JIGAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, DUTSE.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS 1
(TED 214)

For
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL
EDUCATION

Prepared By:
ZAID HABIBU

1ST SEMESTER, 2021/2022

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 SITE PLANNING, ORGANIZATION AND PREPARATION

Site Preparation of building construction project is an activity that must be done in order for other
activities to commence. The success or failure of site preparation sets the tone for other activities that
will be done on the site.
The definition of site preparation is enough to attest to the importance of this particular activity to
building construction.
WHAT IS SITE PREPARATION IN CONSTRUCTION?
Site preparation is the set of tasks or activities that are carried out before an engineer commences work.
The site that is prepared for new construction work is referred to as the old site or unfriendly site. This
is because the site and all that stands on it does support the building project that is about to commence
on it; hence, the need to carry out site preparation.
For instance, if a new building project needs to be done on a site that initially served as a gym house,
the old building needs to be removed for a new building to be erected. Site preparation is what makes
this possible.
Some of the preliminary site activities that are conducted before the actual commencement of
construction includes:

 Site investigation and

 Site Layout
 Site welfare facilities
 Storage and protection of materials
 Site fencing and hoarding
 Site clearance and excavation
 Leveling and setting out
 Ground water control.

SITE INVESTIGATION:
Before designing a foundation, reasonably accurate knowledge of the physical properties and
arrangement of the underlying materials is required. The field and laboratory investigations required to
obtain this essential information are called soil exploration or site investigation.
Site investigation - simply is the process of the collection of information, the appraisal of data,
assessment, and reporting without which the hazards in the ground beneath the site cannot be known.
Site investigation is carried out in order to enable a geotechnical and geo-environmental assessment of
the ground conditions and analysis of the engineering and environmental considerations related to the
proposed development.

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Purpose and Objectives of Site Investigation
The primary objective of a site investigation is to determine as accurately as may be required-
 The nature and sequence of strata;
 The ground water conditions at the site;
 The physical properties of soil and rock underlying the site;
 The mechanical properties, such as strength and compressibility of different soil or rock strata,
and
 Other specific information, when needed, such as the chemical composition of the
groundwater, and the characteristics of foundations of the adjacent structure.

SITE LAYOUT
These are a crucial part of construction management, as sites can be very complex places involving the
co-ordination and movement of large quantities of materials as well as high-value products, plant and
people. Effectively and accurately laying out a site can help ensure that the works are undertaken
efficiently and safely.
Careful sizing and positioning of temporary facilities can help reduce travel times, congestion, waiting
times, and so on, and help to make the site a more effective workplace with better worker morale.
Site layout planning involves four basic processes:

 Identifying the site facilities that will be required.

 Determining the sizes, and other constraints of those facilities.
 Establishing the inter-relationships between the facilities.
 Optimising the layout of the facilities on the site.

SITE WELFARE
The law says that clients and contractors have responsibilities regarding welfare facilities on
construction projects. Contractors provide welfare facilities and clients must ensure this happens.
Contractors must maintain the facilities throughout the life of the project. The nature and scale of
facilities required will depend on the size, location and type of project. Facilities include:

 Toilets

 Washing facilities

 Drinking water

 Changing rooms and lockers

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  Facilities for rest

Everyone who works on any site must have:

 Access to adequate toilet and washing facilities;
 A place for preparing and consuming refreshments; and
 Somewhere for storing and drying clothing and personal protective equipment.
If mobile teams work at a number of locations over a few days (e.g. road repair and cable-laying
gangs), these facilities can be provided at a central location accessible within a reasonable distance or
time.

STORAGE AND PROTECTION OF MATERIALS

Materials such as cement, timbers, bricks and blocks should be protected from weather by storing in a
shed or well stacked in a suitable position on the site, where they will not be liable to damage and are
adequately protected. Electrical and plumbing (sanitary) fittings should be kept in a locked shed to
avoid theft or breakage. Proper storage is necessary because saturated cement with time sets and
becomes hardened resulting to wastage. Saturation also affects the mortar or concrete strength. Water
is readily absorbed by timber causing deformation and rot, this should be avoided. A saturated brisk or
block will be very difficult to handle. They should be well protected.

