB can affect any part of the body5,6. Of the 10 million of UG-TB.
NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 573

Reviews
Key points UG-TB can remain subclinical31 and, therefore, current

data are only estimates10,13,23,32. UG-TB can occur con-
• Between 15% and 40% of the 10 million new patients diagnosed with tuberculosis (TB) currently in up to 20% of individuals with pulmonary
annually present with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB), of which a considerable proportion TB (PTB)10,13–25,32,33.
have urogenital TB (UG-TB). Patients who have had a renal transplant, have HIV Autopsy studies34–37 provide insights into the natural
infection, receive immunosuppressive therapies, have diabetes, have COPD and those
history and pathogenesis of UG-TB. UG-TB was found
undergoing dialysis often experience reactivation of latent TB infection.
in 3.1% of 5,424 autopsies studied34. Of these people,
• UG-TB is often missed clinically or is diagnosed late, owing to the lack of awareness
urogenital involvement was bilateral in 98% and 85%
among clinicians, its insidious onset, chronic non-specific symptoms, and cryptic and
protean clinical manifestations, resulting in disease progression.
had concomitant pulmonary lesions. Autopsy records
of 200 children and 92 young adults <25 years of age
• Specific diagnosis of TB is made by identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)
in clinical samples, by microscopy and culture, or by identification of Mtb DNA.
who died of TB showed that 65% of renal TB lesions
Imaging can aid in identifying disease sites and obstructive lesions, guiding biopsies were miliary and 23% were caseous36. An autopsy study
and surgical interventions from India of 35 patients with AIDS identified 17 cases
• Treatment of drug-sensitive TB requires 6–9 months of the WHO-recommended of renal TB37. Another autopsy study of 87 people in
standard treatment regimen, but longer therapy is needed for severe disease or in Mexico City showed that of 36 people with any type of
patients in whom immunosuppression is an underlying risk factor. Multidrug-resistant kidney infection, 19 had Mtb38, indicating that the diag-
TB requires between 12 and 24 months of therapy with toxic drugs and careful nosis of urological TB is often missed antemortem and
monitoring. is only detected at autopsy.
• Surgery is indicated for complications of UG-TB. Nephrectomy is required for severely
damaged kidneys, and reconstruction procedures include pyeloureteral anastomosis, Risk factors
ureterocalyceal anastomosis, caliceal reconstruction, uretero-ureteral anastomosis Risk factors for developing TB include malnutrition,
and ureter substitution by ileum. HIV infection, diabetes, chronic renal and liver disease,
alcohol and substance abuse, smoking, homelessness,
Epidemiology poor housing, pneumoconiosis, genetics, vitamin defi-
TB is caused by bacilli of the Mycobacterium tuber- ciency, immunosuppressive drugs, renal transplantation,
culosis complex (MTBC)5,6,27–29. These bacilli include chronic renal disease, dialysis and end-stage renal fail-
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), Mycobacterium ure5,6. The frequency of UG-TB seen in clinical practice
bovis, Mycobacterium africanum (which causes human varies according to age, gender, geographical region,
TB in West and East Africa), Mycobacterium caprae, HIV prevalence in the community, immunosuppressive
Mycobacterium pinnipedii, Mycobacterium microti and therapy and comorbidities10,13,39–45. UG-TB is reported
bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG), the derivative of to affect twice as many women as men13,32,40, but this
M. bovis used in vaccines. Mtb and M. africanum are the estimate is controversial owing to the lack of controlled
most frequent causes of human TB causing an estimated epidemiological and clinical studies. Increased rates of
98% of infections. M. bovis is the next most common cause TB are seen in patients who have had a kidney trans-
of TB and is responsible for an estimated 1.8% of cases30. plant, patients with end-stage renal disease and those
Accurate epidemiological and clinical data on undergoing peritoneal dialysis46–52.
UG-TB are difficult to obtain owing to challenges in
making an accurate diagnosis, protean and non-specific Mode of transmission
clinical manifestations, a lack of clinical awareness of the Mycobacteria of the MTBC can be transmitted to
possibility of TB, presence of other comorbidities such humans in several ways (Table 1). The most common
as HIV, diabetes and bacterial urinary tract infection routes involve person-to-person transmission through
(UTI)5,6. Thus, the exact prevalence of UG-TB in vari inhalation of Mtb-infected droplet aerosols from the
ous geographical locations and specific patient groups coughs or sneezes of people with active pulmonary TB
is difficult to estimate because a considerable number and ingestion of M. bovis-infected raw unpasteurized
of patients remain asymptomatic and undiagnosed. The dairy products27,30,53.
proportion of UG-TB among all forms of EPTB reported Other rare modes of Mtb infection that have been
in the literature varies according to geographical region, reported include congenital transmission, sexual trans-
from 15–20% in Africa, Asia, eastern Europe and the mission, accidental inoculation, vaccination and thera
Russian Federation to 2–10% in western Europe and peutic instillation54–72. Postulated modes of congenital
the USA. Variation between geographical areas might and neonatal transmission include transplacental trans-
reflect local endemic TB prevalence rates or study bias. mission via blood or lymphatics from a mother with
active TB or aspiration or ingestion of Mtb-infected
Author addresses amniotic fluid during birth54–60.
Sexual transmission of Mtb has been reported in a
1
Department of Urology, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University College study that found the Mtb molecular subtype isolated
London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK. from skin ulcers on the penis of a husband was identical
2
Department of Clinical Microbiology, University College London Hospitals NHS
to the subtype isolated from his wife who had endome-
Foundation Trust, London, UK.
3
Department of Urology & Renal transplantation, Sri Ramachandra Medical College & trial TB61. Mtb has also been isolated from the ejaculate
Research Institute, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. of men with TB of the prostate62–64.
4
Division of Infection and Immunity, Centre for Clinical Microbiology, University College Vaccination with live BCG vaccine of HIV-infected
London, London, UK. and immunosuppressed individuals has resulted in
5
NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK. local and disseminated BCG M. bovis strain TB65,66.
574 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

Reviews
Table 1 | Routes, sources and modes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex transmission

Route of transmission Mode of transmission and source of infection Refs
Common routes
Inhalation (airborne) Inhalation of Mtb-infected droplets from cough of patients with active pulmonary TB 5,6,53
(>95% cases)
Oral (ingestion) Consumption of dairy products infected with Mycobacterium bovis from cattle with 27,28,30
active bovine TB
Uncommon routes
Congenital or neonatal Possible mechanisms: transplacental transmission; via bloodstream or lymphatics 54–59
from mother with active TB disease; directly from placenta with miliary TB; or
aspiration or ingestion of Mtb-infected amniotic fluid during birth
Parenteral (injection) Intravesical instillation of live BCG M. bovis vaccine strain as adjuvant treatment 65,67–72
of carcinoma in situ of the bladder leads to local or invasive disease (bladder,

epididymis, penis, prostate and renal TB have been described); BCG vaccination in
HIV-infected (immunosuppressed) individuals causes disseminated BCG disease
Sexual Direct contact with active genital TB lesions or exudates containing Mtb; sexual 61,62,81,305
transmission of Mtb (Mtb has been isolated from semen of men with TB of the prostate)
BCG, bacillus Calmette–Guérin; Mtb, Mycobacterium tuberculosis; TB, tuberculosis.
Intravesical instillation of BCG as adjuvant treatment lungs or in the gut, the triad of the primary Ghon focus,
for transitional cell carcinoma in situ of the bladder is lymphangitis and lymphadenitis are together known as
widely practised. TB of the bladder, epididymis, prostate the primary Ghon complex (Fig. 2).
and kidney have been reported following intravesical Epidemiological and longitudinal cohort studies
instillation with BCG for bladder cancer67–72. Patients have indicated that in the majority of people (95%) with
receiving this treatment should, therefore, be counselled primary Mtb infection, the mycobacteria are eventually
beforehand regarding this risk. either eliminated or contained as latent TB infection
(LTBI)5,6,79. Progression of the primary disease occurs
Pathogenesis of UG-TB in 5–10% of people, leading to local spread to adjacent
The pathogenesis of Mtb in humans has been extrap- tissues or widespread systemic dissemination of myco-
olated from animal models, as tissue from people with bacteria via the bloodstream and lymphatics (Fig. 2).
untreated TB is lacking and limits our understanding of Seeding of tissues of all organs of the body outside the
UG-TB73,74. The exact sequence of events following pri- lung can occur, known as EPTB. EPTB includes infec-
mary infection (the first infection in a previously unex- tion of all tissues of the urological and reproductive
posed individual) in humans with any mycobacterial tracts. Mycobacteria in these organs can progress to
species of the MTBC remains unknown75–78. Some peo- cause disease over time (known as progressive primary
ple are naturally resistant to Mtb infection and are able TB) or can be contained as LTBI. A proportion of people
to eradicate the mycobacteria owing to innate immu- with EPTB do not show signs of disease and continue to
nity79. Following primary infection through inhalation have subclinical TB6,31.
or ingestion, the Mtb bacilli (Fig. 1) multiply locally in The slow replication rate of Mtb, its intracellular loca-
tissues and evoke a complex array of immune responses, tion in macrophages and acquired immune responses79
which result in either elimination (eradication) or con- means it takes between 12 months and 2 years follow-
tainment via primary granuloma formation (the primary ing primary infection for symptoms and signs of the
Ghon focus). Primary TB lesions are found in the lungs, disease to manifest27,29. The constant chronic interplay
tonsils or gut, but any organ can harbour the primary between Mtb and the host immune response can lead to
focus. Rare cases of primary genital TB of the cervix, eradication of Mtb, or progression of disease manifest-
vagina or vulva have been reported in women80 whose ing with caseous necrosis, miliary disease, formation of
male partners had active UG-TB or pulmonary TB, abscesses, cysts, ulcers, fistulae, fibrosis or calcification.
transmission being assumed through infected semen81,82 Immunosuppression reduces cell-mediated immune
or sputum used as a sexual lubricant83. TB of the penis in responses and allows proliferation of Mtb bacilli, causing
infants has been reported after ritual circumcision61,84. severe disease that progresses rapidly4.
Histologically, primary granulomas consist of a com- An estimated 1.7 billion people (one-quarter of the
pact focal collection of inflammatory and immune cells world’s population) have LTBI and have no symptoms or
such as neutrophils, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes, signs of disease5,6,86. LTBI is defined by WHO as a state of
epithelioid cells, macrophages, Langhans giant cells, persistent immune response to stimulation by Mtb anti-
and fibroblasts, with central caseous necrosis75,85. If not gens with no evidence of clinically manifest active TB2.
contained at this stage, the mycobacteria spread via As people with LTBI have viable bacilli within their tis-
the lymphatics (causing lymphangitis) and to regional sues, they are at risk of reactivation into active TB disease.
lymph nodes (causing lymphadenitis). Lymph nodes can LTBI will reactivate in 5–15% of people and progress to
undergo caseous necrosis and some nodes might coa- active TB5,6,76–78,87, adding to the pool of infectious peo-
lesce together with time to form a whole mass75. In the ple worldwide. In these individuals, the period between

Reviews
latency following primary infection and reactivation Urogenital spread

at a later stage in life ranges from 1 year to 50 years86,87. After primary Mtb infection at any organ site, direct
UG-TB can present in any age group, but, owing to the haematogenous or lymphatic spread from primary Mtb
long latency period, it commonly affects those aged lesions leads to Mtb seeding into various parts of the
30–50 years and is infrequently reported in children45,88. urogenital tract (Fig. 2). Mtb from the kidney can enter
Sources of infection Primary exposure No infection

Person with pulmonary Inhalation of M. tuberculosis-infected Mycobacteria eliminated
tuberculosis or cows with aerosol or ingestion of M. bovis-infected immediately (innate immunity);
M. bovis infection milk and/or other dairy products IGRA test negative
Local infection cleared

Primary infection Mycobacteria contained or
eliminated (acquired immunity);
IGRA test positive
Primary tuberculosis
Localized in lung, tonsil or
intestine (ileum and/or caecum)
Primary tuberculosis complex

Ghon focus plus lymphangitis
plus regional lymphadenitis
(hilar or mesenteric);
IGRA test positive
1–5% of cases
1–5% of cases 90–95% of cases
Haematogenous and
Local spread to surrounding Containment
lymphatic spread with
tissues and adjacent organs (acquired immunity)
widespread dissemination
Localized progressive
Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis
primary tuberculosis
Tuberculosis of meninges,
Pulmonary tuberculosis:
brain, bones, mucles, liver,
pneumonia, consolidation, small
spleen, adrenals, lymph nodes,
cavities and effusion
urological tract, reproductive
Intestinal tuberculosis: ileal and
tract, skin and other organs
caecal ulcers, granulomatous
(Biopsies, fine needle aspirates,
inflammation
CSF, urine, pleural fluid
(Sputum and tissue biopsies are
are usually GeneXpert and
usually GeneXpert and culture
culture positive for Mtb)
positive for Mtb)
Reactivation Latent TB infection Reactivation

Risk factors such as HIV, Mycobacteria contained Risk factors such as HIV,
immunosuppression, within granulomas immunosuppression,
smoking, malnutrition, (no clinical disease); smoking, malnutrition,
diabetes and stress IGRA test positive diabetes and stress
Secondary tuberculosis
Secondary infection (re-infection)

Inhalation of M. tuberculosis-infected
aerosol or ingestion of M. bovis-infected
milk and/or other dairy products
Fig. 1 | Pathogenesis and natural history of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. The pathogenesis of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (Mtb) in humans has been extrapolated from animal models. The exact sequence of events following primary
infection in humans with any mycobacterial species of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) remains unknown.
Following primary infection through inhalation or ingestion, the Mtb bacilli evoke a complex array of immune responses,
which result in either elimination (eradication) or containment via primary granuloma formation (the primary Ghon focus).
Some people are naturally resistant to Mtb infection and are able to eradicate the mycobacteria owing to innate immunity.
CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; IGRA, interferon-γ release assay; TB, tuberculosis.

Reviews
and lodge in the urothelium, ureter, bladder, urethra, kidney parenchyma; stage 2 (KTB-2; small destructive
seminal vesicles and testes13,34,35. A study of 5,424 autop- form) refers to TB papillitis; stage 3 (KTB-3; destruc
sies performed on men (>16 years) published in 1949 tive form), refers to cavernous kidney TB; and stage 4
found that 153 men had renal TB, of whom 50 had (KTB-4; widespread destructive form) is polycavernous
genital involvement, suggesting spread of Mtb in urine kidney TB100. With bilateral disease, glomerular filtration
from the kidney to the collecting system and into the rate (GFR) and renal function decline progressively, caus-
renal pelvicalyceal system and flowing downstream35. ing end-stage renal failure101–104. Non-functioning kidneys
In this autopsy study, no TB lesions were observed in might eventually require nephrectomy13,14,19,105,106. Renal
the kidneys of 11% of men with genital TB, indicating disease can also extend into the psoas sheath and the peri
that direct local extension from adjacent foci into the renal and pararenal spaces to form cold abscesses, sinus
bloodstream and lymphatics leads to haematogenous tracts and fistulae107–109.
or lymphatic spread and that all mechanisms of spread Renal TB is an underdiagnosed and important clini
might work in tandem. As the disease progresses, con- cal problem. The kidney is usually infected with Mtb
current, sequential or progressive disease in various by haematogenous spread from the lung or gut. The
urogenital sites occurs long before TB is diagnosed clin- symptoms, signs and imaging features are non-specific.
ically13–19. Clinical and autopsy studies show that unilat- Untreated, disease progression leads to destruction of
eral involvement is common, but bilateral disease and the renal parenchyma and obstructive nephropathy with
combined involvement of the kidney, prostate, seminal end-stage renal failure.
vesicles and epididymis can also occur32,35,36. A large
percentage of UG-TB can remain subclinical31. TB of the ureters
TB of the ureters can involve any part of the ureter,
Renal TB although the lower third is the most frequently affected site
Renal TB (Fig. 3) is the most frequently diagnosed clin- followed by the ureteropelvic junction110. Ureteric involve-
ical presentation of UG-TB13,19,20,32,46,89–93. Up to 10% of ment per se without renal TB has not been described.
patients with renal TB have active pulmonary TB and Up to 50% of patients with renal TB have ureteric involve-
the chest X-ray is abnormal in 50% of patients with evi- ment13,14,32,34,91. Mtb bacilli from renal medullary lesions
dence of previous TB13,34. The kidneys are highly vascu- spread downstream with the urine to the ureters, the ure-
larized organs and both kidneys are usually seeded with terovesical junction and into the bladder10–12,91. Ureteric
mycobacteria through haematogenous or lymphatic involvement leads to inflammation, oedema, granuloma-
spread34,36,94,95. Thus, Mtb-induced granulomas and tous ulceration and fibrosis resulting in irregular ureteric
granulation of tissue with caseous necrosis can occur strictures, segmental dilation, with ureteric obstruction
throughout the renal tissue (Fig. 3a,b). These features are and reflux100,107,108. Ureteritis follows mucosal involvement
seen particularly in the cortex, adjacent to glomeruli with the formation of granulomas in the ureteric wall.
(Fig. 3c) or the peritubular capillary bed (Fig. 3d). Miliary Intravenous urography (IVU) or retrograde pyelography
microscopic tubercles enlarge and coalesce, becoming might show mucosal granulomas as intraluminal filling
macroscopically visible in the upper and lower poles of defects with mucosal ulceration showing up as irregular-
the renal cortex as pale yellow or white lesions up to 3 mm ities in the ureter107,108,110,111. Chronic inflammation and
in diameter (Fig. 3a,b). In HIV-infected or other immuno- ureteric strictures lead to progressive hydroureteron
suppressed patients, the granulomas are less-well formed, ephrosis (Figs 4,5). Alternating areas of non-confluent
kidney disease is diffuse and lymph node involvement dilatations and strictures can appear as a corkscrew
with numerous Mtb bacilli is present21,37,96. or beaded configuration; furthermore, irregularity of
Granulomatous inflammation and disease progres- the mucosa, dilation and stricture formation (called
sion leads to chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, papillary sawtooth ureter), ureteral shortening and rigid fibrotic
necrosis, ulcers, fibrosis with extensive caseous destruc- ureter lacking peristaltic movement (pipe-stem ureter)112
tion of the renal parenchyma and formation of lobules can occur. Progression of disease can eventually lead to
(Fig. 3e) , dilated calyces (Fig. 3f,g) and cavities19,75,88,97 the ureter becoming a shortened and rigid tube100–112.
(Fig. 3h). Extensive areas of papillary necrosis form cavities Ureteric calcification can occur and differentiation
and cause vascular insufficiency in renal papillae, lead- from ureteric schistosomiases is required113.
ing to papillary necrosis. The dissemination of infection Involvement of the ureters is frequent in people with
to the renal pelvis can cause tuberculous pyelonephritis, renal TB and occurs downstream of Mtb infection of the
which can evolve into pyonephrosis with progressive kidney. Ureteric stricture with obstructive uropathy is an
fibrosis and scarring of the renal pelvis and uretero important complication that needs to be differentiated
pelvic junction, leading to urinary flow obstruction and from other causes of stricture.
dilated calyces. These processes evolve over several years.
Extensive necrosis replaces the kidney parenchyma with Tuberculosis of the bladder
caseous material (called putty kidney) (Fig. 3i). In 20–40% Bladder TB (Fig. 5) usually occurs secondary to renal
of instances of renal TB, varying degrees of ill-defined, TB with Mtb entering the urine and the bladder and
irregular renal parenchymal calcification occur98,99, which occurs in up to 21% of patients13. Spread through lym-
are seen on imaging (Fig. 3j–l) and at surgery (Fig. 3m,n). phatics and blood vessels from primary or secondary
According to the extent of tissue destruction, kidney TB lesions elsewhere and retrograde spread of Mtb from
TB (KTB) pathology can be classified into four stages: testicular or prostatic TB can also occur10,13. Primary
stage 1 (KTB-1; non-destructive form) refers to TB of the bladder TB has also been described in patients with