SITE FENCING AND HOARDINGS

A permanent fence or a temporary hoarding will be required around the site. This is a barrier made of
block wall, wooden or metal stalk or rail or wire in some cases used old zinc to provide security and
protect equipment and materials, and to keep out intruders. It also protects the ugly sight of
construction and preserves the beauty till completion. The hoardings are removed after the completion
of the project. The hoardings should be well erected and in a safe manner so as not to cause injury to
workers or passersby.
SITE CLEARANCE AND EXCAVATION
The site should be cleared of the bushes, shrubs, trees, etc. which are on the building position and
around the storage and temporary facilities area.
Before any building is erected, it is essential that the area to be occupied by the building has the
vegetable top soil removed from site completely or placed on one side, and spread level over areas
after completion of the project to provide gardens. The organic content of the vegetable soil may be
injurious to concrete, and so it should never be used for backfilling, or making up levels under the
building. The path of excavation of topsoil is normally 150mm.
Leveling, land clearance and stripping of the topsoil are all easily achieved with a bulldozer.

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GROUND WATER CONTROL
Excavation and sample boreholes frequently reveal and locate a level of saturation within a few meters
below the surface. This is known as the water table and it varies with season. Excavation below the
water table will be difficult and the strength of any concrete placed in water will be seriously affected.
A pre-knowledge of this fact helps the contractor to be equipped and prepare with his diesel powered
water pump for the temporary removal of water during excavation and concreting.
SETTING OUT AND LEVELING
After the stripping of the topsoil and general site leveling, it is important that the structure is built in
the correct position as shown on the architect’s drawings. The position of a building is marked out with
string lines and pegs to indicate foundation trenches and walls. The frontage line (building line) is an
imaginary line shown on the site plan, or determined by the local authority, set back from the centre
line of the road way.

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 SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

Setting out is the process of developing the physical positions of corners and walls of a building, and
it’s done by transferring dimensions from the layout plan. Setting out clearly defines the outline of the
excavations and the center line of the walls, so that the construction can be carried out according to the
plan.
There are three main methods of setting out:
a) 3:4:5 method
b) Builder’s square method and
c) Theodolite method
(a) 3:4:5 Method: - This is based on the mathematical principle that any triangle with the sides in the
ration of 3:4:5 is a right angle. The method is as follows: - first you determine the building line and
established one corner of the building by driving a peg at that point. A tape is used to measure a
distance of 3m along the building line and a second peg is established with a nail on top. The ring of
the tape is held over the second peg with the 12m mark of the tape. With an assistant and with the 3m
mark of the tape around the corner peg, the tap is then stretched out to give the position of the third peg
at 7m mark. Now a line can then be extended through third peg to give the width of the building. The
line extended should be perpendicular or 90 0 to the building line. The above procedure is also carried
out for the rest corners and any possible intersection within the building. To check the accuracy of the
four-sided figure formed, the diagonals should be measured to be equal in length.

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 Figure 1: 3:4:5 Method of Setting Out
(b) Builder’s Square Method: This is similar to the 3:4:5 method, but in this case instead of using a
tape a steel builder’s square or a large timber square and a line are used to establish the corners. Two
pegs (P1, P2) with nails at their tops are driven along the building line. One at the corner. A line is then
held along the two pegs tied at P1 going round the corner peg P2, the building’s square is then held
with its external angle point at nail of the corner peg, while the line on P1, P2 is touching one entire
side of the square. This line is then pulled round P2 to touch the other entire side of the builder’s
square. Holding the line firm, a third peg is the driven down where the line touches the top of nail of
P3.

Figure 2: Builder’s Square Method of Setting Out

(c) Theodolite Method: This is the most accurate method of setting out of buildings. It involves using
a surveying instrument called the Theodolite. The theodolite is equipped with a telescope and cross
hair for sighting and ranging, with internal graduated readings in degrees for establishing bearings
(horizontal and vertical angles). The method is as follows

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 Figure 3: Theodolite Method of Setting Out

 Mount and set the instrument at point A, sight the telescope, range and peg out E and B to
establish the building line.

 Turn the theodolite screws and adjust the degree readings to 0.00. Turn the telescope of the
instrument on the tripod stand towards the right axis until you can sight 90 degrees wide.
Using the instrument clamp sight the telescope and range to establish and peg out points F
and C.