Reviews
Routes of infection: Male Female

• Inhalation of aerosols
containing M. tuberculosis
from a patient with
pulmonary TB
• Ingestion of M. bovis Tonsils Kidney cortical granuloma Collecting
in dairy products around the glomerulus duct
Bowman
capsule
Renal
cortex
Renal
Primary Ghon medulla
complex
Primary lung
granuloma Hilar lymph
nodes
Lymphangitis
Hilar
lymphadenitis Kidney medullary
Oesophagus granuloma around
the loop of Henle Loop of
Henle
Aorta Urine
Submucosa
Thoracic
lymph duct
Tuberculous abscess
Stomach or caseating lesions Pelvis
Spread to
Renal other nephrons
artery Ureteropelvic junction
Ureter
Renal
cortical Mycobacterial infection
granuloma
Spread from primary Ghon complex
Lymphatic
Small intestine
Primary Ghon Haematogenous
complex in gut Large bowel (colon)
Mesenteric node
lymphandenitis Mesenteric lymph nodes
Lymphangitis
Ureter
Primary gut
granuloma
Uterus
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Bladder
Prostate
Urethra
Spermatic cord Vagina
Epididymis
Testes
Penis

Reviews
◀ Fig. 2 | Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Seeding of tissues of all organs of the TB epididymo-orchitis118. Prostatic TB has been known
body can occur, which is known as extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB). EPTB includes to develop after intravesical BCG therapy for bladder
infection of all tissues of the urological and reproductive tracts. Routes of infection cancer71. The presence of Mtb in semen in some men
include inhalation of aerosols containing Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) or ingestion has raised the possibility of sexual transmission81,82.
of Mycobacterium bovis in dairy products. Kidneys can be seeded by haematogenous
Mtb infection of the prostate leads to chronic inflam-
spread, lymphatic spread or spread after primary infection from the lungs or intestines.
Mtb-induced granulomas and granulation tissue with caseous necrosis are particularly
mation and caseous necrosis with formation of cavities
seen in renal tuberculosis (TB), adjacent to glomeruli and in the peritubular capillary bed. and abscesses, which can drain into surrounding tissues
Bladder infection can occur secondary to kidney infection, in which Mtb descends via the with fistulae formation in the perineum (Fig. 6), ure-
urine, or through haematogenous or lymphatic spread. TB of the bladder has also been thra or scrotum118,122–129. Urine flow through multiple
shown to occur via retrograde spread of TB from the prostate or testes. Prostatic TB can urethral, perineal or rectal fistulae is referred to as the
occur via haematogenous or lymphatic spread from pulmonary TB or local spread from watering-can effect123.
epididymal TB. TB of the testes, epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles occurs via Prostatic TB can coexist with renal TB and TB
haematogenous spread or retrograde spread from the prostate via the vas, peri-vas epididymo-orchitis. Chronic TB of the prostate can
lymphatics or capillaries. Infection of the female genital tract occurs via haematogenous result in the development of fistulae in the urethra, peri
or lymphatic spread from primary or secondary pulmonary TB.
neum and scrotum owing to chronic inflammation and
caseous necrosis.
bladder carcinoma in situ treated with intravesical BCG
vaccine instillations67,69,70,72. Scrotal and seminal vesicle tuberculosis
Bladder TB can present as cystitis114 that consists of a Scrotal TB refers to TB of the testis, epididymis (Fig. 7) and
superficial granulomatous inflammation and oedema- vas deferens125–138. A study of 29 patients with scrotal TB
tous swelling of the mucosal surface, which can be focal showed that 25% had evidence of active pulmonary TB129.
or generalized across the entire bladder. Tuberculomas In these patients, the mean interval from emergence of
of the bladder wall can form, seen as filling defects on symptoms to making a clinical diagnosis was 142 days,
imaging107,108. Chronic inflammation at the ureterovesical reflecting the long delay in making a diagnosis of TB.
junction can lead to progressive fibrosis, narrowing, ste- TB of the seminal vesicles and vas deferens occurs
nosis and stricture formation (Fig. 5a), scarification (often secondary to prostate TB and can cause infertility129–131,138.
described as a golf-hole appearance) of the ureteric TB of the testis occurs secondary to TB of the epidi
orifice10,107,108,110,114, and consequential ureterovesical reflux dymis, which has an extensive blood supply and acquires
(Fig. 5b,c) and hydroureteronephrosis. Chronic inflam- Mtb infection secondary to haematogenous spread
mation of the bladder wall and detrusor muscle can lead of Mtb bacilli. Mtb bacilli transit along the vas or
to reduction in the bladder capacity (thimble bladder) through the perivasal lymphatics to the epididymis129–134.
(Fig. 5d) owing to progressive thickening of the blad- In adults, TB epididymo-orchitis is caused by direct
der wall with trabeculation and calcification19,107,108. spread from the lower urinary tract or retrograde spread
Fibrosis in the region of the trigone produces gaping of of Mtb bacilli via the prostate and into the seminal vesi
the ureterovesical junction, resulting in ureterovesical cles, vas and epididymis131–133. Observations of isolated
reflux10,107,108. Rare complications of bladder TB include epididymal TB lesions in children suggest the possibil-
vesicovaginal, vesicocolic and enterovesical fistulae and ity of haematogenous spread132,133. TB-induced orchitis
bladder perforation100,107,108,115. TB of the bladder can be following intravesical BCG therapy can occur69,70,72.
classified into four stages100: stage 1 (tubercle-infiltrative The epididymis is a common site of involvement
bladder TB); stage 2 (erosive-ulcerous bladder TB); and can be the first or the only presenting feature of
stage 3 (interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome); UG-TB in men130,135–139. Up to 50% of men with TB
and stage 4 (contracted bladder up to full obliteration). epididymo-orchitis initially have involvement of the
TB cystitis is indistinguishable from other infectious epididymis alone, with testicular involvement develop-
aetiologies100. TB should always be a differential diag- ing later as the disease progresses32,135. Epididymal TB
nosis when patients with recurrent UTI fail to respond presents with co-involvement of the prostate in up to
to antibiotic therapy115 or are being investigated for 39% of patients13,130,132,138. The cauda of the epididymis
cancer or other granulomatous disorders of the bladder, is affected more than the caput, possibly owing to the
such as helminth infections, and vice versa13,85,116,117. increased vascularity of the cauda136. Spermatic cord
Bladder TB can arise from urinary spread of tuberculoma has been described and mimics a testicu-
Mtb from the upper urinary tract or from retrograde lar tumour140. Nodular beading of the vas deferens or a
spread from the prostate or testicles. TB cystitis should dilated epididymis are characteristic physical findings
be considered in the differential diagnosis when patients and cause obstructive azoospermia139. Direct involvement
are investigated for bladder cancer or granulomatous of the epididymis resulting in occlusion of the tubules and
diseases in the bladder. Long-term bladder TB can result ejaculatory ducts caused by scarring and distortion of the
in the development of strictures at the ureteric orifice110 normal anatomy can cause infertility140. TB of the seminal
or a contracted bladder13,107,108,113. vesicles can result in calculi or abscess formation141.
The vascularity of the epididymis allows haemato
Prostatic TB genous spread of Mtb to the scrotal contents; retrograde
Mtb infection of the prostate can occur through hae- transmission to the prostate and seminal vesicle results
matogenous or lymphatic spread from pulmonary and in coexisting disease in the prostate. The development
renal TB or local spread from epidydimal TB118–123. Thus, of strictures in the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts
prostatic TB can commonly coexist with kidney TB and results in men developing obstructive azoospermia.

Reviews
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n
TB of the penis TB of the urethra

TB of the penis (Fig. 8) is rare and the literature is lim- Urethral TB in men and women is rare, despite constant
ited to isolated case reports. It usually occurs secondary exposure of the urethra to Mtb-infected urine in renal
to renal TB64,117,142–147 and following intravesical BCG and ureteric TB124,145,149. Isolated instances of urethral TB
immunotherapy148. In infants, TB of the penis has been have not been reported. Urethral TB as co-involvement
reported after ritual circumcision61,84. has been described in up to 4.5% of patients with renal

Reviews
◀ Fig. 3 | Renal tuberculosis. Autopsy specimens of kidney showing: a | macroscopic with the Fitz-Hugh–Curtis syndrome, a disorder that
caseating lesions on the kidney surface; b | macroscopic caseating lesions in renal occurs almost exclusively in women characterized by
parenchyma (bottom left); c | microscopic histological examination showing inflammation of the peritoneum and perihepatitis169,170.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) granuloma with central caseous necrosis and giant Following TB treatment, the conception rate remains
cells; d | numerous acid-fast Mtb bacilli (stained red) in renal glomeruli and tubules after
low and, therefore, assisted reproduction techniques
Ziehl–Neelsen staining of renal biopsy tissue. e | End-stage renal tuberculosis. Gross
pathological specimen of the kidney, depicting extensive destruction of renal tissue
are recommended159,167.
and lobar caseation. f | Contrast-enhanced CT image (coronal section) demonstrating TB of the cervix, vagina and vulva can present with
non-opacified dilated upper calyx. g | Contrast-enhanced CT image (horizontal section) vaginal bleeding or chronic discharge owing to necrotic
demonstrating dilated upper calyx. h | Excised upper polar cavitary lesion with caseous ulcerative lesions or tumours152,153,171–176. The presenta-
necrosis. i | Pathological specimen showing extensive caseous necrosis and parenchymal tions can be difficult to distinguish clinically from neo-
destruction (‘putty kidney’). j | CT scan (non-enhanced) showing renal parenchymal plastic or other granulomatous disorders such as cervical
calcification (arrow). k | Plain abdominal X-ray depicting classic lobar pattern of amoebiasis, schistosomiasis, brucellosis and sarcoido-
calcification (arrow). l | Intravenous urogram showing non-functioning left kidney and sis26,154. TB of the vagina and vulva is very rare, present-
lobar pattern of calcification (arrow). m | Kidney parenchymal calcifications (arrows) seen ing as mucosal or skin lesions such as TB verrucosa
during surgery. n | Gross pathological specimen depicting destruction of renal tissue and
cutis, erythema induratum or induration of regional
calcification. Parts a–d and i courtesy of S. Lucas, King’s College London.
inguinal nodes, which can discharge necrotic material
(scrofuloderma)150,151,153,177,178.
TB32,145. Acute urethritis with associated prostate TB or Female genital TB occurs through both haemato
urethral stenosis and fistulae are the common clinical genous and lymphatic spread of Mtb. All of the female
presentations123,124,145,149. reproductive organs are at risk of involvement, although
the endometrium and fallopian tubes are most fre-
TB of female genitalia quently involved. Diagnosis is often delayed and patients
The route of infection of genital TB in women is usually often present with primary infertility. Despite treatment,
through haematogenous or lymphatic spread of Mtb from the pregnancy rates following therapy remain low.
pulmonary TB, although sexual transmission has been
suggested for TB of the cervix, vagina and vulva150–153. Clinical features of UG-TB
TB affecting all parts of the female reproductive tract UG-TB can present at any age in men and women,
and genitals have been reported26,33,39,40,154–156. In India, a although it is comparatively uncommon in children
country with a high rate of endemic TB, female genital owing to the long latency period (1–50 years) before
organs affected by TB in order of frequency are: fallo- reactivating32,100. UG-TB can present with a range of clin-
pian tubes (95–100%); uterine endometrium (50–60%); ical manifestations, from asymptomatic, through sub-
ovaries (20–30%); cervix (5–15%); uterine myometrium clinical, non-specific symptoms and signs, to obstructive
(2.5%); and vagina and/or vulva (1%)157. uropathy and renal failure12,14–24,32,100,113–119. Up to 50%
In a clinicopathological study of 1,548 women with of cases are diagnosed incidentally when patients are
genital TB (mean age 29.5 years)158, TB of the endome- investigated for a range of urinary and genital disorders.
trium was seen in 1,073 patients, TB of the fallopian UG-TB is often missed clinically because of the lack of
tubes in 164, TB of the cervix in 157 and 154 had mul- awareness among clinicians, its insidious onset, chronic
tiple organ involvement. Clinically, 115 women (7.4%) non-specific symptoms, and cryptic and protean clinical
were diagnosed as having primary infertility and 12 as manifestations179–181. A delay in diagnosis results in dis-
having secondary infertility; concomitant carcinoma ease progression, tissue and organ damage, obstructive
was found in 1.5% of women158. uropathy, renal failure and infertility. Health-care work-
A pathological study of 1,426 women with genital ers must have a high clinical awareness of the possibil-
TB who presented with either primary (94%) or second ity of underlying TB179–183. This clinical recognition can
ary (6%) infertility showed that the fallopian tubes were then lead to a diagnostic work-up with the appropriate
involved in 100% of instances, endometrium in 79%, investigations and prompt treatment.
cervix in 24%, vulva and vagina in 0.07%, and ova-
ries in 11%26. Female genital TB is a chronic disease Symptoms and signs
and can remain subclinical155,156,159 with patients not Symptoms, signs and complications of UG-TB are not
seeking health care for a long time33,39,154,155. Patients always defined by the anatomical site of disease179–182.
can present with a combination of malaise, abdomi- Many patients can be asymptomatic during the early
nal pain, pelvic pain, menstrual irregularity, amenor- stages of the disease and have non-localizing symp-
rhoea, vaginal discharge, postmenopausal bleeding or toms and signs183. Autopsy studies34 show that only 1 in
infertility160–165. 5 patients who died had been diagnosed with TB ante-
UG-TB is closely linked with infertility (Fig. 9) and the mortem and that up to 50% of patients with renal TB
pregnancy rates in patients diagnosed with UG-TB are were symptomatic32. Dysuria, urinary hesitancy and
up to 50% lower than in the general population26,156,166,167. urinary frequency are common findings in renal, blad-
TB can remain subclinical and/or is diagnosed late156. der and prostatic TB, although patients with renal TB
Genital TB can also cause Asherman syndrome, often have associated flank or renal angle pain32,46,179–182.
a triad of oligomenorrhoea, or amenorrhoea with infer- Lower urinary tract symptoms are often misdiagnosed
tility and intrauterine adhesions arising from scar tis- as acute bacterial UTIs. In these cases, urinalysis will
sue in the uterus and/or the cervix, known as frozen usually show culture-negative, sterile pyuria and micro-
pelvis168 (Fig. 9c) . Rarely, genital TB can be associated scopic or macroscopic haematuria12–14,114,115. Persistent

Reviews
cystitis, haematuria and pyuria should mandate fur- TB are common and should arouse suspicion of TB when
ther evaluation, including upper tract imaging, cysto no response to antibiotic therapy is observed115. Chronic
scopy, microbiological investigations, tissue biopsy and TB inflammation of the renal pelvis can also lead
histological examination. to squamous metaplasia91, carcinoma189 and amyloid
Non-specific constitutional symptoms of TB such osis190. Evidence of active TB in the lung might be the
as fever, weight loss and night sweats are uncommon. only indication of TB179. Rarely, TB of the renal artery
If these symptoms are present, they are indicative of can present with hypertension191.
concomitant TB outside the urogenital tract, such as
pulmonary TB180–183. Some patients can initially pres- Prostatic tuberculosis. The prostate is the second most
ent with pulmonary TB or TB of other anatomical sites frequently reported site of UG-TB32. Symptoms and signs
outside the urogenital tract and, therefore, have myriad of the early stages of prostatic TB are cryptic and many
mixed symptoms. Secondary bacterial infections can cases remain undiagnosed clinically and are detected
occur concomitantly in up to 50% of patients with incidentally at autopsy32, or diagnosed in the labora-
UG-TB12–14,180,184. Suspicion of UG-TB should arise when tory when samples such as expressed prostate secre-
conventional antibiotic therapy for suspected UTI is not tions, semen and prostate biopsy samples are sent for
effective or sterile pyuria is present on examination of investigation of cancer or infertility192.
urine. Chronic epididymitis or chronic prostatitis that Symptoms of prostate TB include acute or chronic
does not resolve with standard antibiotics should also pelvic pain caused by prostatitis, dysuria, hesitancy and
raise a suspicion of UG-TB130–135. difficulty in urination, urinary frequency, nocturia,
haematospermia, and sexual dysfunction. Urgency is
Renal tuberculosis. Patients with renal TB can remain seldom present unless the bladder is affected118,122,134.
asymptomatic for many months and the initial pres- In HIV-infected individuals or those with immuno
entation might be an incidental abnormal urinaly- suppression owing to other causes, patients can present
sis13,32,46,63,90,185. With advancing renal TB, the clinical with prostatic abscesses or discharging perineal sinuses193.
presentations are non-specific symptoms and signs such Digital rectal examination cannot detect early pros-
as flank pain, dysuria, colic and haematuria and are dif- tatic TB but as the disease progresses, soft areas might
ficult to distinguish clinically from acute focal bacterial be palpable as a result of caseous necrosis33. TB of the
nephritis, focal or global chronic pyelonephritis, or other prostate can be nodular, but the prostate gland itself
infectious and non-infectious causes of granulomatous is non-tender on digital rectal examination118–123. The
kidney disease115,116. necrotic TB foci are often associated with an elevated
Renal TB can lead to chronic renal failure, fistula serum PSA level, which can be mistaken for prostate can-
formation and hypertension46,93,104. Other manifesta- cer118,122,123. A micturating cystourethrogram or urethro
tions that are clinically associated with renal TB include graphy can demonstrate dilated prostatic ducts and
rapidly progressive glomerolunephritis186, crescentic variable filling associated with destruction of the pros-
glomerulonephritis187 and membranous nephropathy188. tatic tissue123. Ultrasonography-guided prostate biopsies
Acute and chronic bacterial infections concomitant with of the hyperechoic lesions are required to confirm the
diagnosis and exclude an underlying adenocarcinoma194.
a b Ureteral TB. Symptoms of ureteral TB are non-specific and

include haematuria, abdominal colic and pain associated
with ureteric obstruction12–14,18.
Bladder TB. Symptoms of bladder TB are non-specific

and include urinary frequency and urgency to micturate,
dysuria and haematuria12–18.
Scrotal tuberculosis. Scrotal TB (TB epididymo-orchitis)

can present with unilateral (66% of cases) or bilateral
(34% of cases) involvement, acute or chronic, painful, or
painless scrotal swellings with scrotal skin inflammation
and oedema195,196.
The presence of a non-tender testicular mass,
enlarged, hard and non-tender epididymis, a thick-
ened or beaded vas deferens, or scrotal oedema is sug-
gestive of scrotal TB197. A large distended epididymis
occurs secondary to chronic granulomatous tissue and
obstruction of the vas deferens. Differentiating these
characteristics from malignant swellings can be difficult
Fig. 4 | Tuberculosis of the ureters. a | Ureteric tuberculosis: excretory urogram showing in the clinic146. Granulomatous involvement along the
right mid and distal ureteric stricture with double J stent in situ. b | Renal and ureteric vas deferens gives rise to a beaded appearance140. Scrotal
tuberculosis: antegrade nephrostogram depicting long segment mid and distal ureteric fistulae and sinuses discharging thin and odourless pus
strictures. are suggestive of TB129,132,133. Patients with scrotal TB are

Reviews
a b
c d
Fig. 5 | Bladder tuberculosis. a | Intravenous urogram image showing right distal ureteric stricture (red arrow) and a small
capacity bladder. b | Micturating cystourethrogram showing a small capacity bladder with bilateral vesicoureteral reflux.
c | Severely contracted non-redeemable urinary bladder with grade 5 vesicoureteral reflux. d | Bladder tuberculosis: classical
thimble bladder with grade 5 vesicoureteral reflux.
sometimes diagnosed incidentally during investigation Tuberculids are asymptomatic, symmetrical, dusky red
for male infertility140,198. Patients have oligozoospermia papules and pustules over the glans penis, which occur
or azoospermia owing to granulomatous destruction in crops and heal with scarring as a result of acute leuko
and obstruction in the epididymis or vas deferens. TB cytoclastic vasculitis and thrombosis of dermal vessels.
epididymitis is diagnosed by using fine-needle aspi- Ulcerative lesions can mimic penile cancer, genital
ration cytology or an epididymal biopsy as Mtb is not herpes simplex, granulomatous ulcers of granuloma
usually present in the urine129–131. inguinale, cutaneous leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis and
lymphogranuloma venereum117. A biopsy should, there-
Penile TB. TB of the penis is rare (accounting for <1% fore, always be performed and sent for microbiological,
of UG-TB incidence) and can present with painless or histological and molecular analyses.
painful single or multiple swellings and ulcers on the
penis64,142–147. Chronic granulomatous inflammation Urethral TB. Early symptoms of urethral TB are urethral
of the glans penis or cavernosal tissue can manifest as discomfort and discharge, which are easily missed123,199.
penile skin papules, penile masses, ulcers, nodules or Acute cases present with urethral discharge and endo
cold abscess with or without inguinal lymphadeno scopy can reveal red urethral mucosa that is beefy in
pathy. It can be associated with urethritis, urethral dis- appearance and colour with ulceration123,145. Chronic
charge, urethral strictures, perineal fistulae or sinuses urethral infections present with poor urinary flow
with a ‘watering can’ effect’64,142,149. TB cavernitis results caused by the development of urethral strictures123,200.
in chronic penile pain and erectile dysfunction 64. Any part of the urethra can be involved and present

Reviews
clinically with TB of the prostate, prostatic abscess, sequelae can occur: chronic inflammation, indura-
multiple discharging penile sinus, rectourethral fistulas, tion, fibrosis and narrowing of the fallopian tubes and
or extensive fistulation into the perineum145,149,200. tubo-ovarian abscesses201,202, hydrosalpinx, pyosalpinx
and tubo-ovarian masses39. Ovaries are involved in
Female genital TB 20–30% of women with tubo-ovarian masses, in whom
Female genital TB has no specific signs or symptoms39. abdominal distension and palpable abdominal lumps
Clinical presentation depends on site of involvement and tenderness in the adnexa and suprapubic region
and extent of disease33,39,155,158,159. In the reproductive can mimic ovarian cancer161,201,203,204. Ovarian TB and
age group (15–50 years old) in areas with high rates of peritoneal TB can present with acute abdominal pain
endemic TB, infertility is the most common presenta- and mimic appendicitis160,202.
tion, owing to involvement of the ovaries and fallopian
tubes40,156,157,159. TB of the female reproductive tract can TB of the uterus. TB of the uterus is often asympto-
present with primary or secondary infertility. Primary matic or presents with non-specific symptoms158,159,205.
infertility has been reported in many patients with The clinical presentation differs in women of repro-
UG-TB 167. Rarely, female genital TB is associated ductive age (15–50 years) and postmenopausal women
with the Fitz-Hugh–Curtis syndrome169,170. TB of the (≥51 years old). Common symptoms for women of repro-
uterus can cause chronic inflammation and adhesions ductive age are irregular menstrual cycles, abnormal
of the endometrial cavity118,154. Patients can present bleeding (menorrhagia, oligomenorrhoea, amenorrhoea,
with abdominal masses, tenderness in the suprapubic pelvic discomfort, abdominal pain (dysmenorrhea),
region and fever — symptoms that are similar to or primary or secondary infertility). Postmenopausal
those of pelvic inflammatory disease13,39,40. When TB women present with vaginal bleeding, discharge, pus,
of the female urogenital tract presents with pain and pelvic or abdominal pain or swelling 10,13,26,39,159,163.
an adnexal mass the differential diagnosis is broad Presence of fever, loss of weight and anorexia indicate
and includes acute and chronic bacterial pelvic infec- presence of pulmonary TB. Endometrial TB can cause
tions, ectopic pregnancy, endometriosis, cancer (ovar- ulcerative, granular or fungating lesions, and the uter-
ian, uterine, or cervical), and appendicitis118,169. Ulcers, ine cavity can be distorted, obstructed and destroyed
masses and granulomatous lesions of the female uro- by intrauterine adhesions. Endometrial caseation and
genital tract can be mistaken for cancer or a range of ulceration causing intrauterine adhesions are referred
infectious disorders such as syphilis, actinomycosis, to as Asherman syndrome206 (Fig. 9c).
granuloma inguinale, lymphogranuloma venereum,
elephantiasis (filariasis), Crohn disease, schistosomia- TB of the cervix. TB of the cervix is rare171,174,176,207,208.
sis and amoebiasis26,154. Several case reports of TB of the Symptoms are non-specific, such as vaginal discharge,
cervix in HIV-infected women have been published80. bleeding, lower abdominal or pelvic pain, coital discom-
Complications of female UG-TB include vesicovag- fort and postcoital bleeding. Examination can reveal
inal fistula, rectovaginal fistula, tubovesical fistula, papillary or vegetative growths and ulcers that mimic
urethrocutaneous fistula, tuboperitoneal fistula and cervical cancer or other granulomatous conditions208.
tubo-intestinal fistula10,168,169. Diagnosis can be easily missed. Several cases have been
diagnosed incidentally on examination of Pap smears
TB of the ovaries and fallopian tubes. In the early for cervical cancer209.
stage of TB of the ovaries and fallopian tubes, patients
are asymptomatic 13,39,155,156,158,159. Many patients are TB of the vagina and vulva. TB of the vagina and
diagnosed incidentally when being investigated for vulva is rare150. Case reports indicate that it can present
infertility. As the disease progresses, a number of with lumps, swelling, hypertrophic lesions, pigmented
growths, ulcers, discharging sinuses, elephantiasis
and esthiomene, vulval lymphoedema, grossly hyper-
trophic lesions, or a non-healing ulcer mimicking
malignancy that necessitates a biopsy and histopatho-
logical examination to confirm the diagnosis150,152–154.
Rarely, TB of the vagina can cause involvement of the
Bartholin glands, as well as vesicovaginal or rectovagi-
nal fistula formation158. Labial swellings and ulcerating
lesions have been described in HIV-infected individ
uals210. Hypertrophic lesions or swellings caused by TB
can be mistaken for vaginal cysts, vulval and vaginal
warts, condyloma lata, Bartholin abscess, and vulval or
vaginal cancer153,154.
Diagnostic work-up
Early and accurate diagnosis of UG-TB is important
Fig. 6 | Prostate tuberculosis. Contrast fistulogram showing for successful treatment outcomes. No single specific
tissue destruction (white arrow) and urethrocutaneous diagnostic test exists for UG-TB. Furthermore, detec-
fistula (red arrow). tion of Mtb is not possible in all cases of TB owing to

Reviews
a c sent for microscopy should also be sent for culture and

molecular analysis.
Smear microscopy
Smear microscopy refers to microscopic examination of
sputum, urine, pus, discharge, prostatic massage fluid,
biopsy tissue and sputum for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) per-
formed using Ziehl–Neelsen (ZN) or auramine staining
(Fig. 3e). This method has been a first-line diagnostic test
for PTB for the past 70 years. Results can be available
in 24–48 h after receipt of samples by the laboratory215.
d Light-emitting diode (LED)-based fluorescent micro
b
scopy has similar sensitivities and specificities to light
microscopy, but the reading time of LED is three times
faster than ZN microscopy2,5,213,216. The WHO recom-
mends that conventional fluorescence microscopy be
replaced by LED microscopy and, therefore, LED micros-
copy is being introduced and used as an alternative to
conventional ZN light microscopy2,5,213,216.
Urine microscopy and culture

e Patients in whom UG-TB is suspected should have
three early morning urines on consecutive days sent for
AFB microscopy and culture. AFB smear microscopy
requires 5 × 103 bacilli/ml of specimen to yield a positive
result and the sensitivity is low because the numbers of
Mtb bacilli in urine are small49,218,219 and environmental,
non-pathogenic mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium
smegmatis can contaminate urine and give false-positive
results218,220,221. A study of 2,240 patients with suspected
UG-TB showed that among patients with histologically
Fig. 7 | Tuberculosis of the testes and seminal vesicles. a | Ultrasonography of testes proven TB, the urine culture yield of Mtb was 10.7%217.
showing the testicular parenchyma lesions. b | Gross pathological specimen showing In patients with renal TB, between 30 and 40% of sin-
extensive caseating granulomatous tissue replacing testicular tissue. c | Chronic gle urine specimens will be positive for Mycobacterium
granulomatous inflammation of the testes. d | Chronic granulomatous inflammation culture218. When other clinical samples such as bladder
of the seminal vesicles. e | Multinucleated Langhans giant cells within the granulomas. and prostate biopsies from the site of urogenital disease
Parts a and b adapted from Paul et al., Isolated tuberculous orchitis: a mimicker of are available for microbiological and molecular analyses,
testicular malignancy. Indian J. Urol. 26, 284–286 (2010)146. Parts c–e courtesy of S. Lucas, the diagnostic yield is much increased219.
King’s College London. Over the past 5 years, diagnosis of TB has been revo
lutionized by moving away from traditional culture
the paucibacillary nature of the disease and, therefore, using Lowenstein–Jensen medium or liquid culture
a combination of a good clinical history, imaging, and to Mtb culture systems (for example, rapid automated
microbiological, molecular and histopathological tests liquid culture systems such as the Becton Dickinson
are often required to gather collective evidence of the BACTEC MGIT 960), rapid molecular nucleic acid
probability of TB. amplification systems line probe assay (LPAs) and the
A range of microbiological, molecular, histopathologi GeneXpert MTB/RIF Assay (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA,
cal and imaging tests are available for identifying Mtb in USA), which provides rapid diagnosis and identifies
cases of UG-TB. The gold standard for making a specific rifampicin resistance (operationally within 24–48 h)220.
diagnosis of TB is by identifying the presence of Mtb from
a clinical sample (which can be sputum, pleural fluid, Culture-based methods. Culture of clinical specimens
urine, discharge, semen, prostatic massage fluid, endo- for Mtb is the gold-standard diagnostic method for the
metrial scrapings, pus, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), bone diagnosis of active TB with a sensitivity of 65% and speci
marrow, biopsies, or excised tissue or organs)2,5,12,211–213. ficity of 100%2,5,6,213. Traditionally, solid Lowenstein–
Imaging can help localize sites of disease and associ- Jensen culture medium was used, but this method takes
ated pathology and enables image-guided aspiration 6–8 weeks to detect growth of Mtb. This method has
of abscess or biopsy of tissue for microbiological and been phased out in most countries and has been replaced
molecular examination10,33,38,159,179. with automated liquid Mycobacteria Growth Indicator
The choice of the optimal microbiological or Tube (MGIT) culture using the BACTEC MGIT 960
molecular diagnostic method for TB is dependent System (Becton Dickinson-BD)213, based on modified
on clinical context, available laboratory capacity and Middlebrook 7H9 broth, and positive results can be
resources199,211–216. Smear microscopy diagnostic yields available within ~2 weeks221. This system has a ruthe-
using urine are below 40%217. Thus, all clinical samples nium pentahydrate oxygen sensor embedded in silicon

Reviews
specificity, but sensitivity of GeneXpert is much higher

than AFB smear microscopy using sputum212,213,220. The
overall sensitivity of a single, direct GeneXpert MTB/
RIF assay test in culture-positive patients was 91%
compared with sensitivity of a single direct microscopy
smear test of 59.5%. Mean time to detection is <1 day
for the GeneXpert MTB/RIF, 1 day for microscopy,
17 days for liquid culture and >30 days for solid culture222.
In HIV-infected individuals, the GeneXpert MTB/RIF
assay increases detection of TB by 45% compared with
microscopy and facilitates earlier diagnosis and reduces
time-to-initiation of TB treatment212,222. The timeli-
ness of detection of rifampicin resistance in adults and
children living with HIV using GeneXpert MTB/RIF
assay facilitates early initiation of MDR-TB treatment.
The GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay is replacing smear
microscopy as a first-line TB diagnostic test for detection
of pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease worldwide2.
Urine-based TB diagnostic tests

Urine can be readily obtained from patients and is
a suitable specimen for detection of Mtb using estab-
lished microbiological methods or with two newer rapid
diagnostics tests that have been evaluated: the Xpert
MTB/RIF assay, which detects Mtb DNA in urine222,224
and the lateral flow assay, which detects mycobacterial
cell wall glycolipid lipoarabinomannan (LAM).
Fig. 8 | Tuberculosis of the penis. Granulomatous
ulcerative lesions and nodules on the glans penis. GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay using urine
Reprinted from ref.19 with permission from the Journal of
The GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay has been used to diag-
Clinical and Diagnostic Research.
nose TB by using clinical specimens other than sputum
such as urine, pleural fluid, CSF biopsy samples, pus
and stool225,226. A 2017 study227 used urine samples from
at the bottom of a tube containing 8 ml of modified 37 patients with culture-positive and 44 patients with clin-
Middlebrook 7H9 broth and it fluoresces following the ically diagnosed UG-TB and compared the GeneXpert
oxygen reduction induced by viable aerobically metab- MTB/RIF assay with conventional microbiology. The
olizing mycobacteria within the medium. The MGIT GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay performed better than
system scans frequently for increased fluorescence microbiology with a sensitivity of 63.0%, compared
(every 60 min), so that any Mtb growth can be detected with microscopy (18.5%, P < 0.001) and culture (45.7%,
as soon as possible. The MGIT liquid culture system is P = 0.027). A small incremental diagnostic yield of urine
now recommended by the WHO as the gold-standard GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay over the urine TB-LAM test
confirmatory test for TB 2,5,6,199,214. The advantages has been noted228. The role of the GeneXpert MTB/RIF
of liquid culture include its sensitivity, identification of assay for diagnosis of UG-TB using clinical samples
Mycobacterium species and the ability to perform pheno other than urine requires further evaluation.
typic drug susceptibility tests (DSTs) and genotyping In 2018, the WHO endorsed a new cartridge, Xpert
for further molecular epidemiology studies. The dis- MTB/RIF Ultra, as a replacement for the GeneXpert
advantage of culture methods is the time needed for MTB/RIF assay cartridge as it has increased sensitivity229
the growth of mycobacteria. Liquid cultures require at and the same specificity. The sensitivities of Xpert Ultra
least 9–10 days for positive results and 6 weeks for being compared with Xpert MTB/RIF assay for detection of
considered negative. pulmonary TB are 63% versus 46% for smear-negative
and culture-positive sputum. Specificities of GeneXpert
The GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay Ultra and GeneXpert MTB/RIF assays for detection
After extensive evaluation, the WHO recommended of pulmonary TB were 96% and 98%, respectively,
the GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay (Cepheid) as a rapid, overall229. However, this assay has not yet been evalu-
affordable near-point-of-care test for detecting Mtb and ated for detection of UG-TB and prospective studies
rifampicin resistance simultaneously for patients with are required. The use of rapid molecular tests is increas-
pulmonary TB222. This test is a real-time quantitative ing, but microscopy and culture remain necessary
PCR assay for amplifying Mtb DNA and part of the rpoB for monitoring response to treatment and detecting
gene encoding rifampicin resistance212,213,223. This assay relapse. Mtb DNA lingers in tissues even after treat-
can give a result in 2 h and operationally in hospitals ment and eradication of live mycobacteria and, there-
and TB clinics within 24 h. The GeneXpert MTB/RIF fore, gives false-positive test results with GeneXpert
assay and AFB sputum smear microscopy have the same MTB/RIF assays213,220.