 Transfer the instrument to point C, and follow the same procedure at A, range A and F, set
the angle 0.00”, turn towards the right axis to sight and obtain 90 degrees and to establish
points G and D.

 Point H could be established by using a measuring tape.

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 Figure 4: A Setting Out Operation using Theodolite

BUILDING FOUNDATIONS

A foundation is defined as, that part of a structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which

super imposed loads and dead loads are transmitted or received. It is also an integral part of a building

which transfers the structural load from a building safely to the ground. Many at times, during the

construction of a building, the load on the foundation gradually increases and eventually, this will

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result in settlement if the settlement is slight and uniform throughout the area of the building, no

damage will occur to the building.

But if the settlement is extensive and unequal, serious damage may result in the form of cracked walls,

distorted doors and windows and in some cases failure may be completed by the collapse of the

building.

Selection of foundation types and design depends on the total building load and the nature and quality

of the subsoil. It is essential to achieve a satisfactory balance between the building load and subsoil

characteristics, otherwise overstressing of the subsoil will lead to excessive building settlement and

serious structural defects.

The purpose (importance) of foundation is to distribute the weight of the structure to be carried over a

sufficient area of bearing surface, so as to prevent the subsoil from spreading and to avoid settlement

of the structure. A foundation should safety sustain (Carry) and transmit to the ground the combined

dead load, imposed load and wind load, without impairing the stability of any part of the building.

A foundation is designed to support a number of different kinds of loads.

(a) The DEAD LOAD of the building, which is the sum of the weight of the frame, the floors,

roofs, and walls, electrical and mechanical equipment and the foundation itself.

(b) The LIVE (IMPOSED) LOAD, which is the sum of the weights of people in the building, the

furnishings, sanitary fixtures and the equipment they use, snow, ice and rain load on the roof.

(c) The WIND LOAD, which can apply literal, downward, and uplift load to a foundation.

SOILS IN FOUNDATION

Where the foundation of a building is on rock, no measurable settlement will occur, whereas the

building on soil will suffer settlement into the ground by the compression of the soil under the

foundation load. Some settlement on soil foundation cannot be avoided, because as the building is

erected, the load on the foundation increases and compresses the soil. This settlement must be limited
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to avoid damage. Bearing capacities for various rocks and soils determined and should not be exceeded

in the design of the foundation to limit the settlement.

Soils are classified with regards to their size, density and nature of the particles. Soil can be classified
into three broad groups namely coarse grained non-cohesive, fine grained cohesive and organic soils.
Coarse grained non-cohesive soil – This consist of coarse and larger siliceous product under pressure
from the loads on foundation. The soil in this group compresses and consolidates rapidly by some
rearrangement of the particles and expulsion of water.
A foundation on this type of soil settles rapidly by consolidation of the soil, as the building is erected,
so that there is no further settlement once building is completed.
Fine grained cohesive soils – This consists of natural deposits of the finest siliceous and aluminous
product or rock weathering such as clay. Clay is smooth and greasy to touch, it shows high plasticity,
dries slowly and shrinks appreciably on drying. Under pressure of load on foundations, clay soils are
gradually compressed by the expulsion of water from the soil so that the buildings settle gradually
during building work and this settlement may continue for some years after the building is completed.
Firm shrinkable clays suffer appreciable shrinkage on drying and expansion of firm clay under grass
extends to about 1 metre below the surface and up to 4m or more below large trees. Building on
shallow foundations should not be close to trees, shrubs and trees should be removed to clear a site for
building on firm clay subsoil. This is because gradual expansion or contraction (shrinkage) of the soil
will cause damage to the building by differential movement. This is as a result of the intake of subsoil
water by the tree roots.
Organic soils – Such as peat are not generally suitable foundation for buildings. Foundation of this
type soil are normally carried down to a reliable bearing stratum.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
There are four principal types of foundation: strip, pad, raft and pile foundations.
1. STRIP FOUNDATION
This type of foundation is a continuous level support for load bearing walls. It is usually made of a
continuous strip of concrete of 1:3:6 mix, and may be reinforced (1:2:6) mix for poor subsoil or high
loading. The continuous strip serves as a level base on which the wall in built and should be of such
width as to spread the load on the foundation to an area of subsoil capable of supporting the load

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without stress. The width of a concrete strip foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil,
the less the width of the foundation for the same load. The minimum width of a strip foundation is
450mm and least thickness is 150mm. they are suitable for low-rise construction.