Reviews
a d
Fig. 9 | Female genital tuberculosis and laparoscopic examination for infertility. a | Miliary tubercles in the
Fallopian tube mucosa. b | Pelvic inflammation, dense adhesions and fibrinous exudate. c | Laparoscopic examination
shows frozen pelvis (scar tissue and adhesions of the uterus) caused by tuberculosis in a patient with Asherman
Syndrome. d | Hysterosalpingogram investigation for infertility showing bilateral Fallopian tube strictures and
blockages. e | Complete blockage of the left Fallopian tube and lack of contrast spillage on the right side indicating
distal blockage.
Urine-based LAM assay infection with consequent renal involvement releasing

LAM is a constituent part of the cell wall of Mtb and Mtb LAM glycolipid into the urine230. The usefulness
can be detected in the urine of patients with active of this assay for diagnosing UG-TB has not yet been
TB5,6,213,230. The lateral flow urine LAM assay (Determine evaluated.
LAM: Alere, Waltham, MA, USA) is an immuno
chromatographic assay comprising colloidal gold-labelled TB drug susceptibility testing
antibodies attached to LAM, which are captured by Ruling out TB caused by drug-resistant Mtb strains is
immobilized LAM antibodies further along the test strip important so that specific TB drug therapy can be pre-
and form a visual band. The TB-LAM test using urine is scribed. Culture-based phenotypic DST methods are
currently recommended by the WHO for the diagnosis available, but these methods are time-consuming, require
of HIV-associated TB in people with CD4+ lymphocyte sophisticated laboratory infrastructure, qualified staff
counts <200 cells/μl. Patients with advanced immuno- and strict quality control. The WHO recommends the use
suppression are at an increased risk of disseminated Mtb of rapid molecular DSTs as the initial tests to detect drug

Reviews
resistance before the initiation of appropriate therapy These specimens should also be sent for culture and
for all TB patients229. If rifampicin resistance is detected, be processed simultaneously through the GeneXpert
further rapid molecular tests for resistance to isoniazid, MTB/RIF assay and should be cultured to maxi-
fluoroquinolones and amikacin should be performed mize identification of Mtb and determine presence of
promptly to inform which second-line TB drug therapy antibiotic-resistant Mtb strains. TB can be an incidental
should be used for the treatment of rifampicin-resistant histological finding in many patients in whom TB was
TB and MDR-TB. Genotypic DST methods such as not considered clinically and biopsy specimens were sent
next-generation sequencing are attractive alternatives to confirm a clinical diagnosis of cancer143,154,233–235.
to culture-based DST methods, given the speed of per- Granulomatous inflammation in Mtb-infected tis-
forming molecular methods and the detailed sequenc- sues seen on histological examination is a hallmark of
ing information that can be generated for multiple TB26,85,97,154. The granuloma is a focal compact collection
gene regions associated with drug resistance229,231. of epithelioid cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma
LPAs can detect resistance to rifampicin, isoniazid cells, Langhans giant cells, fibroblasts with collagen and
and other first-line and second-line TB drugs by target- a characteristic central caseous necrosis26,85,97,154. An
ing amplicon regions using membrane-bound probes232. acid-fast stain (ZN or Kinyoun acid-fast stain) of the
LPAs can be used for testing Mtb culture isolates (indi- specimen will show the Mtb organisms as slender red
rect testing), direct testing of specimens that are posi- rods (Fig. 3c). Identification of AFB does not confirm
tive on smear microscopy (first-line LPA (FL-LPA)), and that the organism is Mtb and confirmation by culture or
smear-positive and smear-negative sputum specimens molecular methods is required.
(second-line LPA). The FL-LPA has a sensitivity and In up to one-fifth of patients, TB epididymo-orchitis
specificity of 96.7% and 98.8%, respectively, for detecting is only diagnosed after orchidectomy and histolog-
resistance to rifampicin and sensitivity and specificity ical examination of testes234. Fine-needle aspiration
of 90.2% and 99.2%, respectively, for isoniazid resis cytology or an epidydimal biopsy is used to diagnose
tance. The WHO has recommended the use of com- TB epididymitis, as Mtb is not usually present in the
mercially available FL-LPAs (GenoType MTBDRplus urine129,235–237. Fine-needle aspiration should be avoided
V1, GenoType MTBDRplus V2, and Nipro) as initial if cancer is suspected236 because of the risk of cancer cell
tests instead of phenotypic DSTs to detect resistance to spillage. A meta-analysis indicated that scrotal invasion
rifampicin and isoniazid229. Other methods for testing by needle aspiration does not affect systemic recur-
resistance to second-line TB drugs are the Hain MTBDRsl rence rates or survival if the diagnosis is malignant238.
assay (Hain Lifescience, Nehren, Germany) (using If fine-needle aspiration is unsuccessful or if there is no
Mtb isolates or smear-positive samples), array-based response to drug therapy, the European Association of
methods and targeted or next-generation whole-genome Urology suggests surgical exploration to obtain tissue
sequencing (WGS)213. Technologies such as Cepheid for diagnosis134,239.
Xpert Ultra, Genedrive MTB/RIF (Cepheid) and the chip- TB is the most common cause of granulomatous
based Truenat MTB (Molbio Diagnostics, Goa, India) interstitial nephritis seen on histological examination116.
have been designed for use at peripheral clinics with However, the differential diagnosis of granulomatous
microscopy facilities to test for rifampicin resistance229. disease is broad and includes intracellular microorgan-
isms, such as BCG and non-tuberculous mycobacteria,
Whole-genome sequencing Brucella spp., Treponema spp., Blastomyces spp. and
WGS shows promise for further improvements in rapid non-infectious granulomatous disorders, such as sar-
molecular diagnosis, identification of drug resistance in coidosis and idiopathic vasculitides85. To distinguish Mtb
a range of clinical specimens, and understanding Mtb from other causes of granuloma, biopsy samples should
transmission patterns229,231,232. Currently, WGS is gener- be routinely processed through the GeneXpert MTB/RIF
ally performed only on strains grown in culture owing assay for detecting Mtb DNA226,227.
to the need for a relatively high quantity of good-quality Histological examination of biopsies and fine-needle
DNA to generate full WGS data for a given sample. WGS aspirates is an important adjunct to culture and
can provide the near complete genome of Mtb in a sam- maximizes identification of Mtb.
ple, whereas targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS)
platforms can provide detailed sequence information for Imaging
multiple gene regions or whole genomes of interest232. The role of imaging investigations in UG-TB is to help
Despite the advantages of NGS over other molecular localize the site of disease or tissue destruction, assess
methods for drug-resistant TB identification and charac the extent of involvement, to monitor the effect of
terization, the uptake of these technologies has been treatment and to discover complications. Chest and
hindered, especially in low-income and middle-income abdominal X-rays, ultrasonography, IVU, CT, MRI,
countries, by cost limitations, the need for specialized and positron-emission tomography (PET)–CT are
and well-trained staff, and a lack of readily available data useful in identifying the large range of abnormal features
analysis and data storage solutions. associated with UG-TB (such as abscesses, strictures and
fistulae), and enable definition of the extent of reflux,
Histological examination hydroureter and hydronephrosis107,108,239–243. Imaging is
Histological examination of biological specimens sent also useful for targeting biopsy needles to disease sites
from biopsies and fine-needle aspirates233 can identify in order to obtain biopsy tissue or aspirates for histolog-
granulomas (Fig. 3c) and acid-fast Mtb bacilli (Fig. 3d). ical, microbiological and molecular analyses. Repeating

Reviews
imaging over time is also useful for monitoring response and tunica albuginea thickening, hydrocele and intra-
to treatment or detecting relapse. A range of abnormal testicular abscesses. In advanced TB, calcification can
features are associated with UG-TB. also occur250. The epididymis can appear enlarged,
heterogeneous and hypoechoic in the body and tail,
Plain X-ray associated with hypoechoic testicular lesions or dis-
Plain chest and abdominal X-rays are important initial charging sinuses246,250. Abdominal ultrasonography in
investigations in the diagnostic work-up for UG-TB. As patients with TB peritonitis might show wet peritonitis,
patients with UG-TB can also have concomitant active dry adhesive peritonitis or septated, particulate or loc-
pulmonary TB, chest X-rays should be performed to ulated ascites. Adnexal tubo-ovarian masses, peritoneal
detect any lung disease in patients with chronic cough, thickening and endometrial involvement are common
night sweats, anorexia, weight loss, contact with a per- findings on ultrasonography in women with UG-TB of
son with active TB or a history of previously treated the genitalia116,251.
TB107,244. Abdominal or chest X-rays might show abnor- Ultrasonography is useful for imaging the upper uri-
mal changes caused by active TB disease or healed TB in nary tract in suspected instances of TB. Renal TB might
up to 50% of patients with UG-TB107. Features of active show abscesses, hypoechoic lesions or hydrouretero-
TB on chest X-ray include patchy or lobar consolida- nephrosis owing to strictures developing in the ureter.
tion, linear and nodular opacities, cavities (especially in Scrotal involvement can be associated with hypoechoic
the upper lung lobes), endobronchial thickening, hilar lesions and dilatation of the epididymis and vas deferens.
lymph node enlargement, tuberculoma formation and
miliary TB. Indications of chronic active TB or healed Intravenous urography
previous TB are provided by calcifications in the lung, IVU can show a wide variety of radiological findings that
hilar lymph nodes, kidney, spleen, liver and adrenal are not specific to TB but can help in focusing the clini-
glands107. Renal calcification (nephrocalcinosis) is seen cian on the possibility of TB diagnosis252. This investiga-
as a granular opacification and is associated with active, tion provides a simultaneous assessment of urinary tract
granulomatous infection. A dense, punctate calcifica- anatomy and drainage252–255 (Fig. 4). It can demonstrate
tion is seen in healed tuberculomas107. As calcification progressive hydronephrosis as the existing strictures
in UG-TB is common, a range of the differential diag- might progress as fibrosis occurs during the healing pro-
nosis should be considered, such as helminth infections cess107. Despite being superseded by CT urogram, IVU
(nematodes, trematodes and cestodes), renal abscesses still has advantages: it gives static and dynamic imaging
and aneurysms of the renal artery and others245. of the urinary tract and provides anatomical and drainage
details of the kidneys and ureters181.
Ultrasonography In renal TB, the earliest changes seen using IVU
In the early stages of UG-TB, ultrasonography might include a moth-eaten appearance of the calyces, even
show no changes246. The features of renal TB on ultra- before the patient manifests with symptoms of the dis-
sonography are similar to acute focal bacterial nephritis ease244. Other early findings in renal TB include mucosal
or chronic pyelonephritis247. Diffuse, infiltrative renal TB oedema resulting in irregularity, loss of sharpness of the
has normal appearance on ultrasonography. Granulomas calyces causing fuzzy or feathery calyx, calyceal erosion
are seen as small, hypoechoic intrarenal masses and are and papillary necrosis254,255. The ureters are initially
indicative of TB. Mucosal thickening and stenosis of dilated or become irregular in appearance when they
the calyces are detectable as TB advances, and hypo- are involved. Distal ureteric narrowing at the level of the
echoic cystic lesions that communicate with the collect- ureterovesical junction is a common finding (Fig. 4a,b) in
ing system might be seen247,248. The renal parenchyma which a standing column of contrast can be seen in the
might show masses with mixed echogenicity, areas of dilated proximal ureter up to the level of obstruction256.
necrosis, caseation, fibrosis and scarring and associated Bladder involvement is seen as a small-capacity,
hydronephrosis or renal atrophy. Large TB abscesses or thick-walled bladder with an elevated bladder base. The
tuberculomas distorting the renal contour can resemble capacity of the urinary bladder might shrink to such a size
tumours or cysts197. Calcification is common in the late that it is commonly known as thimble bladder257 (Fig. 5d).
stages of the disease and varies from fine punctate calcific The main limitation of IVU is non-visualization
foci to calcification of the whole kidney. The differen- of the pelvicalyceal system in obstructive uropathy. In
tial diagnosis for calcification includes renal schistoso- such circumstances, a CT urogram is indicated and
miases, hydatid cysts, renal abscesses and renal artery can provide anatomical information regarding renal
aneurysms98,245. parenchymal cavities, thickened urinary tract walls and
Bladder ultrasonography in chronic cases of blad- hydronephrosis253,254.
der TB might show a low-capacity bladder with a thick Although IVU is infrequently used, characteristics
wall107 associated with vesico-ureteric reflux249. Common can be observed that suggest renal TB. IVU provides
findings in prostate TB on transrectal ultrasonography anatomical detail as well as showing the drainage from
are hypoechoic areas and irregular patterns peripher- the collecting system.
ally249. Ultrasonography of scrotal TB can show focal
intratesticular areas with diffusely hypoechoic patterns CT scan and CT urography
or a testicular mass with lymphadenopathy that is not CT scans and CT urography are better than IVU for
distinguishable from testicular cancer139. Other features identifying renal coalesced cortical granulomas, paren-
of scrotal TB seen on ultrasonography are scrotal wall chymal masses, scarring and thickened urinary tract

Reviews
mucosa258. They are indicated in patients suspected of the role of PET–CT in the management of UG-TB is
having UG-TB who have normal IVU or ultrasono required to assess its role in localizing disease sites to
graphy. CT scans can show abnormalities associated obtain biopsies and monitoring response to treatment.
with TB (such as calcification, dilated calyces, paren- FDG PET–CT imaging can help identify sites of
chymal loss and extrarenal spread) in greater detail UG-TB disease, but distinguishing TB from cancer is
than IVU141,259–261. In a study of 53 patients with urinary not possible, limiting its utility for specific diagnosis
TB, the most common findings on CT scan were hydro- of UG-TB.
ureter, hydrocalyx and hydronephrosis260. These occur
secondary to fibrosis and stricture formation. MRI scan
Features of renal TB on CT scan are dependent on MRI abnormalities are usually seen in advanced dis-
stage of disease258 and include one or more cysts sur- ease128,268,269. MRI has been primarily used for the eval-
rounding a calyx (Fig. 3e), with thinning of the over- uation of kidney TB because of its superior soft-tissue
lying renal cortex, thickened ureteric walls and calyx, resolution and multiplanar acquisition to CT scan and
hydronephrosis and renal calcification (Fig. 3f–h). Active ultrasonography. Renal TB parenchymal changes are
inflammation causes focal tissue oedema and focal similar to those of acute pyelonephritis108,268. Focal tis-
hypoperfusion owing to vasoconstriction, and these are sue oedema and focal hypoperfusion owing to vasocon-
well-depicted on contrast-enhanced CT scans. Atypical striction is well-depicted on contrast-enhanced MRI.
features include low-density nodes in the renal paren- Multiple or solitary renal parenchymal kidney nodules
chyma, abdominal spleen, liver and lymph node calcifi- without other urinary tract involvement have been
cation, vertebral destruction and paravertebral abscess. observed268 but are rare.
Calcification is present in >50% of patients with renal The appearance of prostatic TB on MRI can be sep-
TB, and CT is a sensitive imaging modality to detect it258. arated into multiple nodular and diffuse types270. The
Features of ureteral TB on CT scan include multiple nodular type is characterized by markedly low signal
strictures of the ureter and ureteropelvic junction, intensity on T2-weighted images, which is important
hydronephrosis and hydroureter. In bladder TB, CT for the differential diagnosis from prostate cancer268–270.
scan can show thickening, fibrosis and ulceration along Streaky, diffuse and radiating areas of low signal inten-
the bladder wall, which can indicate TB cystitis258–260. sity in the prostate (referred to as watermelon skin on
Contrast-enhanced CT scan of the pelvis can visual- T2-weighted MRI) might be specific for TB-induced
ize caseation, necrosis, sloughing, irregular cavitation prostatitis249,270. MRI is also useful at showing cavities,
of the prostate and calcification141,258. These changes sinus tracts, fistulae and extrarenal and extraprostatic
are not TB-specific and cannot be distinguished from spread of TB128. Peripheral enhancement on MRI is seen
a pyogenic abscess in the absence of calcifications258,260; when abscesses are present in the prostate270. Multipara
thus, further investigation is required. CT scan find- metric MRI is useful for defining the extent of pro
ings include necrotic areas with ring enhancement of static TB, sinuses or fistulae, peritonitis and abdominal
abscesses259,260. adnexal masses128,269.
CT imaging provides more detail than IVU in sus- MRI has a low sensitivity for detecting early lesions of
pected UG-TB. Cortical masses and granulomas can UG-TB and is used primarily for evaluation of renal TB.
be detected, as well as calcification throughout the
urinary tract. Multidetector CT urography technology Other investigations
(MDCTU) is replacing IVU for the assessment of renal Endoscopy
and urinary tract lesions, using reformatted images such Endoscopic examination (cystourethroscopy, uretero
as multiplanar reconstruction and maximum intensity scopy, hysteroscopy and laparoscopy) can be used for
projection255. detecting anatomical abnormalities and localization
of UG-TB lesions (such as ulcers, growths, masses,
PET–CT imaging cysts, granulomatous tissue, abscesses and fistulas) and
PET imaging using 2-deoxy-2-[fluorine-18] fluoro-d- to obtain biopsy tissue samples for microbiological,
glucose (18F-FDG) can provide functional information histological and molecular analyses.
about sites with active inflammatory and immune cells In women with UG-TB and women being assessed
that use glucose during metabolism262–267. Acquiring for infertility, laparoscopy enables visualization of
18
F-FDG PET and CT data together combines anatom- the fallopian tubes, ovaries and peritoneal cavity for
ical and functional information in a single scan262,263; tubercle lesions and obtaining biopsies39,205. Features
PET and PET–CT imaging are not specific for TB and of TB include tubercles (Fig. 9a), tubo-ovarian masses,
cannot distinguish TB from cancer and other infectious inflamed tubes and ovaries, free murky peritoneal
causes of the abnormality. Preliminary studies of TB fluid, pelvic adhesions and fibrinous exudates (Fig. 9b),
in macaques and humans using 18F-FDG PET–CT as a caseating lesions in the rectouterine pouch (Douglas
research tool indicated that it could have clinical appli- pouch), omental and uterine adhesions (Fig. 9c) and a
cations as a non-invasive technique for localizing EPTB blue-coloured uterus39,205. Hysteroscopy should be com-
disease sites that could then be accessed for obtaining bined with laparoscopy to look for endometrial involve-
tissue biopsy for histology and microbiological exam- ment. In men, ureteroscopy can be used to gain access
ination to diagnose or rule out TB264,265. Distinguishing to the prostatic utricle or ejaculatory ducts, visualize
TB from cancer is challenging, as FDG is taken up by the seminal vesicles and obtain a biopsy specimen of
all metabolically active cells266,267. Further evaluation of abnormal lesions271.

Reviews
Hysterosalpingography other relevant investigations. Those with weight loss,

Hysterosalpingography is the primary modality used for night sweats, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate
evaluating uterine, fallopian tube, peritubal and tubal or C-reactive protein and abnormal imaging should
involvement, and tubal patency (Fig. 9d,e) and for iden- be investigated further and those found to have active
tifying any pathological lesions116. A range of changes TB, or are strongly suspected of having active TB on a
have been seen in women with genital TB affecting the clinical basis, should receive the WHO-recommended
fallopian tubes and uterus40,145,158,168,272,273. Most changes quadruple anti-TB drug regimen2,4,278, and they should
are non-specific and related to chronic inflammation not be given LTBI treatment regimens.
and fibrosis, and the characteristics described that are
suggestive of TB include obstruction of the fallopian Medical and surgical management
tube, sites of constrictions of the fallopian tube, endo- The primary aims of management of UG-TB are to erad-
metrial adhesions with deformity and obliteration of icate Mtb infection with TB drug therapy, treat compli-
the endometrial cavity116,254. Fallopian tube occlusion cations and manage comorbidities and risk factors. The
at the junction of the ampulla and isthmus and con- diagnosis of UG-TB requires a combination of clinical,
strictions along the tube (beaded appearance) are pathological and microbiological findings. Every effort
common findings116,205. Tubal occlusion leads to dila- should be made to make an accurate diagnosis of TB, but
tion of the tube, hydrosalpinx and pyosalpinx, which empirical TB treatment on a clinical basis is common
has a golf-club-like appearance. Intraluminal fibrosis in circumstances in which microbiological or molecular
and scarring with intraluminal adhesions result in a tests are negative and other common causes have been
cobblestone pattern. Multiple granulomatous lesions ruled out118. Patients should receive joint care between
in the lumen of the tube give a speckled ‘leopard spot’ TB physicians or respiratory physicians and appropri-
appearance when the ampulla is partially filled with ate specialists if they have other comorbidities such as
radio-opaque contrast274. HIV279. Close follow-up monitoring is required during
Hysterosalpingography is primarily used for identify- TB treatment, for tracking adherence, response to ther-
ing pathology and evaluating patency of the uterus and apy, individual TB drug toxic effects, development of
fallopian tube and should be used for investigation of TB drug resistance, TB drug levels in renal failure and
infertility and TB. drug interactions with antiretroviral therapy in HIV-co-
infected patients. Up to 50% of patients with renal fail-
Blood tests ure present with adverse reactions to anti-TB drugs
Full blood cell count, C-reactive protein (CRP) and renal compared with only 26% of those with normal renal
function tests should be carried out routinely. A raised function279. Haemodialysis frequently leads to the elim-
CRP is a useful laboratory blood biomarker of disease ination of most TB drugs; thus, anti-TB drugs should be
activity and is helpful for assessing the severity of TB and administered after dialysis279.
urea, creatinine and estimated GFR are useful for assess-
ing kidney function. Performing these tests regularly can TB treatment regimens
gauge the response to treatment and monitor adverse The latest WHO recommended treatment guide-
effects of TB drugs. Haematological and biochemical tests lines2,4,278–282 for drug-sensitive TB4, drug-resistant TB279,
are non-specific and are used as adjuncts to management. EPTB282 and LTBI278 should be followed.
Diagnosis of latent TB infection Treatment of drug-sensitive TB. For drug-sensitive TB, a

Immunosuppression from any cause, including chronic 2-month intensive phase of quadruple therapy with daily
kidney disease (CKD), dialysis and renal transplanta- first-line TB drugs (such as rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazi-
tion, can considerably increase the risk of reactivating namide and ethambutol), followed by a 4-month con-
LTBI51,275–277. Those who also become reinfected with Mtb tinuation phase of two drugs (rifampicin and isoniazid)
are also at high risk of rapidly progressing to developing is prescribed5. In immunosuppressed individuals, the
active disease19. Thus, screening for LTBI pretransplant continuation phase is extended to 7 months (to ensure
and post-transplant using interferon-γ release assays eradication of persistent Mtb bacilli and prevent relapse)
(IGRAs) is important222. No gold-standard diagnostic making a total of 9 months of therapy282. Only one clin-
tests are available for the diagnosis of LTBI5,6. Currently, ical trial has evaluated a 6-month versus a 9-month
three tests are recommended by the WHO278 for detect- intermittent short course of TB therapy in women with
ing LTBI, the tuberculin skin test (TST) and two IGRAs: genital TB and found no difference in cure and recur-
QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube and T-SPOT TB. The rence rates283. As with pulmonary TB, this regimen gives
TST and IGRAs cannot differentiate between LTBI a cure rate of 90%10.
and active disease and they should not be used as diag-
nostic tests for active TB. In those apparently healthy Treatment of drug-resistant TB. Drug-resistant TB is
individuals with a positive IGRA or TST, the decision now a global problem2,3. In 2017, there were 558,000
to treat LBTI using one of several LTBI treatment reg- new cases of drug-resistant TB diagnosed worldwide,
imens recommended by WHO229 should not be taken of which 490,000 involved MDR-TB281. This number is
lightly. Before LTBI infection treatment is commenced an increase from WHO estimates of the global caseload
on the basis of a positive IGRA or TST test, it is cru- of MDR-TB from 274,000 in 2000 and 440,000 in 2010
cial that active TB is ruled out by taking a thorough (ref.2). The number of extensively drug-resistant TB
clinical history and doing a physical examination and (XDR-TB, which is defined as resistance to rifampicin,

Reviews
isoniazid, quinolones and aminoglycosides) cases following options are recommended for treatment of
reported to WHO was 10,800, and 8.5% of patients with LTBI in countries with a low TB incidence as alterna-
MDR-TB in 2017 were estimated have XDR-TB2. In cases tives to 6 months of isoniazid monotherapy: 9 months
of MDR-TB and XDR-TB, a longer course of treatment of isoniazid; a 3-month regimen of weekly rifapentine
with more toxic drugs is required than is recommended plus isoniazid; 3–4 months of isoniazid plus rifampicin;
for drug-sensitive TB281. No trial data have been pub- or 3–4 months of rifampicin alone.
lished on treatment of drug-resistant UG-TB, and these
investigations are overdue. The WHO recommends Surgical treatment of UG-TB
a 9–12-month regimen for pulmonary MDR-TB in TB drug therapy is the mainstay of treatment for active
patients not previously treated with second-line drugs UG-TB disease and surgical treatment as an adjunct to
as evidenced by patient history (which is a conditional TB drugs is required in up to 50% of patients during or
recommendation as certainty in the evidence is very after TB drug therapy192,286–293. Surgery is required for the
low)280. Intensive 4–6-month phase with gatifloxacin following clinical settings: drainage for obstructed pelvi-
or moxifloxacin, ethionamide or prothionamide, kana calyceal system (internal or external diversion); drainage
mycin or amikacin, high-dose clofazimine or isoniazid, of abscesses; nephrectomy for non-functioning kidneys;
ethambutol, and pyrazinamide is recommended in reconstruction of ureters (ureterocalicostomy, reimplan-
the WHO guidelines followed by a 5-month continu- tation of ureters and ileal replacement of ureter)294; and
ation phase of clofazimine, ethambutol, pyrazinamide reconstructive surgery of the bladder to improve the
and gatifloxacin or moxifloxacin280. Injectable agents reduction in the functional bladder capacity295.
requiring daily, painful, intramuscular administration Obstruction to the drainage of urine is one of the
for several months have been particularly problematic, common manifestations of UG-TB that warrants surgi-
at times leading to irreversible deafness281. Treatment cal intervention. Strictures involving the ureteropelvic
options for MDR-TB are increasingly becoming more junction and distal ureter are more commonly observed
individualized as a result of innovations and a new than those involving the proximal ureter19. With medical
all-oral 20–24-month regimen is being introduced by treatment, luminal narrowing heals by fibrosis, reinforc-
the WHO278. Under ideal programmatic conditions, ing the need for internal stenting with double J stents.
MDR-TB cure rates up to 70% can be achieved 276. Stents keep the lumen patent, act as a splint and prevent
Treatment is started on the basis of the recommended further worsening of the stricture. Serial monitoring
regimens, depending on drug sensitivity patterns of the with IVU or ultrasonography enables an early diagnosis
Mtb isolate and toxicities of TB drugs, but individu of progression or worsening of hydronephrosis, ena-
alized treatment regimens are sometimes necessary and bling early surgical intervention in the form of either
care should be delivered by experienced TB physicians. pyeloplasty (for ureteropelvic junction obstruction) or
Close follow-up and clinical and laboratory monitoring ureteric reimplantation (for distal ureteric strictures)296.
for toxic effects, development of further resistance and Gow et al.297 observed that the appearance of calcifica-
relapse is required87,284,285. tions in the renal parenchyma is a sign of an advanced
stage of the disease297. In these settings, healing with
Treatment of TB in patients with renal failure and in medical management alone is often incomplete, further
HIV-infected individuals. British Thoracic Society stressing the need for surgical intervention294.
guidelines279 should be followed for patients with CKD, Various reconstructive options are available for stric-
patients not receiving dialysis, patients receiving haemo tures, including pyeloplasty, ureterocalyceal anastomosis,
dialysis or peritoneal dialysis, patients on continuous calyceal reconstruction, uretero-ureteral anastomosis,
renal replacement therapy, patients who have received a ureteric reimplantation (for distal ureteric stricture)
kidney transplant, patients with renal failure and patients or ileal interposition (in cases of multiple ureteric long
co-infected with HIV in lieu of accumulating drug tox- segment ureteric involvement)287–293. Reconstructive
icities in renal failure in whom dose adjustments are surgery in UG-TB has major challenges, especially
required and interactions of TB drugs with antiretroviral when suture materials do not adhere to an inflamed
therapy occur. renal pelvis. Nephrectomies are even more challeng-
ing, as dense perinephric adhesions and adjacent organ
Treatment of latent TB infection. WHO guidelines involvement might be present, making laparoscopic
on the management of LTBI should be followed278. In surgeries difficult to perform298. Reconstructive surger-
2018, the WHO recommended the following treatment ies in these patients also have increased intraoperative
options for LTBI: isoniazid monotherapy for 6 months blood loss, increased conversion to open procedures
for treatment of LTBI in both adults and children in and prolonged operative time290,299. Renal TB can lead
countries with high and low TB incidence; rifampicin to chronic renal failure, necessitating haemodialysis.
plus isoniazid daily for 3 months should be offered Patients with bilateral renal failure can sometimes present
as an alternative to 6 months of isoniazid monotherapy as with acute exacerbation of renal failure. These patients
preventive treatment for children and adolescents aged might need an initial diversion followed by definitive
<15 years in countries with a high TB incidence; and repair that can include use of bowel segments such
rifapentine and isoniazid weekly for 3 months can be as ileal ureters or augmentation cystoplasty300. Bowel
offered as an alternative to 6 months of isoniazid mono interposition might lead to metabolic abnormalities301.
therapy as preventive treatment for both adults and In patients with pre-existing renal failure, the kidney
children in countries with a high TB incidence. The function could further worsen over time because of the

Reviews
absorptive property of the bowel segment. In patients All TB treatment regimens are directed at elimi-
with renal failure requiring a bowel interposition, a nating Mtb and do not address the important issue
short ileal conduit is preferred over an augmentation of tissue and end-organ damage leading to long-term
of the bladder294. functional disability despite elimination of Mtb with
Scrotal TB often results in epididymal involvement anti-TB drugs. Several host-directed therapies (HDTs),
and obstructive azoospermia302. Exploration of the such as autologous mesenchymal stromal cell infusion,
epididymis might reveal dilated tubules suitable for an are under development to use as an adjunct to stan
epididymovasostomy; often, the epididymis is dilated dard anti-TB drug treatment281,311–315. These HDTs are
and is associated with chronic pain and requires an aimed at reducing excessive inflammation, tissue dam-
epididymectomy303. Testicular TB can mimic a germ age and resulting fibrosis to prevent end-organ damage
cell tumour, and the diagnosis is made following radical and improve functional treatment outcomes. Studies
orchidectomy304. Strictures of the ejaculatory ducts can of autologous mesenchymal stromal cell infusion
lead to low volume ejaculates198; if stricture is limited to as adjunct treatment in patients with MDR-TB and
the distal part of the duct, then a transurethral resection XDR-TB are ongoing313. These studies are focused on
of the ejaculatory duct can be performed. pulmonary TB, but the principles apply to all forms of
TB including UG-TB. In animal models of bladder TB
Novel diagnostics and therapies in New Zealand rabbits, a single interstitial injection of
The priorities for improving management and out- autologous bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem
comes of UG-TB include development of new, rapid, cells (MSCs) showed considerable reduction of inflam-
easy-to-use TB diagnostic tests for the early and accu- mation, reduction in development of fibrosis and blad-
rate detection of UG-TB; novel therapies for preven- der wall deformity314. Translation into human studies of
tion and treatment of complications of UG-TB (such autologous MSC infusion for reduction of fibrosis and
as fibrosis and destructive urogenital tract lesions that scarring of the urogenital tract is required.
arise from chronic granulomatous inflammation and
have consequential long-term morbidity and functional Prevention
disability); effective and improved treatment regimens Health-care workers who provide care for patients with
for MDR-TB; and new more effective vaccines. UG-TB must follow infection control procedures to
For UG-TB and other extrapulmonary sites of TB dis- ensure that Mtb infection is not passed from one per-
ease, making a specific TB diagnosis relies on obtaining son to another. No clear guidelines or evidence base
clinical samples using invasive procedures. Novel bio- exists for reducing the risk of spread to surgical staff
markers in breath, blood and urine, which might serve from patients with UG-TB who need surgery. Initiating
as new TB diagnostics for EPTB (including UG-TB) anti-TB treatment at least 8 weeks before surgical inter-
using easily obtainable clinical samples, are under vention takes place is prudent to reduce Mtb bacillary
development213,305–309. Cellular and nuclear components load314. Standard infection control procedures apply for
of Mtb and host inflammatory and immune response nursing in patients with UG-TB.
products and patterns can be detected directly in blood, The only available vaccine for TB prevention is the
sputum or urine of patients with active TB. Urine is BCG vaccine, which has existed for 80 years and is rou-
a product of filtered blood and contains molecules and tinely used in neonates and infants in developing coun-
products originating from all host organs or compo- tries316. BCG vaccine has a documented protective effect
nents of Mtb: for example, the Mycobacterium-specific against meningitis and disseminated TB in children.
30–32-kDa family of three proteins (Ag85A, Ag85B It does not prevent primary infection and, more impor-
and Ag85C) is of interest and the detection of Ag85 in tantly, does not prevent reactivation of latent pulmonary
blood and urine is being evaluated308. Mtb-specific pep- infection. The past two decades have seen increased efforts
tide fragments, such as early secreted antigen-6 and cul- at developing new pre-exposure and postexposure vac-
ture filtrate protein-10, can be detected in serum using cines and currently 15 new candidate vaccines are under
antibody-labelled and porous discoidal silicon nano- investigation316. Hopes for accelerated vaccine develop-
particles (NanoDisks) and high-throughput mass spec- ment and evaluation come from renewed political and
trometry310. Most ongoing research studies are based on funder investments that were committed to at the United
host-derived biomarkers consisting of transcriptomic, Nations General Assembly High Level Meeting on TB on
proteomic, metabolomic or cellular markers or combi- 28 September 2018 (UNG-HLM-TB)317.
nations of signature biomarkers, which can be applied
to easily obtainable samples other than sputum, such Conclusions
as saliva, finger prick blood, urine and expired breath. TB is a curable and preventable disease, but it remains
These biomarkers are being studied to ascertain whether the leading infectious disease cause of death worldwide.
they can, individually or in combination, be correlates of Between 15% and 40% of the global burden of the 10 mil-
active TB, or correlates of predicting an increased risk lion annual cases of TB present with EPTB. UG-TB is the
of developing active TB. third most common presentation of EPTB after lymph
More effective, less toxic and shorter drug treatment node TB and pleural TB; however, UG-TB remains a
regimens than current therapy, incorporating a combi- neglected clinical issue. Delays in making a diagnosis
nation of new TB drugs, delamanid, bedaquiline, PA-824 result in disease progression, tissue and end-organ dam-
(pretomanid) and other repurposed drugs (for example, age, and renal failure. UG-TB can present with chronic
clofazimine), are under evaluation in clinical trials281. urinary tract inflammation, haematuria, sterile pyuria,