Strip Foundation
2. PAD FOUNDATION
These are isolated pairs or column of brick, masonry or reinforced concrete often in the form of a
square or rectangle pad of concrete for supporting ground beans, and in turn supporting walls. It is very
economical to use pad foundation where the subsoil has poor bearing capacity for some depth below
the surface, rather than excavating deep trenches and raising wall in strip foundations. It is also used
where isolated columns are specified, especially in framed buildings. The spread of area of this type of
foundation depends on the load on the soil and the bearing capacity of the subsoil.

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3. RAFT FOUNDATION
In soft compressible subsoil, such as soft clay or peat subsoil. It is necessary to form a raft foundation
to spread over the whole base of the building. Raft foundation consists of a raft of reinforce concrete
under the whole of the building design to transmit the load of the building to the subsoil below the raft.
Relative settlement between the foundations of columns is avoided by the use of a raft foundation.

Raft Foundation
4. PILE FOUNDATION
Pile foundations are used where the subsoil has poor and uncertain bearing capacity and in poor
drained area where the water table is high and there is appreciable ground movement. Piles are usually
employed because in these types of subsoil, it might be necessary to excavate beyond 2m to meet a
stable stratum. And it is uneconomical to consider normal excavation beyond about 2m below the
ground level. The pile column of concrete either cast insitu or precast driven into the ground to transfer
the loads through the poor bearing soil to a more stable stratum. Boring is undertaken by a powered
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auger. The pile foundations are normally employed in the construction of bridges and oil platforms on
seas.

Pile Foundation

FLOORS

Floors are structural parts of a building. They are usually designed to be of either a timber or concrete
work.
Floors are built to divide the space enclosed by the external walls and roof horizontally. By providing a
number of floors at different levels, within a building, we create usable area. Floors must provide a

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level surface that is strong to support the users of the building including other furniture and equipment
that make up the imposed/live loading of that building. Floors are divided into two different groups in
relation with their position in the structure.
TYPES OF FLOORS
a. Ground Floor
b. Upper floors.
Functions of Floor
1. Floors must withstand loads that will be imposed on them.
2. Floors must prevent the growth of vegetable matter inside the building; this is achieved by the
provision of an oversite concrete bed for the ground floor.
3. Floors must prevent damp penetrating inside the building. By the provision of DPM of rubber
emulsion and polyethene film sheets below the floor screed, damp is eliminated from solid
ground floors. In the case of suspended timber ground floor, under floor ventilation is provided
to prevent stagnant moist air accumulating below it.
4. Floors must provide thermal insulation. This is taken care of by incorporating a layer of
insulating material to reduce the heat loss into the ground below.
5. Floors must provide an acceptable surface finish which will meet the needs of users in terms of
comfort, safety, cleanliness e.t.c. A floor screed will meet this requirement, and as well provide
falls for drainage purposes and give thermal insulation.
6. Floors must provide adequate sound insulation. The reduction in sound transmission will
depend on the mass of floor construction. Sound insulation is, however, not necessary in
ground floor because of its position in the building, but it is needed in upper floors.

WALLS

Walls are the vertical elements of a building which enclose the space within it and which may also
divide that space.

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Functional Requirements
 strength and stability
 weather resistance
 fire resistance
 thermal insulation
 sound insulation
Form of Construction
 Masonry (e.g. brick walls)
 Monolithic (e.g. concrete walls)
 Frame (e.g. timber stud)
 Membrane (e.g. sandwich)

FUNCTIONS OF A WALL
1. To enclose and protect a building
2. To serve as a means of dividing space within a building walls
3. To serve as protection against wind and rain

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 4. To support floor and roofs
5. To conserve heat within the building.
6. To protect the building against fire, excessive heat
7. To resist or minimize the transmission and absorption of sound especial solid block walls.
BRICKS
Bricks are small blocks manufactured from burnt clay that can be handled with one hand, and its length
is twice the width plus one mortar joint. Blocks made from sand and lime and blocks made of concrete
manufactured in clay brick size are also called bricks.
The standard size is 215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm which with 10mm mortar joint becomes 225mm x
112.5mm x 75mm.

BRICK BONDING
To build or construct a wall of brick or blocks, it is usual to lay the bricks in some regular pattern. The
brick courses or rows in a wall are arranged to ensure that each brick overlaps or bear upon two or
more bricks immediately below it. The process of laying the bricks across each other and binding them
together is called bonding. The amount of overlap and the part of the brick used determined the pattern
or bond of brickwork.
Bonding of bricks can also be defined as the arrangement of bricks in which no vertical joint of one
course is exactly over the one in the next course above or below it, and having the greatest possible
amount of lap which is usually at least ¼ of the length of a brick.
The main purpose of bonding is provide maximum strength, lateral stability and resistance to side
thrust, and it distributes vertical and horizontal loads over a large area of the wall. A secondary
purpose of bonding is to provide appearance (decoration).
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TYPES OF BRICK BONDS
The choice of any brick bond is influence by the following factors:
i. Prevailing environmental or site conditions
ii. Thickness of the wall
iii. The purpose for the wall construction, i.e. either strength or decoration.
The types of bonding are;
a. Stretcher bond
b. Header bond
c. English bond
d. Flemish bond
Stretcher Bond: - This type of bond is where bricks are laid with every brick showing a stretcher face
or long face on each side of the wall, hence the thickness of the wall is to be 102.5mm.

Header (Heading) Bond: - This arrangement shows the header face of every brick, smith 215mm
thickness. It is rarely in use, because it has no attractive finish (too many joints).

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English Bond: - This arrangement shows the bricks in one course or layer with their header faces and
in the course below and above show their stretcher faces.

Flemish Bond: - the arrangement here involves bricks in every course or layer showing alternating
header and stretcher faces. This bond is more attractive than the English bond, because the header face
of many bricks is dark, and they are separated in this bond as against the English where they are
continuous.

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BLOCKS

Blocks for building are wall units larger in size than a brick. They are made of concrete or clay.
(a) Sandcrete Blocks: - Are manufactured from Portland cement and aggregates, as solid and hollow
or cellular blocks. They are used both internally and externally for non-load-bearing and load bearing
walls respectively. Sandcrete blocks suffer moisture movement which cause cracking of plaster finish,
vertical joints are provides in long block walls of intervals of up to twice the height of the wall to resist
the cracking.

(b) Clay blocks: - Are made from selected bricks clay which are press molded and burnt. They are
lightweight blocks, hard, dense and hollow to reduce shrinkage during firing. They are made or
manufactured with grooves to provide a key for plaster. They suffer less moisture movement, are
resistant to fire, and are mainly used for non-load bearing partitions. Sizes are 290 long x 215 heights x
62.5, 75, 100 and 150 thick.
STONE MASONRY
Choice of stone for wall construction is generally limited to its availability in the construction area.
Great amount of natural stone deposits in some parts of the country is obvious from its abundant use as
external cladding in these areas. Classes of building stone include: -
 Igneous rock, formed from volcanic deposits, e.g. granite, basalt.
 Sedimentary rock disintegrated and reformed by centuries of rock wreathes e.g. sandstone,
limestone.
 Metamorphic rock disintegrated and reformed by pressurization or heat, e.g. marble, slate.

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PARTITION WALLS
Internal walls usually called partitions principally serve to divide the gross floor area of a building into
compartments or rooms.
A secondary purpose is to transmit floor and/or roof loads to a suitable foundation.
Functions of partition walling
1. To divide space within building
2. To carry and transmit loads to the ground
3. To serve as a barrier for sound transmission and
4. To provide privacy.