Reviews
abnormal renal function tests, obstructive uropathy, bladder, obstructive nephropathy, renal parenchymal
infertility, or renal or testicular mass and can contribute destruction, irreversible organ damage and end-stage
to the development of urothelial cancer and amyloidosis. renal failure. Increased clinical awareness and early diag-
UG-TB is often missed clinically owing to its insidious nosis of UG-TB is required. Treatment of UG-TB should
onset, chronic non-specific symptoms and cryptic and follow WHO-recommended treatment guidelines and
protean clinical manifestations. Being an elusive clini- supplemented by surgery whenever indicated.
cal condition, the delay in making a diagnosis results
in disease progression, ureteral strictures, contracted Published online 23 September 2019
1. WHO. The top 10 causes of death. WHO https://www. 27. Grange, J. M. in Tuberculosis — A Comprehensive 46. Narayana, A. S. Overview of renal tuberculosis.
who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top- Clinical Reference. 44–59 (eds Schaff, S. & Alimuddin Urology 19, 231–237 (1982).
10-causes-of-death (2019). Zumla, A.) (Saunders Elsevier, 2009). 47. Rutkowski, B., Gillow, A. S., Kustosz, J., Liberek, T.
2. WHO. WHO Global Tuberculosis report 2018. WHO 28. Riojas, M. A., McGough, K. J., Rider-Riojas, C. J., & Zdrojewski, Z. Increasing incidence of tuberculosis
http://who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/ (2018). Rastogi, N. & Hazbón, M. H. Phylogenomic analysis in hemodialysis patients. Dial. Transplant. 26, 21–25
3. Floyd, K., Glaziou, P., Zumla, A. & Raviglione, M. of the species of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (1997).
The global tuberculosis epidemic and progress in complex demonstrates that Mycobacterium 48. Ulubay, G. et al. 10-year experience of tuberculosis in
care, prevention, and research: an overview in year 3 africanum, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium solid-organ transplant recipients. Exp. Clin. Transplant.
of the End TB era. Lancet Respir. Med. 6, 299–314 caprae, Mycobacterium microti and Mycobacterium 13, 214–218 (2015).
(2018). pinnipedii are later heterotypic synonyms of 49. Gras, J. et al. Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis through
4. WHO. Guidelines for the treatment of drug-susceptible Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Int. J. Syst. Evol. the detection of mycobacterial DNA in urine by nucleic
tuberculosis and patient care. 2017 update. WHO Microbiol. 68, 324–332 (2018). acid amplification methods. Lancet Infect. Dis. 9,
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/255052/1/ 29. Watt, C. J., Hosseini, S. M., Lonnroth, K., Williams, B. G. 505–511 (2009).
9789241550000-eng.pdf?ua=1 (2017). & Dye, C. in Tuberculosis — a comprehensive clinical 50. Higuita, L. M. et al. Tuberculosis in renal transplant
5. Lawn, S. D. & Zumla, A. I. Tuberculosis (Seminar). reference. 37 (eds Schaff, S. & Alimuddin Zumla, A.) patients: the experience of a single center in
Lancet 378, 57–72 (2011). (Saunders Elsevier, 2009). Medellín-Colombia, 2005–2013. J. Bras. Nefrol. 36,
6. Furin, J., Cox, H. & Pai, M. Tuberculosis. Lancet 393, 30. Silva, M. R. et al. Risk factors for human 512–518 (2014).
1642–1656 (2019). Mycobacterium bovis infections in an urban area 51. Reis-Santos, B., Gomes, T., Horta, B. L. & Maciel, E. L.
7. Kulchavenya, E. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: are of Brazil. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 113, e170445 Tuberculosis prevalence in renal transplant recipients:
statistical reports accurate? Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis. 2, (2018). systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Bras. Nefrol.
61–70 (2014). 31. Zachoval, R. et al. The incidence of subclinical forms 35, 206–213 (2013).
8. Porter, M. F. III Uro-genital tuberculosis in the male. of urogenital tuberculosis in patients with pulmonary 52. Anand, M., Nayyar, E., Concepcion, B., Salani, M.
Ann. Surg. 20, 396–405 (1894). tuberculosis. J. Infect. Publ. Health 11, 243–245 & Schaefer, H. Tuberculosis in kidney transplant
9. Wildbolz, H. Ueber urogenical tuberkulose. (2018). recipients: a case series. World J. Transplant. 7,
Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr. 67, 1125 (1937). 32. Figueiredo, A. A., Lucon, A. M. & Junior, R. F. 213–221 (2017).
10. Kulchavenya, E., Naber, K. & Bjerklund Johansen, T. E. Epidemiology of urogenital tuberculosis worldwide. 53. Dharmadhikari, A. S. & Nardell, E. A. in Tuberculosis
Urogenital tuberculosis: classification, diagnosis, and Int. J. Urol. 15, 827–832 (2008). — A Comprehensive Clinical Reference 8–16 (eds
treatment. Eur. Urol. 15, 112–121 (2016). 33. Yadav, S., Singh, P., Hemal, A. & Kumar, R. Schaff, S. & Alimuddin Zumla, A.) (Saunders Elsevier,
11. Adhikari, S. & Basnyat, B. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: Genital tuberculosis: current status of diagnosis and 2009).
a debilitating and often neglected public health management. Transl. Androl. Urol. 6, 222–233 (2017). 54. Chang, C. W. et al. Congenital tuberculosis: case
problem. BMJ Case Rep. 11, e226098 (2018). 34. Schubert, G. E., Haltaufderheide, T. & Golz, R. report and review of the literature. Paediatr. Int.
12. Abbara, A. & Davidson, R. N. Etiology and Frequency of urogenital tuberculosis in an unselected Child Health. 19, 1–4 (2017).
management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Nat. Rev. autopsy series from 1928 to 1949 and 1976 to 55. Dewan, P., Gomber, S. & Das, S. Congenital
Urol. 8, 678–688 (2011). 1989. Eur. Urol. 21, 216–223 (1992). tuberculosis: a rare manifestation of a common
13. Figueiredo, A. A. & Lucon, A. Urogenital tuberculosis: 35. Medlar, E., Spain, D. & Holliday, R. Post mortem diseases. Paediatr. Int. Child Health 34, 60–62
update and review of 8961 cases from the world compared with clinical diagnosis of genitourinary (2014).
literature. Rev. Urol. 10, 207–217 (2008). tuberculosis in adult males. J. Urol. 61, 1078–1088 56. Newberry, D. M. & Robertson-Bell, T. Congenital
14. Gow, J. & Barbosa, S. Genitourinary tuberculosis: (1949). tuberculosis: a new concern in neonatal intensive
a study of 1117 cases over a period of 34 years. 36. Vithalani, N. & Udani, P. M. A study of 292 autopsies care units. Adv. Neonatal Care 18, 341–349
Br. J. Urol. 56, 449–455 (1984). proved cases of tuberculosis. Indian J. Tuber. 29, (2018).
15. Ishibashi, Y., Takeda, T., Nishimura, R. & Ohshima, H. 93–97 (1982). 57. Lhadon, T. & Jullien, S. Congenital multidrug-resistant
A clinical observation of genitourinary tract 37. Lanjewar, D. N., Ansari, M. A., Shetty, C. R., tuberculosis in a neonate: a case report. J. Trop.
tuberculosis during the last decade. HinyokikaKiy 31, Maheshwary, M. B. & Jain, P. Renal lesions associated Pediatr. 65, 188–191 (2018).
107–112 (1985). with AIDS — an autopsy study. Indian J. Pathol. 58. Aldana-Aguirre, J. C., El-Hakim, H., Phillipos, E. &
16. Chtourou, M. et al. Management of genito-urinary Microbiol. 42, 63–68 (1999). Landry, M. A. Congenital tuberculosis presenting as
tuberculosis. A report of 225 cases. J. Urol. 161, 9 38. Perez, S., Andrade, M., Bergel, P., Bracho, Y. & otorrhoea in a preterm infant. BMJ Case Rep. 2018,
(1999). de Waard, J. H. A simple algorithm for the diagnosis bcr-2017-221797 (2018).
17. Gokce, G. et al. Genitourinary tuberculosis: review of of AIDS-associated genitourinary tuberculosis. 59. Fang, X., Mai, R., Guo, J. & Lin, N. A pre-term infant
174 cases. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 34, 338–340 (2002). Clin. Infect. Dis. 42, 1807–1808 (2006). of 32 weeks gestation with congenital tuberculosis
18. Ferrie, B. G. & Rundle, J. S. H. Genito-urinary 39. Grace, G. A., Devaleenal, D. B. & Natrajan, M. Genital treated successfully with antituberculosis
tuberculosis in Glasgow 1970 to 1979: a review tuberculosis in females. Indian J. Med. Res. 145, chemotherapy. Paediatr. Int. Child Health 14, 1–3
of 230 patients. Scott. Med. J. 30, 30–34 (1985). 425–436 (2017). (2017).
19. Krishnamoorthy, S. et al. Aspects of evolving genito 40. Parvez, R. et al. Prevalence of female genital 60. Raj, P. & Sarin, Y. K. Congential tuberculosis in a
urinary tuberculosis – a profile of genito urinary tuberculosis, its risk factors and associated clinical neonate: a diagnostic dilemma. J. Neonatal Surg. 3,
tuberculosis (GUTB) in 110 patients. J. Clin. Diagn. features among the women of Andaman Islands, India: 49 (2014).
Res. 11, PC01–PC05 (2017). a community-based study. Publ. Health 148, 56–62 61. Angus, B. J., Yates, M., Conlon, C. & Byren, I.
20. Christensen, W. I. Genitourinary tuberculosis. Review (2017). Cutaneous tuberculosis of the penis and sexual
of 102 cases. Medicine 53, 377–390 (1974). 41. Naing, C., Mak, J. W., Maung, M., Wong, S. F. & transmission of tuberculosis confirmed by molecular
21. Soriano-Rosas, J. et al. AIDS-associated nephropathy: Kassim, A. I. Meta-analysis: the association between typing. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33, E132–E134 (2001).
5-year retrospective morphologic analysis of 87 cases. HIV infection and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Lung 62. Veenema, R. J. & Lattimer, J. K. Genital tuberculosis
Pathol. Res. Pract. 194, 567–570 (1998). 191, 27–34 (2013). in the male: clinical pathology and effect on fertility.
22. Hsieh, H. C. et al. Uro-genital tuberculosis in a medical 42. Fanosie, A. et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis J. Urol. 78, 65–77 (1957).
center in southern Taiwan: an eleven-year experience. complex and HIV co-infection among xxtrapulmonary 63. Lattimer, J. Renal tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 273,
J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 39, 408–413 (2006). tuberculosis suspected cases at the University of 208–211 (1965).
23. Lessnau, K. D. et al. Tuberculosis of the genito-urinary Gondar Hospital, Northwestern Ethiopia. PLOS ONE 64. Venyo, A. K. Tuberculosis of the penis: a review of the
system overview of GUTB. Medscape http://emedicine. 11, e0150646 (2016). literature. Scientifica 2015, 601–624 (2015).
medscape.com/article/450651-overview#aw2aab6b4. 43. Tubach, F. et al. Risk of tuberculosis is higher with 65. Hesseling, A. C. et al. Consensus statement on the
(2015). anti-tumor necrosis factor monoclonal antibody revised World Health Organization recommendations
24. Ye, Y. et al. Clinical features and drug-resistance therapy than with soluble tumor necrosis factor for BCG vaccination in HIV-infected infants. Int. J.
profile of urinary tuberculosis in south-western China: receptor therapthehe three-year prospective French Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12, 1376–1379 (2008).
a cross-sectional study. Medicine 95, e3537 (2016). Research Axed on Tolerance of Biotherapies registry. 66. Von Reyn, C. F. et al. Disseminated tuberculosis in
25. Garcia-Rodríguez, J. Á., García Sanchez, J. E. & Arthritis Rheum. 60, 1884–1894 (2009). human immunodeficiency virus infection: ineffective
Muñoz Bellido, J. L. Genitourinary tuberculosis in 44. Ferrara, G. et al. Risk factors associated with pulmonary immunity, polyclonal disease and high mortality.
Spain: review of 81 cases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 18, tuberculosis: smoking, diabetes and anti-TNFα drugs. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 8, 1087–1089 (2011).
557–561 (1994). Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 18, 233–240 (2012). 67. Sihra, N., Diasuke, N., Thurairaja, R., Khan, M. S.
26. Nogales-Ortiz, F., Tarancón, I. & Nogales, F. F. Jr. 45. Chattopadhyay, A. et al. Genitourinary tuberculosis & Malde, S. Renal tuberculosis following intravesical
The pathology of female genital tuberculosis. A 31-year in pediatric surgical practice. J. Pediatr. Surg. 32, bacillus Calmette-Guérin for high-grade non-muscle-
study of 1436 cases. Obstet. Gynecol. 53, 422 (1979). 1283–1286 (1997). invasive bladder cancer. Urology 107, e3–e4 (2017).

Reviews
68. Lamm, D. Efficacy and safety of bacille Calmette 94. Medlar, E. M. Cases of renal infection in pulmonary 122. Stillwell, T., Engen, D. & Farrow, G. The clinical
Guerin immunotherapy in superficial bladder cancer. tuberculosis: evidence of healed tuberculous lesions. spectrum of granulomatous prostatitis: a report of
Clin. Infect. Dis. 31, 86–90 (2000). Am. J. Pathol. 2, 401–411 (1926). 200 cases. J. Urol. 138, 320–323 (1987).
69. Falkensammer, C. et al. Late occurrence of bilateral 95. Medlar, E. M. & Sasano, K. T. Experimental renal 123. Gupta, N., Mandal, A. K. & Singh, S. K. Tuberculosis
tuberculous-like epididymo-orchitis after intravesical tuberculosis, with special reference to excretory of the prostate and urethra: a review. Indian J. Urol.
bacille Calmette-Guerin therapy for superficial bladder bacilluria. Am. Rev. Tuberc. 10, 370–377 (1924). 24, 388–391 (2008).
carcinoma. Urology 65, 175 (2005). 96. Marques, L. P., Rioja, L. S., Oliveira, C. A. & 124. Bouchikhi, A. A., Khallouk, A., El Fassi, M. J. &
70. Colomba, C. et al. Case of epididymo-orchitis after Santos, O. D. AIDS-associated renal tuberculosis. Farih, M. H. Atypical isolated urethral tuberculosis
intravesical bacille Calmette-Guérin therapy for Nephron 74, 701–704 (1996). associated with inflammatory stenosis and fistulas.
superficial bladder carcinoma in a patient with latent 97. Shah, S., Carter-Monroe, N. & Atta, M. G. Urol. Ann. 6, 270–271 (2014).
tuberculosis infection. Infect. Agent. Cancer 11, 25 Granulomatous interstitial nephritis. Clin. Kidney J. 5, 125. Hosamirudsari, H. & Mohammadizia, F. Unilateral
(2016). 516–523 (2015). tuberculous epididymo-orchitis with scrotal fistula:
71. Lee, S. Y. & Choi, S. H. Treatment experience for 98. Prakash, J., Goel, A. & Sankhwar, Singh, B. Extensive a case report. Iran. J. Pathol. 10, 165–168 (2015).
incidentally diagnosed asymptomatic prostate renal and ureteral calcification due to tuberculosis: 126. Joneja, U., Short, W. R. & Roberts, A. L. Disseminated
tuberculosis in a patient with history of BCG rare images for an uncommon condition. BMJ Case tuberculosis with prostatic abscesses in an
intravesical therapy. Urol. Case Rep. 17, 39–41 Rep. 2013, bcr2012008508 (2013). immunocompromised patient — a case report and
(2017). 99. Patil, S. B., Desai, A. S., Biradar, A. N. & Kundargi, V. S. review of literature. IDCases 5, 15–20 (2016).
72. Klebanov, N. & Raghavan, A. Tuberculous orchitis Extensive nephroureteric calcification presenting 127. Kostakopoulos, A. et al. Tuberculosis of the prostate.
following intravesical Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) with renal failure: a rare case report. Urol. Ann. 7, Int. Urol. Nephrol. 30, 153–157 (1998).
therapy. Cureus 10, e2703 (2018). 375–377 (2015). 128. Bour, L. et al. Multiparametric MRI features of
73. Hunter, R. L. Tuberculosis as a three-act play: 100. Kulchavenya, E. V., Shevchenko, S. Y. & granulomatous prostatitis and tubercular prostate
A new paradigm for the pathogenesis of pulmonary Cherednichenko, A. G. Diagnosis and treatment of abscess. Diagn. Interv. Imaging 94, 84–90 (2013).
tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 97, 8–17 (2016). cystitis: more questions than answers? Urologiia 5, 129. Lee, I. K., Yang, W. C. & Liu, J. W. Scrotal tuberculosis
74. Rao, M. et al. Latent TB Infection (LTBI) — 37–42 (2016). in adult patients: a 10-year clinical experience. Am. J.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis and the 101. Lima, N. A. et al. Review of uro-genital tuberculosis Trop. Med. Hyg. 77, 714–718 (2007).
dynamics of the granuloma battleground. Int. J. Infect. with focus on end-stage renal disease. Rev. Inst. Med. 130. Borthwick, W. The pathogenesis of tuberculous
Dis. 80S, S58–S61 (2019). Trop. Sao Paulo 54, 57–60 (2012). epididymitis. Edin. Med. J. 53, 55–70 (1946).
75. Bezuidenbhout, J. & Schneider, J. W. in Tuberculosis 102. Mallinson, W. J., Fuller, R. W., Levoson, D. A., 131. Riehle, R. A. & Jayraman, K. Tuberculosis of testis.
— A Comprehensive Clinical Reference 117–128 (eds Baker, L. R. & Cattel, W. R. Diffuse interstitial renal Urology 1, 43–46 (1982).
Schaff, S. & Alimuddin Zumla, A.) (Saunders Elsevier, tuberculosis an unusual cause of renal failure. Q. J. Med. 132. Ross, J. C., Gow, J. G. & St. Hill, C. A. Tuberculous
2009). 50, 137–148 (1981). epididymitis. A review of 170 patients. Br. J. Surg. 48,
76. Menzies, N. A. et al. Progression from latent infection 103. Eastwood, J. B., Zaidi, M., Maxwell, J. D., Wing, A. J. 663–666 (1961).
to active disease in dynamic tuberculosis transmission & Pazianas, M. Tuberculosis as primary renal diagnosis 133. Das, A., Batabyal, S., Bhattacharjee, S. & Sengupta, A.
models: a systematic review of the validity of in end-stage uraemia. J. Nephrol. 7, 290–293 (1994). A rare case of isolated testicular tuberculosis and
modelling assumptions. Lancet Infect. Dis. 18, 104. Oliverira, J. L., Silva Junior, G. B. & Daher, E. F. review of literature. J. Family Med. Prim. Care. 5,
e228–e238 (2018). Tuberculosis associated chronic kidney disease. Am. J. 468–470 (2016).
77. Salvatore, P. P., Proaño, A., Kendall, E. A., Gilman, R. H. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84, 843–844 (2011). 134. Jacob, J. T., Nguyen, T. M. & Ray, S. M. Male genital
& Dowdy, D. W. Linking Individual natural history 105. Lee, K. S. et al. Laparoscopic nephrectomy for tuberculosis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8, 335–342 (2008).
to population outcomes in tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. tuberculous non-functioning kidney: comparison with 135. Madeb, R., Marshal, J., Nativ, O. & Erturk, E.
217, 112–121 (2017). laparoscopic simple nephrectomy for other diseases. Epididymal tuberculosis: case report and review of the
78. Vynnycky, E. & Fine, P. E. The natural history of Urology 60, 411–414 (2002). literature. Urology 65, 798 (2005).
tuberculosis: the implications of age-dependent risks 106. Hemal, A. K., Gupta, N. P. & Rajeev, K. Comparison of 136. Viswaroop, B. S., Kekre, N. & Gopalakrishnan, G.
of disease and the role of reinfection. Epidemiol. retroperitoneoscopic nephrectomy with open surgery Isolated tuberculous epididymitis: a review of forty
Infect. 119, 183–201 (1997). for tuberculous non-functioning kidneys. J. Urol. 164, cases. J. Postgrad. Med. 51, 109–111 (2005).
79. Simmons, J. D. et al. Immunological mechanisms 32–35 (2000). 137. Hadadi, A., Pourmand, G. & Mehdipour-Aghabagher, B.
of human resistance to persistent Mycobacterium 107. Merchant, S., Bharati, A. & Merchant, N. Tuberculosis Unilateral testicular tuberculosis: case report. Andrology
tuberculosis infection. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 18, of the uro-genital system — urinary tract tuberculosis: 44, 70–72 (2012).
575–589 (2018). renal tuberculosis. I. Indian J. Radiol. Imaging 23, 138. Kretschmer, H. Tuberculosis of the epididymis:
80. Lamba, H., Byrne, M., Goldin, R. & Jenkins, C. 46–63 (2013). a review of 170 patients. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 47,
Tuberculosis of the cervix: case presentation and 108. Merchant, S., Bharati, A. & Merchant, N. Tuberculosis 652–659 (1928).
a review of the literature. Sex. Transm. Infect. 78, of the uro-genital system — urinary tract tuberculosis: 139. Heaton, N. D., Hogan, B., Michell, M., Thompson, P.
62–63 (2002). renal tuberculosis. II. Indian J. Radiol. Imaging 23, & Yates-Bell, A. J. Tuberculous epididymo-orchitis:
81. Aphonin, A. B., Perezmanas, E. O., Toporkova, E. E. 64–77 (2013). clinical and ultrasound observations. Br. J. Urol. 64,
& Khodakovsky, E. P. Tuberculous infection as sexually 109. Wei, H. L. et al. Renal tuberculosis and iliopsoas 305–309 (1989).
transmitted infection. Vestn. Poslediplomnogo abscess: two case reports. Exp. Ther. Med. 7, 140. Benjelloun, A., Elktaibi, A., Elharrech, Y., Touiti, D.
Obrazovaniya 3, 69–71 (2006). 1718–1720 (2014). & Ghoundale, O. Tuberculosis of the spermatic cord:
82. Regmi, S. K., Singh, U. B., Sharma, J. B. & Kumar, R. 110. Puigvert, A. The ureter in renal tuberculosis. Br. J. Urol. case report. Urol. Case Rep. 2, 176–177 (2014).
Relevance of semen polymerase chain reaction 27, 258–262 (1955). 141. Premkumar, A. & Newhouse, J. Seminal vesicle
positive for tuberculosis in asymptomatic men 111. Friedenberg, R. M., Ney, C. & Stachenfeld, R. A. tuberculosis: CT appearance. J. Comput. Assist.
undergoing infertility evaluation. J. Hum. Reprod. Sci. Roentgenographic manifestations of tuberculosis Tomogr 12, 676–677 (1988).
8, 165–169 (2015). of ureter. J. Urol. 99, 25–29 (1968). 142. Kar, J. & Kar, M. Primary tuberculosis of the glans
83. Barmon, D., Kataki, A. C., Sharma, J. D. & 112. Gibson, M. S., Puckett, M. L. & Shelly, M. E. Renal penis. J. Assoc. Physicians India 60, 52–53 (2012).
Gharpholia, D. A case of cervical tuberculosis tuberculosis. Radiographics 24, 1 (2004). 143. Khan, D., Choudhary, A., Dutta, A. & Khan, I.
mimicking cervical carcinoma. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 113. Roylance, J., Penry, B., Rhys Davies, E. & Roberts, M. Tuberculosis of the glans penis mimicking as
India. 63, 285–287 (2013). Radiology in the management of urinary tract carcinoma. Int. J. Mycobacteriol. 5, 341–342 (2016).
84. Holt, L. E. Tuberculosis acquired through ritual tuberculosis. Br. J. Urol. 42, 679–687 (1970). 144. Symes, J. M. & Blandy, J. P. Tuberculosis of the male
circumcision. J. Am. Med. Associ. 61, 99–102 (1913). 114. Johnstone, A. S. Tuberculous cystitis; notes on three urethra. Br. J. Urol. 45, 432–436 (1973).
85. Zumla, A. & James, D. G. Granulomatous infections: cases. Br. J. Radiol. 20, 61–62 (1947). 145. Indudhara, R., Vaidyanathan, S. & Radotra, B. D.
etiology and classification. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23, 115. Kulchavenya, E. & Cherednichenko, A. Urogenital Urethral tuberculosis. Urol. Int. 48, 436–438
146–158 (1996). tuberculosis, the cause of ineffective antibacterial (1992).
86. Houben, R. M. & Dodd, P. J. The global burden of therapy for urinary tract infections. Ther. Adv. Urol. 146. Paul, J., Krishnamoorthy, S., Teresa, M. & Kumar, S.
latent tuberculosis infection: a re-estimation using 10, 95–101 (2017). Isolated tuberculous orchitis: a mimicker of testicular
mathematical modelling. PLOS Med. 13, e1002152 116. Shah, H. U., Sannananja, B., Baheti, A. D., malignancy. Indian J. Urol. 26, 284–286 (2010).
(2016). Udare, A. S. & Badhe, P. V. Hysterosalpingography 147. Gangalakshmi, C. & Sankaramahalingam, A.
87. Butler, M. R. & O’Flynn, D. Reactivation of genitourinary and ultrasonography findings of female genital Tuberculosis of the glans penis. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 12,
tuberculosis. Eur. Urol. 1, 14–17 (1975). tuberculosis. Diagn. Interv. Radiol. 21, 10–15 (2015). PD05–PD06 (2016).
88. Arora, N., Saha, A. & Kaur, M. Tuberculous 117. Singal, A., Pandhi, D., Kataria, V. & Arora, V. K. 148. Chowdhury, A. & Dey, R. Penile tuberculosis following
pyelonephritis in children: three case reports. Tuberculosis of the glans penis: an important intravesical Bacille Calmette-Guérin immunotherapy.
Paediatr. Int. Child Health. 37, 292–297 (2017). differential diagnosis of genital ulcer disease. Indian J. Urol. 29, 64–66 (2013).
89. Kretschmer, H. L. Tuberculosis of the kidney, a critical Int. J. STD AIDS 28, 1453–1455 (2017). 149. Mayilvaganan, K. R., Naren Satya Srinivas, M.,
review based on a series of 221 cases. N. Engl. J. Med. 118. Kulchavenya, E., Brizhatyuk, E. & Khomyakov, V. Reddy, V. N. & Singh, R. K. Tuberculosis penis with
202, 660–671 (1930). Diagnosis and therapy for prostate tuberculosis. ‘Watering can penis’ appearance: report of a rare
90. Ross, J. C. Renal tuberculosis. Br. J. Urol. 25, Ther. Adv. Urol. 6, 129–134 (2014). case with retrograde urethrography and voiding
277–292 (1953). 119. Miller, E. & Lustok, M. Genital tuberculosis. JAMA cystourethrography findings. Pol. J. Radiol. 81,
91. Eastwood, J. B., Corbishley, C. M. & Grange, J. M. 113, 1388–1394 (1939). 454–457 (2016).
Tuberculosis and the kidney. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 12, 120. López Barón, E., Gómez-Arbeláez, D. & Díaz-Pérez, J. 150. Buppasiri, P., Temtanakitpaisan, T. & Somboonporn, W.
1307–1314 (2001). Primary prostatic tuberculosis. Case report and Tuberculosis at vulva and vagina. J. Med. Assoc. Thai.
92. Qiu, S. P. et al. A clinical study of 281 cases of renal bibliographic review. Arch. Esp. Urol. 62, 309–313 93, 613–615 (2010).
tuberculosis. Chin. J. Urol. 23, 398–400 (2002). (2009). 151. Nemati, E., Taheri, S., Nourbala, M. H. & Einollahi, B.
93. Daher, E. F., Bezerra da Silva, G. & Guardao Barros, E. J. 121. Sporer, A. & Oppenheimer, G. Tuberculosis of the Vaginal tuberculosis in an elderly kidney transplant
Renal tuberculosis in the modern era. Am. Trop. Med. prostate and seminal vesicles. J. Urol. 78, 278–286 recipient. Saudi J. Kidney Dis. Transpl. 20, 465–467
Hyg. 88, 54–64 (2013). (1957). (2009).