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 STAIRS

A stair is a series of steps arranged in such a manner as to connect different floors of a building. Stairs
are designed to provide as easy and quick access to different floors. A staircase is an enclosure which
contains the complete stairway.
Material for Stairs
Stairs may be constructed of Timber, Glass, Steel, Metal, Concrete, Wooden etc
Technical Terms
The definitions of some technical terms, which are used in connection with design of stairs, are given.
a. Tread or Going: horizontal upper portion of a step.
b. Riser: vertical portion of a step.
c. Rise: vertical distance between two consecutive treads.
d. Flight: a series of steps provided between two landings.
e. Landing: a horizontal slab provided between two flights.
f. Waist: the least thickness of a stair slab.
g. Winder: radiating or angular tapering steps.
h. Soffit: the bottom surface of a stair slab.
i. Nosing: the intersection of the tread and the riser.
j. Headroom: the vertical distance from a line connecting the nosings of all treads and the soffit above.

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 1. Inner string (closed). 7. Banister (or handrail).
2. Outer string (open). 8. Return nosing.
3. Tread. 9. Fascia.
4. Riser. 10. Landing.
5. Newel post. 11. Curtail.
6. Balusters.

Generally, stairs are of following types

1. Straight stairs
2. Quarter turn stairs
3. Half turn stairs
4. Three quarter turn stairs
5. Circular stairs
6. Bifurcated stairs

1. STRAIGHT STAIRS
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These are the stairs along which there is no change in direction on any flight between two successive
floors. The straight stairs can be of following types.
 Straight run with a single flight between floors
 Straight run with a series of flight without change in direction
 Parallel stairs
 Angle stairs
Straight stairs can have a change in direction at an intermediate landing. In case of angle stairs, the
successive flights are at an angle to each other. Scissor stairs are comprised of a pair of straight runs in
opposite directions and are placed on opposite sides of a fire resistive wall.

Straight Stair with Single Flight

Straight Stair with Two Flights

2. QUARTER TURN STAIRS
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They are provided when the direction of flight is to be changed by 90 0. The change in direction can be
effected by either introducing a quarter space landing or by providing winders at the junctions.

Quarter Turn Stairs

3. HALF TURN STAIRS

These stairs change their direction through 180 0. It can be either dog-legged or open newel type. In
case of dog legged stairs the flights are in opposite directions and no space is provided between the
flights in plan. On the other hand in open newel stairs, there is a well or opening between the flights
and it may be used to accommodate a lift. These stairs are used at places where sufficient space is
available.

Half Turn Stair

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 Half Turn Stairs

4. THREE QUARTER TURN STAIRS

These types of stairs change their directions through 270 0. In other words direction is changed three
times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one. In this type of construction an open well is formed.

Three-Quarter Turn Stairs

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5. CIRCULAR/SPIRAL STAIRS
These stairs, when viewed from above, appear to follow circle with a single centre of curvature and
large radius. These stairs are generally provided at the rear of a building to give access for servicing at
various floors. All the steps radiate from a newel post in the form of winders. These stairs can be
constructed in stone, cast iron or R.C.C.

Circular/Spiral Stairs
6. BIFURCATED STAIRS
These stairs are so arranged that there is a wide flight at the start which is subdivided into narrow
flights at the mid-landing. The two narrow flights start from either side of mid landing. Generally these
stairs are more suitable for modern public buildings.

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Bifurcated Stairs

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 ROOF

A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter
which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, but also heat, wind and
sunlight. The word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.
The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it covers, the available
roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concepts of architectural design and
practice and may also be governed by local or national legislation. In most countries a roof protects
primarily against rain. A verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but
admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain,
but admits light.
There are two parts to a roof, its supporting structure and its outer skin, or uppermost weatherproof
layer. In a minority of buildings, the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure.
The roof structure is generally supported upon walls.
Functions

 Insulation

Because the purpose of a roof is to protect people and their possessions from climatic elements, the
insulating properties of a roof are a consideration in its structure and the choice of roofing material.
Some roofing materials, particularly those of natural fibrous material, such as thatch, have excellent
insulating properties. For those that do not, extra insulation is often installed under the outer layer. In
developed countries, the majority of dwellings have a ceiling installed under the structural members of
the roof. The purpose of a ceiling is to insulate against heat and cold, noise, dirt and often from the
droppings and lice of birds that frequently choose roofs as nesting places.
Concrete tiles can be used as insulation. When installed leaving a space between the tiles and the roof
surface, it can reduce heating caused by the sun.