Reviews
152. Sharma, C., Shekhar, S., Sharma, V., Sharma, M. & 178. Mallya, V., Yadav, Y. K. & Gupta, K. Vulval tuberculosis 204. Lantheaume, S. et al. Peritoneal tuberculosis
Aggarwal, T. Paucibacillary tubercular vulval ulcer masquerading as vulval carcinoma. J. Postgrad. Med. simulating advanced ovarian carcinoma: a case report.
in a sexually inactive pubertal girl: role of therapeutic 58, 307–308 (2012). Gynecol. Obstet. Fertil. 31, 624–626 (2003).
trial. J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Gynecol. 25, e123–e124 179. Wang, J., Fan, S., Xiao, J. & Liang, C.-Z. Renal 205. Djuwantono, T. et al. Female genital tuberculosis and
(2012). tuberculosis tends to be low symptoms: how to infertility: serial cases report in Bandung, Indonesia
153. Tiwari, P., Pal, D. K., Moulik, D. & Choudhury, M. K. improve the diagnosis and treatment of renal and literature review. BMC Res. Notes 10, 683
Hypertrophic tuberculosis of vulva — a rare tuberculosis. Asian J. Androl. 18, 145–146 (2016). (2017).
presentation of tuberculosis. Indian J. Tuberc 57, 180. Wise, G. J. & Marella, V. K. Uro-genital manifestations 206. Sharma, J. B. et al. Genital tuberculosis: an important
95–97 (2010). of tuberculosis. Urol. Clin. N. Am. 30, 111–121 cause of Asherman’s syndrome in India. Arch. Gynecol.
154. Mondal, S. K. Histopathologic analysis of female (2003). Obstet. 277, 37–41 (2008).
genital tuberculosis: a fifteen-year retrospective study 181. Kapoor, R., Ansari, M. S., Mandhani, A. & Gulia, A. 207. Gupta, B., Shree, S., Rajaram, S. & Goel, N.
of 110 cases in eastern India. Turk Patoloji Derg. 29, Clinical presentation and diagnostic approach in cases Genital tuberculosis: unusual presentations.
41–45 (2013). of uro-genital tuberculosis. Indian J. Urol. 24, Int. J. Mycobacteriol. 3, 357–359 (2016).
155. Kulchavenya, E. & Dubrovina, S. Typical and unusual 401–405 (2008). 208. Koller, A. B. Granulomatous lesions of the cervix uteri
cases of female genital tuberculosis. IDCases 1, 182. Zarrabi, A. D. & Heyns, C. F. Clinical features of in Black patients. S. Afr. Med. J. 49, 1228–1232
92–94 (2014). confirmed versus suspected urogenital tuberculosis in (1975).
156. Mahajan, N., Naidu, P. & Deep Kaur, S. Insight into region with extremely high prevalence of pulmonary 209. Gupta, R., Dey, P., Jain, V. & Gupta, N. Cervical
the diagnosis and management of subclinical genital tuberculosis. Urology 74, 41–45 (2009). tuberculosis detection in Papanicolaou-stained smear:
tuberculosis in women with infertility. J. Hum. Reprod. 183. Kulchavenya, E. & Kholtobin, D. Diseases masking case report with review of literature. Diagn.
Sci. 9, 135–144 (2016). and delaying the diagnosis of urogenital tuberculosis. Cytopathol. 37, 592–595 (2009).
157. Das, P., Ahuja, A. & Gupta, S. D. Incidence, Ther. Adv. Urol. 7, 331–338 (2015). 210. Paudel, V., Chudal, D. & Pokhrel, D. B. Tuberculosis
etiopathogenesis and pathological aspects of 184. Bacci, M. R., Namura, J. J. & Lera, A. T. Complicated and HIV co-infection; the deadly duos in vulva.
genitourinary tuberculosis in India: a journey revisited. urinary infection and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Indian J. Tuberc. 65, 277–279 (2018).
Indian J. Urol. 24, 356–361 (2008). BMJ Case Rep. 2012, bcr2012007553 (2012). 211. Gilpin, C., Korobitsyn, A., Migliori, G. B., Raviglione, M. C.
158. Türkmen, I. C. et al. Female genital system 185. Kulchavenya E., Kholtobin D., Shevchenko S. & Weyer, K. The World Health Organization standards
tuberculosis: a retrospective clinicopathological study Challenges in urogenital tuberculosis. World J. Urol. for tuberculosis care and management. Eur. Respir. J.
of 1,548 cases in Turkish women. Arch. Gynecol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-019-02767-x 51, 1800098 (2018).
Obstet. 286, 379–384 (2012). (2019). 212. Lawn, S. D. et al. Advances in tuberculosis diagnostics:
159. Sharma, J. B. Current diagnosis and management of 186. Waikhom, R., Sarkar, D., Bennikal, M. & Pandey, R. the Xpert MTB/RIF assay and future prospects for
female genital tuberculosis. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. India Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis in a point-of-care test. Lancet Infect. Dis. 13, 349–361
65, 362–371 (2015). tuberculosis. Saudi J. Kidney Dis. Transpl. 25, (2013).
160. Akbulut, S., Arikanoglu, Z. & Basbug, M. Tubercular 872–875 (2014). 213. Walzl, G. et al. Tuberculosis: advances and challenges
tubo-ovarian cystic mass mimicking acute appendicitis: 187. Kanodia, K. V., Vanikar, A. V., Patel, R. D., Suthar, K. S. in development of new diagnostics and biomarkers.
a case report. J. Med. Case Rep. 5, 363 (2011). & Trivedi, H. L. Crescentic glomerulonephritis Lancet Infect. Dis. 18, e199–e210 (2018).
161. Adsuar, N., Blanchette, H. & Kilchevsky, E. associated with pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Clin. 214. Hongler, J. et al. Comparison of Löwenstein-Jensen
Tuberculosis peritonitis mimicking ovarian cancer in Diagn. Res. 10, ED01–ED02 (2016). and BACTEC MGIT 960 culture for Mycobacterium
a 20-year-old woman. A case report. J. Reprod. Med. 188. Shang, M. H. et al. Membranous nephropathy tuberculosis in people living with HIV. HIV Med. 19,
49, 52–54 (2004). associated with tuberculosis. Chin. Med. J. (Engl). 654–661 (2018).
162. Neonakis, I. et al. Genital tuberculosis in a 129, 622–623 (2016). 215. Davis, J. L., Cattamanchi, A., Cuevas, L. E.,
tamoxifen-treated postmenopausal woman with 189. Çakar, B. & Çiledağ, A. Evaluation of coexistence Hopewell, P. C. & Steingart, K. R. Diagnostic accuracy
breast cancer and bloody vaginal discharge. Ann. Clin. of cancer and active tuberculosis; 16 case series. of same-day microscopy versus standard microscopy
Microbiol. Antimicrob. 5, 20 (2006). Respir. Med. Case Rep. 23, 33–37 (2017). for pulmonary tuberculosis: a systematic review
163. Shirazi, M. et al. Tuberculosis endometritis presenting 190. Malik, R., Pathak, N. & Sharma, S. Secondary renal and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 13, 147–154
as a leiomyoma. Int. J. Fertil. Steril. 8, 481–484 amyloidosis in pulmonary tuberculosis — a classic (2013).
(2015). revisited. J. Case Rep. Stud. 5, 404 (2017). 216. Bhalla, M. et al. Performance of light-emitting diode
164. Samal, S., Gupta, U. & Agarwal, P. Menstrual 191. Bouziane, Z. et al. Tuberculosis of the renal artery: fluorescence microscope for diagnosis of tuberculosis.
disorders in genital tuberculosis. J. Indian Med. Assoc. a rare cause of renovascular arterial hypertension. Int. J. Mycobacteriol. 2, 174–178 (2013).
98, 126–127,129 (2000). Ann. Vasc. Surg. 23, 786.e7–786.e9 (2009). 217. Colabawalla, B. N. Reflections on urogential
165. Perdhana, R. et al. Patients with secondary 192. Kulchavenya, E. Best practice in the diagnosis and tuberculosis. Indian J. Urol. 6, 51–59 (1990).
amenorrhea due to tuberculosis endometritis towards management of urogenital tuberculosis. Ther. Adv. 218. Berta, M. et al. Bacteriological diagnosis of renal
the induced anti-tuberculosis drug category 1. Pan Afr. Urol. 5, 143–151 (2013). tuberculosis: an experience at the regional tuberculosis
Med. J. 24, 121 (2016). 193. Trauzzi, S. J. et al. Management of prostatic abscess laboratory in Córdoba Province. Argentina.
166. Nezar, M. et al. Genital tract tuberculosis among in patients with human immunodeficiency syndrome. Rev. Argentina Microbiología 43, 191–194 (2011).
infertile women: an old problem revisited. Urology 43, 629–633 (1994). 219. Hemal, A. K. et al. Polymerase chain reaction in
Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 280, 787–791 (2009). 194. Aziz, E. M., Abdelhak, K. & Hassan, F. M. Tuberculous clinically suspected genitourinary tuberculosis:
167. Singh, N., Sumana, G. & Mittal, S. Genital prostatitis: mimicking a cancer. Pan Afr. Med. J. 25, comparison with intravenous urography, bladder
tuberculosis: a leading cause for infertility in women 130 (2016). biopsy, and urine acid fast bacilli culture. Urology 56,
seeking assisted conception in North India. 195. Suankwan, U. et al. A clinicopathologic study of 570–574 (2000).
Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 278, 325–327 (2008). tuberculous epididymo-orchitis in Thailand. Southeast 220. McNerney, R. & Zumla, A. Impact of the Xpert MTB/
168. Sharma, J. B. et al. Laparoscopic findings in female Asian J. Trop. Med. Publ. Health 43, 951–958 RIF diagnostic test for tuberculosis in countries with
genital tuberculosis. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 278, (2012). a high burden of disease. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 21,
359–364 (2008). 196. Kulchavenya, E., Kim, C. S., Bulanova, O. & Zhukova, I. 304–308 (2015).
169. Sharma, J. B. et al. High prevalence of Fitz-Hugh- Male genital tuberculosis: epidemiology and 221. Tortoli, E., Benedetti, M., Fontanelli, A. & Simonetti, M. T.
Curtis Syndrome in genital tuberculosis. Int. J. diagnostic. World J. Urol. 30, 15–21 (2012). Evaluation of automated BACTEC MGIT 960
Gynaecol. Obstet. 99, 62–63 (2007). 197. Yang, D. M. et al. Comparison of tuberculous and system for testing susceptibility of Mycobacterium
170. Coremans, L. & de Clerck, F. Fitz-Hugh-Curtis pyogenic epididymal abscesses: clinical, gray-scale tuberculosis to four major antituberculous drugs:
syndrome associated with tuberculous salpingitis and sonographic, and color doppler sonographic features. comparison with the radiometric BACTEC 460TB
peritonitis: a case presentation and review of AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 177, 1131–1135 (2001). method and the agar plate method of proportion.
literature. BMC Gastroenterol. 18, 42 (2018). 198. Pryor, J. P. & Hendry, W. F. Ejaculatory duct J. Clin. Microbiol. 40, 607–610 (2002).
171. Singh, S. et al. Tuberculosis of uterine cervix: a report obstruction in subfertile males: analysis of 87 222. World Health Organization. Policy statement:
of two cases with variable clinical presentation. Trop. patients. Fertil. Steril. 65, 725–730 (1991). automated real-time nucleic acid amplification
Doct. 40, 125–126 (2010). 199. Agarwal, A., Kumar, N. & Kishore, K. Evaluation of technology for rapid and simultaneous detection of
172. Mukerji, S. et al. Difficulties in diagnosing tuberculosis manual Mycobacterium growth indicator tube for tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance: Xpert MTB/RIF
of the cervix in a post menopausal woman: case report isolation and susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium system (WHO, Geneva, 2011).
and literature review. Australas. Med. J. 6, 367–370 tuberculosis for implementation in low and medium 223. Bates, M. & Zumla, A. The development. Evaluation
(2013). volume laboratories. Med. J. Armed Forces India 74, and performance of molecular diagnostics for
173. Sharma, N., Singh, A. S., Khonglah, Y. & Mishra, J. 220–226 (2018). detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Expert Rev.
Primary tuberculosis of cervix: a coincidental finding. 200. Prakash, G. et al. Primary tuberculosis of urethra Mol. Diagn. 16, 307–322 (2016).
J. Reprod. Infertil. 17, 247–249 (2016). presenting as stricture urethra and watering can 224. Green, C. et al. Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis
174. Rodpenpear, N. Tuberculosis of cervix resembling perineum: a rarity. Urol. Ann. 8, 493–495 (2016). through the detection of mycobacterial DNA in urine
cervical. Cancer J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 99, S249–S252 201. Ilmer, M., Bergauer, F., Friese, K. & Mylonas, I. Genital by nucleic acid amplification methods. Lancet Infect.
(2016). tuberculosis as the cause of tuboovarian abscess in an Dis. 9, 505–511 (2009).
175. Jaiprakash, P., Pai, K. & Rao, L. Diagnosis of immunosuppressed patient. Infect. Dis. Obstet. 225. Atherton, R. R. et al. Detection of Mycobacterium
tuberculous cervicitis by Papanicolaou-stained smear. Gynecol. 2009, 745060 (2009). tuberculosis in urine by Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra: a useful
Ann. Saudi Med. 33, 76–78 (2013). 202. Romaniuk, A. et al. A rare case of tuberculous adjunctive diagnostic tool in HIV-associated
176. Sabita, S., Sharmila, V., Arun Babu, T., Sinhasan, S. & salpingitis. Interv. Med. Appl. Sci. 8, 131–134 tuberculosis. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 75, 92–94 (2018).
Darendra, S. A rare case of cervical tuberculosis which (2016). 226. Babafemi, E. O. et al. Complicated urinary infection
simulated carcinoma of the cervix. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 203. Nkhili, H., Abdelhak, M. & Benhmamouch, M. N. and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. BMJ Case Rep.
7, 1189–1190 (2013). Pelvic tuberculosis simulating ovarian cancer in 2012, bcr2012007553 (2012).
177. Nanjappa, V. et al. Vulval tuberculosis — an unusual children about a case. Pediatrie Pratique http://www. 227. Pang, Y. et al. GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay in the
presentation of disseminated tuberculosis. J. Assoc. pediatrie-pratiquecom/journal/article/chez-lenfant- diagnosis of urinary tuberculosis from urine
Physicians India 60, 49–52 (2012). propos-dun (2012). specimens. Sci. Rep. 7, 6181 (2017).