 Drainage

The primary job of most roofs is to keep out water. The large area of a roof repels a lot of water, which
must be directed in some suitable way, so that it does not cause damage or inconvenience.

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Flat roof of adobe dwellings generally have a very slight slope. In a Middle Eastern country, where the
roof may be used for recreation, it is often walled, and drainage holes must be provided to stop water
from pooling and seeping through the porous roofing material.
Areas prone to heavy snow benefit from a metal roof because their smooth surfaces shed the weight of
snow more easily and resist the force of wind better than a wood shingle or a concrete tile roof.

TYPES OF ROOFS

There are two most commonly classification of roofs namely; Flat roofs and Pitched roofs.

1. FLAT ROOFS

A roof which is approximately flat is called as a flat roof. Flat roofs aren’t actually flat but must slope
to drain water. Usually, a flat roof is built with a slight slope to provide some drainage. Normally a
slope of ¼ inch per foot is used. Commercial buildings generally have flat roofs.

Flat Roof

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 The Advantages of Flat Roofing

 Easy Construction: It is easy to construct a flat roof, so you do not have to worry about your
contractors running into an issue with the project.
 Flat Roofs Are Durable: If durability is important to you, then a flat roof is just the system for
you. A flat roof is water resistant, so you do not have to worry about water damage. If you are
using a flat concrete roof, then you are using a roofing system that holds up against heavy
winds. The risk of a fallout decreases when you opt for a flat roof on your home.
 Repairs Are Possible: If there is a problem, it is just as easy to repair the flat roof as it is to
construct it. The cost to repair or re-coat a flat roof is affordable compared to other roofing
systems. You can have your flat roof fixed without breaking the bank or putting a lot of stress
on yourself.
 Easy To Clean: A flat roof is easier to reach than most systems, which makes the maintenance
easy. You want to remove algae, mold, and stains from your roof regularly to prevent debris
from building up. Pressure washing is the best way to clean your flat roof without damaging it,
especially if you have a flat concrete roof.
The Disadvantages of Flat Roofing
 Lack of Drainage: The biggest disadvantage of a flat roof is the lack of drainage, and this is
why it is important to check your roof regularly. If you do not inspect it regularly, your drains
may become clogged with snow and water. You want to clean out the drains as needed and be
sure to use a waterproof seal regularly to prevent leaks. Remember, there are no slopes for the
water or snow to slide down.
 Debris and Dirt Can Build Up: Snow and water are not the only things that can cause problems
on a flat roof. Leaves, twigs, dirt and other debris can also clog up the drain, and this leads to
snow and water not draining properly. You can avoid a clogged drain by regularly inspecting
and cleaning the dirt and debris off your roof.
 A flat roof cannot be used for long spans without using columns and beams.
 In the areas of heavy rainfall, the flat roofs are not suitable.
 Initial cost is more.

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 2. PITCHED ROOFS

A pitched roof is a roof that slopes downwards, typically in two parts at an angle from a central ridge,
but sometimes in one part, from one edge to another. The ‘pitch’ of a roof is its vertical rise divided by
its horizontal span and is a measure of its steepness.

TYPES OF PITCHED ROOF

i. Gable roof

The term ‘gable’ refers to the triangle spot that is formed when the two pitched areas of the roof meet.
The gable roof is a very popular type of roof: easy to build, sheds water well, facilitates ventilation and
can be applied to most house designs.

ii. Hip Roof

Hip roof is slightly more difficult to build and usually has 4 sides. It’s a popular choice but does not
provide for ventilation. They do perform better in high wind areas.

Hip roof
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 iii. Dutch

Dutch roof is basically a hip roof with a small gable at either end. The result is easier access to the
lower portion of the roof with the added benefits of natural light and extra space.

Dutch Roof

iv. Butterfly roof

This is a very modern design that is aesthetically unique. It provides plenty of light and ventilation but
drainage is a problem.

Fig. 15. Butterfly roof

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 v. Mansard roof

It is a French design and is more difficult to build than the hip or gable roof. It actually features two
slopes within one on each side. The bottom part of the roof slope is steeper so that the pitch of the roof
barely starts. This allows more room on the inside and in most cases creates an extra space.

Fig. 16. Mansard Roof

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