Reviews
228. Gupta-Wright, A. et al. Rapid urine-based screening 252. Navarro-Vilasaró, M. et al. Genitourinary 277. Hadaya, K. et al. Contribution of interferon-γ release
for tuberculosis in HIV-positive patients admitted to mycobacteriosis: retrospective study of 45 cases in assays (IGRAs) to the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis
hospital in Africa (STAMP): a pragmatic, multicentre, a general hospital. Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 9, infection after renal transplantation. Transplantation
parallel-group, double-blind, randomised controlled 540–545 (2008). 95, 1485–1490 (2013).
trial. Lancet 392, 292–301 (2018). 253. Sallami, S. et al. Imaging findings of urinary 278. WHO. Latent TB infection: updated and consolidated
229. WHO. The use of next-generation sequencing tuberculosis on computerized tomography versus guidelines for programmatic management. WHO
technologies for the detection of mutations associated excretory urography: through 46 confirmed cases. https://www.who.int/tb/publications/2018/
with drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tunis. Med. 12, 743–747 (2014). latent-tuberculosis-infection/en/ (2018).
complex: technical guide. WHO https://apps.who.int/ 254. Kenney, P. J. Imaging of chronic renal infections. Am. J. 279. British Thoracic Society. Guidelines for the prevention
iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274443/WHO-CDS-TB- Roentgenol. 3, 485–494 (1990). and management of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2018.19-eng.pdf (2018). 255. Gaudiano, C. et al. Multidetector CT urography in infection and disease in adult patients with chronic
230. Lawn, S. D. & Gupta-Wright, A. Detection of urogenital tuberculosis: use of reformatted images for kidney disease BTS Guideline Group on behalf of The
lipoarabinomannan (LAM) in urine is indicative of the assessment of the radiological findings. A pictorial British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee
disseminated TB with renal involvement in patients essay. Abdom. Radiol. 9, 2314–2324 (2017). and Joint Tuberculosis Committee. Thorax 65,
living with HIV and advanced immunodeficiency: 256. Goel, A. & Dalela, D. Options in the management 559–570 (2010).
evidence and implications. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. of tuberculous ureteric stricture. Indian J. Urol. 24, 280. WHO. WHO consolidated guidelines on drug-resistant
Med. Hyg. 110, 180–185 (2016). 376–381 (2008). tuberculosis treatment. WHO https://www.who.int/
231. Colijn, C. & Cohen, T. Whole-genome sequencing 257. Aswathaman, K. & Devasia, A. Thimble bladder. tb/publications/2019/consolidated-guidelines-drug-
of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for rapid diagnostics ANZ J. Surg. 78, 1049 (2008). resistant-TB-treatment/en/ (2019).
and beyond. Lancet Respir. Med. 4, 6–8 (2016). 258. Wang, L.-J., Wong, Y.-C., Chen, C.-J. & Lim, K.-E. CT 281. Tiberi, S. et al. Tuberculosis: progress and advances in
232. Doyle, R. M. et al. Direct whole-genome sequencing features of genitourinary tuberculosis. J. Comput. development of new drugs, treatment regimens, and
of sputum accurately identifies drug-resistant Assist. Tomogr. 21, 254–258 (1997). host-directed therapies. Lancet Infect. Dis. 18,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis faster than MGIT 259. Lu, P., Li, C. & Zhou, X. Significance of the CT scan in e183–e198 (2018).
culture sequencing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 56, e00666-18 renal tuberculosis. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 282. World Health Organization. Improving the diagnosis
(2018). 24, 407–409 (2001). and treatment of smear-negative pulmonary and
233. Traşcă, E., Traşcă, E. T., Buzulică, R., Drăgoi, G. & 260. Wang, L. J. et al. Imaging findings of urinary extrapulmonary tuberculosis among adults and
Nicolescu, I. The place and the role of histological tuberculosis on excretory urography and computerized adolescents. WHO https://www.who.int/tb/
examination in diagnostic algorithm of urinary system tomography. J. Urol. 169, 524–528 (2003). publications/2006/tbhiv_recommendations.pdf
tuberculosis. Rom. J. Morphol. Embryol. 46, 261. Sinan, T., Sheikh, M., Ramadan, S., Sahwney, S. & (2006).
105–108 (2005). Behbehani, A. CT features in abdominal tuberculosis: 283. Sharma, J. B. et al. Six months versus nine months
234. Kulchavenya, E. & Khomyakov, V. Male genital 20 years’ experience. BMC Med. Imaging 2, 3 (2002). anti-tuberculous therapy for female genital
tuberculosis in Siberians. World J. Urol. 24, 74–78 262. Kukrej, N., Cook, G. J. & Pattison, J. M. tuberculosis: a randomized controlled trial. Eur. J.
(2006). Positron-emission tomography used to diagnose Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 203, 264–273
235. Viswaroop, B. et al. Fine-needle aspiration cytology tuberculosis in a renal transplant patient. Am. J. (2016).
versus open biopsy for evaluation of chronic Transplant. 2, 105–107 (2002). 284. Wagaskar, V. G. et al. Urinary tuberculosis with renal
epididymal lesions: a prospective study. Scand. J. 263. Mahajan, M. S., Bedmutha, A. & Singh, N. failure: challenges in management. J. Clin. Diagn. Res.
Urol. Nephrol. 39, 219–221 (2005). 18F-fludeoxyglucose positron emission tomography 10, PC01–PC03 (2016).
236. Sah, S. P., Bhadani, P. P., Regmi, R., Tewari, A. & computed tomography-guided diagnosis of prostatic 285. Chang, C. H. et al. Acute kidney injury due to
Raj, G. A. Fine needle aspiration cytology of tubercular and leptomeningeal tuberculosis. Indian J. Urol. 33, anti-tuberculosis drugs: a five-year experience in
epididymits and epididymo-orchitis. Acta Cytol. 50, 325–327 (2017). an aging population. BMC Infect. Dis. 14, 23 (2014).
243–249 (2006). 264. Coleman, M. T. et al. Early changes by (18) 286. Fischer, M. & Flamm, J. The value of surgical therapy
237. Kumar, P., Owji, S. & Kherzi, A. Tuberculous orchitis fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the treatment of urogenital tuberculosis. Urologe A
diagnosed by fine needle aspiration cytology. co-registered with computed tomography predict 29, 261–264 (1990).
Acta Cytol. 40, 1253–1256 (1996). outcome after Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection 287. Carl, P. & Stark, L. Indications for surgical
238. Comiter, C. V. et al. Nonpalpable intratesticular in cynomolgus macaques. Infect. Immun. 82, management of genitourinary tuberculosis. World J.
masses detected sonographically. J. Urol. 154, 2400–2404 (2014). Surg. 21, 505–510 (1997).
1367–1369 (1995). 265. Martin, C. et al. Prospective serial FDG PET/CT during 288. Bansal, P. & Bansal, N. The surgical management of
239. Cek, M. et al. EAU guidelines for the management of treatment of extrapulmonary tuberculosis in urogenital tuberculosis our experience and long-term
genitourinary tuberculosis. Eur. Urol. 48, 353–362 HIV-infected patients: an exploratory study. Clin. Nucl. follow-up. Urol. Ann. 7, 49–52 (2015).
(2005). Med. 43, 635–640 (2018). 289. Li, X. et al. A clinical comparative analysis of
240. Valentini, A. L., Summaria, V. & Marano, P. Diagnostic 266. Gambhir, S. et al. Imaging in extrapulmonary retroperitoneal laparoscopic tuberculous nephrectomy
imaging of uro-genital tuberculosis. Rays 23, tuberculosis. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 56, 237–247 (2017). and open tuberculous nephrectomy. J. Laparoendosc.
126–143 (1998). 267. Subramanyam, P. & Palaniswamy, S. S. Dual time Adv. Surg. Tech. A 29, 909–913 (2019).
241. Muttarak, M., ChiangMai, W. N. & Lojanapiwat, B. point (18)F-FDG PET/CT imaging identifies bilateral 290. Gupta, R. et al. Laparoscopic ablative and
Tuberculosis of the uro-genital tract: imaging features renal tuberculosis in an immunocompromised reconstructive surgeries in uro-genital tuberculosis.
with pathological correlation. Singapore Med. J. 46, patient with an unknown primary malignancy. JSLS 18, e2014.00203 (2014).
568–574 (2005). Infect. Chemother. 47, 117–119 (2015). 291. O’Flynn, D. Surgical treatment of genito-urinary
242. Jung, Y. Y., Kim, J. K. & Cho, K. S. Uro-genital 268. da Rocha, E. L. et al. Abdominal tuberculosis: tuberculosis: a report on 762 cases. Br. J. Urol. 42,
tuberculosis: comprehensive cross-sectional imaging. a radiological review with emphasis on computed 667–671 (1970).
AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 184, 143–150 (2005). tomography and magnetic resonance imaging findings. 292. Mochalova, T. P. & Starikov, I. Y. Reconstructive
243. Tirumani, S. H. et al. Imaging of tuberculosis of the Radiol. Bras. 48, 181–191 (2015). surgery for treatment of urogenital tuberculosis:
abdominal viscera: beyond the intestines. J. Clin. 269. Rais-Bahrami, S. et al. Clinical and multiparametric 30 years of observation. World J. Surg. 21, 511–515
Imag. Sci. 3, 17 (2013). MRI signatures of granulomatous prostatitis. Abdom. (1997).
244. Kollins, S. A., Hartman, G. W., Carr, D. T., Segura, J. W. Radiol. 42, 1956–1962 (2017). 293. Zwergel, U., Wullich, B., Rohde, V. & Zwergel, T.
& Hattery, R. R. Roentgenographic findings in urinary 270. Cheng, Y., Huang, L., Zhang, X., Ji, Q. & Shen, W. Surgical management of urinary tuberculosis: a review
tract tuberculosis. A 10-year review. Am. J. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging of 341 patients. J. Urol. 161, 9 (1999).
Roentgenol. Radium Ther. Nucl. Med. 121, 487–499 characteristics of prostate tuberculosis. Korean J. 294. Krishnamoorthy, S. & Gopalakrishnan, G. Surgical
(1974). Radiol. 16, 846–852 (2015). management of renal tuberculosis. Indian J. Urol. 24,
245. Dyer, R. B., Chen, M. Y. & Zagoria, R. J. Abnormal 271. Liao, L. G. et al. Etiology of 305 cases of refractory 369–375 (2008).
calcifications in the urinary tract. Radiographics 18, hematospermia and therapeutic options by emerging 295. Rizzo, M. et al. Twenty-years experience on
1405–1424 (1998). endoscopic technology. Sci. Rep. 9, 5018 (2019). genitourinary tuberculosis. Arch. Ital. Urol. Androl. 76,
246. Vijayaraghavan, S. B. et al. Spectrum of high- 272. Ahmadi, F., Zafarani, F. & Shahrzad, G. 83–87 (2004).
resolution sonographic features of urinary Hysterosalpingographic appearances of female genital 296. Mcaleer, S. J., Johnson, C. W. & Johnson, W. D.
tuberculosis. J. Ultrasound Med. 23, 585–594 tract tuberculosis. I. Fallopian tube. Int. J. Fertil. Steril. in Campbell-Walsh Urology 9th edn (ed. Wein, A. J.)
(2004). 7, 245–252 (2014). 436–470 (Saunders Elsevier, 2007).
247. Rui, X., Li, X. D., Cai, S., Chen, G. & Cai, B. 273. Ahmadi, F., Zafarani, F. & Shahrzad, G. S. 297. Gow, J. G. Renal calcification in genitourinary
Ultrasonographic diagnosis and typing of renal Hysterosalpingographic appearances of female genital tuberculosis. Br. J. Surg. 52, 283–288 (1965).
tuberculosis. Int. J. Urol. 15, 135–139 (2008). tract tuberculosis. II. Uterus. Int. J. Fertil. Steril. 8, 298. Kim, H. H., Lee, K. S., Park, K. & Ahn, H. Laparoscopic
248. Hamrick-Turner, J., Abbitt, P. L. & Ros, P. R. 13–20 (2014). nephrectomy for nonfunctioning tuberculous kidney.
Tuberculosis of the lower uro-genital tract: findings on 274. Farrokh, D., Layegh, P., Afzalaghaee, M., Mohammadi, M. J. Endourol. 14, 433–437 (2000).
sonography and MR. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 158, & Fallah Rastegar, Y. Hysterosalpingographic findings 299. Rassweiler, J. et al. Laparoscopic nephrecthe: the
919 (1992). in women with genital tuberculosis. Iran. J. Reprod. Med. experience of the laparoscopy working group of the
249. Engin, G., Acunas, B., Acunas, G. & Tunaci, M. Imaging 13, 297–304 (2015). German Urologic Association. J. Urol. 160, 18–21
of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Radiographics 20, 275. Maynard-Smith, L., Fernando, B., Hopkins, S., Harber, M. (1998).
471–488 (2000). & Lipman, M. Managing latent tuberculosis in UK 300. Gupta, S. et al. Acute renal failure in bilateral urinary
250. Chung, J. J., Kim, M.-J., Lee, T., Yoo, H. S. & Lee, J. T. renal transplant units: how does practice compare tract tuberculosis. Pediatr. Surg. Int. 13, 200–201
Sonographic findings in tuberculous epididymitis and with published guidance? Clin. Med. 14, 26–29 (1998).
epididymo-orchitis. J. Clin. Ultrasound 25, 390–394 (2014). 301. Vasdev, N., Moon, A. & Thorpe, A. C. Metabolic
(1997). 276. Shu, C. C. et al. Predictors and prevalence of latent complications of urinary intestinal diversion.
251. Awasthi, S., Saxena, M., Ahmad, F., Kumar, A. tuberculosis infection in patients receiving long-term Indian J. Urol. 29, 310–315 (2013).
& Dutta, S. Abdominal tuberculosis: a diagnostic hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. PLOS ONE 7, 302. Gupta, R., Singh, P. & Kumar, R. Should men with
dilemma. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 9, EC01–EC03 (2015). e42592 (2012). idiopathic obstructive azoospermia be screened for

Reviews
genitourinary tuberculosis? J. Hum. Reprod. Sci. 8, multidrug and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: Author contributions
43–47 (2015). an open-label phase 1 safety trial. Lancet Respir. Med. All authors researched data for the article, wrote the manu-
303. Nickel, J. C. Chronic epididymitis: a practical approach 2, 108–122 (2014). script and reviewed and edited the manuscript before submis-
to understanding and managing a difficult urologic 313. Yudintceva, N. M. et al. Application of the allogenic sion. B.M., S.K. and A.Z. made substantial contributions to
enigma. Rev. Urol. 5, 209–215 (2003). mesenchymal stem cells in the therapy of the bladder discussions of content.
304. Cho, Y. S., Joo, K. J., Kwon, C. H. & Park, H. J. tuberculosis. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 12,
Tuberculosis of testis and prostate that mimicked e1580–e1593 (2018).
Competing interests
testicular cancer in young male soccer player. J. Exerc. 314. Kadhiravan, T. & Sharma, S. K. Medical management
A.Z. serves on the WHO and other global tuberculosis (TB)
Rehabil. 9, 389–393 (2013). of genitourinary tuberculosis. Indian J. Urol. 24,
expert advisory groups and committees and is editor of two
305. Weiner, J. 3rd et al. Metabolite changes in blood 362–368 (2008).
textbooks on TB, which were used as references. The other
predict the onset of tuberculosis. Nat. Commun. 9, 315. WHO. Guidelines on the management of latent
authors declare no competing interests.
5208 (2018). tuberculosis infection. WHO https://www.who.
306. Duffy, F. J. et al. Immunometabolic signatures predict int/tb/publications/latent-tuberculosis-infection/en/
risk of progression to active tuberculosis and disease (2019). Peer review information
outcome. Front. Immunol. 10, 52 (2019). 316. White, R. G., Hanekom, W. A., Vekemans, J. & Nature Reviews Urology thanks E. Kulchavenya and the other,
307. Fitzgerald, B. L. et al. Elucidation of a human urine Harris, R. C. The way forward for tuberculosis vaccines. anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer
metabolite as a seryl-leucine glycopeptide and as a Lancet Respir. Med. 7, 204–206 (2019). review of this work.
biomarker of effective anti-tuberculosis therapy. 317. Zumla, A. & Petersen, E. The historic and
ACS Infect. Dis. 5, 353–364 (2019). unprecedented United Nations General Assembly
Publisher’s note
308. MacLean, E. et al. A systematic review of biomarkers High Level Meeting on Tuberculosis (UNGA-HLM-TB)
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
to detect active tuberculosis. Nat. Microbiol. 4, —‘United to End TB: An Urgent Global Response to
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
748–758 (2019). a Global Epidemic’. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 75, 118–120
309. Zumla, A. et al. Host-directed therapies for infectious (2018).
diseases: current status, recent progress, and Review criteria
future prospects. Lancet Infect. Dis. 16, e47–e63 Acknowledgements We reviewed publications in English on the MEDLINE,
(2016). A.Z. receives a UK National Institutes of Health Research EMBASE and GOOGLE SCHOLAR for the period up to
310. Liu, C. et al. Quantification of circulating (NIHR) senior investigator award. A.Z. acknowledges support 1 September 2018 using the search terms “tuberculosis”
Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen peptides allows from the PANDORA-ID-NET grant from the EDCTP Reg/Grant or “TB” in combination with the terms “urological”, “genital”,
rapid diagnosis of active disease and treatment RIA2016E-1609), CANTAM2, TESA2 and EACCR2 EDCTP “uro-genital”, “epididymo-orchitis”, “kidney”, or “renal” or
monitoring. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114, Networks of Excellence grants, all funded by the European “ureter” or “bladder” or “testes” or “urethra” or “penis”
3969–3974 (2017). and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership (EDCTP2) or “infertility”; websites of global and national public health
311. Rao, M. et al. Improving treatment outcomes for programme, which is supported under Horizon 2020, the agencies such as WHO, US-Centres for Disease Control,
MDR-TB — novel host-directed therapies and European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and UK-Public Health England, European Centre for Disease
personalised medicine of the future. Int. J. Infect. Dis. Innovation. A.Z. and A.M. acknowledge support from the Prevention and Control (ECDC); The 2018 WHO Global
80S, S62–S67 (2019). NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at UCLH. Figures 3a, 3b, TB Report; specialist textbooks on tuberculosis; clinical
312. Skrahin, A. et al. Autologous mesenchymal stromal 3c, 3d, 3i, 7c, 7d and 7e were kindly provided by Professor guidelines developed by specialist societies; and relevant
cell infusion as adjunct treatment in patients with Sebastian Lucas, St Thomas’s Hospital, London. substantive reviews to inform readers of more references.

Reviews: Urogenital Tuberculosis - Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Reviews: Urogenital Tuberculosis - Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Reviews: Urogenital Tuberculosis - Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Clinical Features

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

REVIEWs

Urogenital tuberculosis — epidemiology,

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 573

Key points UG-TB can remain subclinical31 and, therefore, current

574 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

Table 1 | Routes, sources and modes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex transmission

of carcinoma in situ of the bladder leads to local or invasive disease (bladder,

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 575

latency following primary infection and reactivation Urogenital spread

Sources of infection Primary exposure No infection

Local infection cleared

Primary tuberculosis complex

Reactivation Latent TB infection Reactivation

Secondary infection (re-infection)

576 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 577

Routes of infection: Male Female

578 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 579

TB of the penis TB of the urethra

580 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 581

a b Ureteral TB. Symptoms of ureteral TB are non-specific and

Bladder TB. Symptoms of bladder TB are non-specific

Scrotal tuberculosis. Scrotal TB (TB epididymo-orchitis)

582 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 583

584 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

a c sent for microscopy should also be sent for culture and

Urine microscopy and culture

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 585

specificity, but sensitivity of GeneXpert is much higher

Urine-based TB diagnostic tests

586 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

Urine-based LAM assay infection with consequent renal involvement releasing

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 587

588 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 589

590 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

Hysterosalpingography other relevant investigations. Those with weight loss,

Diagnosis of latent TB infection Treatment of drug-sensitive TB. For drug-sensitive TB, a

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 591

592 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 593

594 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 595

596 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

NATuRe RevIeWS | URology volume 16 | OCTOBER 2019 | 597

598 | OCTOBER 2019 | volume 16 www.nature.com/nrurol

You might also like