Table of Contents

Resuscitation
Airway
Breathing
Circulation
Trauma
Symptoms Approach
Syncope
Altered Mental Status
Headache
Shortness of Breath
Chest Pain
Chest Pain Risk Stratification
Abdominal Pain
Pelvic Pain
Back Pain
Selected Emergencies
Anaphylaxis
Asthma
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Myocardial Infarction
Congestive Heart Failure
Cardiac Dysrhythmias
Vascular Emergencies
Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolus
Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Stroke
TIA
Diabetic Emergencies
Sepsis
Electrolyte Disturbances
ENT Emergencies
Urological Emergencies
Environmental Injuries
Orthopedic Injuries
Toxicological Emergencies
Pain Management
Clinical Decision Rules
Risk Stratification Scales
Advanced Cardiac Life Support
Point of Care Ultrasound
Resuscitation
Airway
Decision to Intubate
Failure to maintain or protect airway (e.g. low GCS, airway trauma)
Failure to ventilate/oxygenate (e.g. low or declining SpO2, rising pCO2)
Anticipatory (e.g. trauma, overdose, inhalation injury, anaphylaxis, inc. WOB)

Assessment
Difficult Bag-Valve Mask Ventilation “BOOTS”
B = Beard; O = Obese; O = Older; T = Toothless; S = Snores/Stridor
Difficult Intubation
Look for gestalt signs. Evaluate the 3-3-2 rule. Check for signs of obstruction,
swelling, trauma. Assess neck mobility.
Upper lip bite test: Concern if patient cannot bite past vermillion border
Difficult Supraglottic Device “RODS”
R = Restricted mouth opening; O = Obstruction, Obese
D = Disrupted or Distorted anatomy; S = Stiff lung or cervical Spine

Airway Techniques Airway Methods

Temporizing Measures -Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI)
Chin lift/jaw thrust, BVM, suctioning, -Awake oral intubation
nasal airway, oral airway, LMA -Oral intubation without any
Definitive Airway agents (ie. “crash” airway)
Orotracheal/nasotracheal intubation, Rescue Airways
surgical airway (percutaneous or -LMA
open cric) -Cricothyroidotomy

Rapid Sequence Intubation (6Ps)

Preparation
Prepare equipment and medications, use checklist if available
Pre-Oxygenation
100% FiO2, employ PEEP valve to improve recruitment
Pre-Treatment (Optional)
Increased ICP: fentanyl 3mcg/kg
Hypotension: fluids/vasopressors (infusion or push-dose)
Acidosis: bicarb (controversial), consider maintaining spontaneous respiration
Anxiolysis: midazolam 2-4mg
Positioning
Sniffing position, ramped position if obese, adjust bed height
Paralysis with Induction
Administration of sedative (i.e. ketamine, propofol, etomidate) followed by
muscle relaxant if indicated (i.e. succinylcholine or rocuronium)
Place Tube with Proof
Intubate patient and confirm tube placement (continuous waveform EtCO2)
Post-Intubation Management
Post-intubation analgesia, ongoing sedation, ventilator management, further
resuscitation.

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 1. Emergency Medicine Journal 2005; 22(2): 99-102.
Breathing
Definitions
Acute respiratory failure = pO2 <50mmHg +/- pCO2 >45mmHg
Hypoxic Respiratory Failure
Diffusion problem: pneumonia, ARDS
V/Q mismatch: PE, Asthma, COPD
Shunt
Low ambient FiO2: high altitude
Alveolar hypoventilation
Hypercarbic Respiratory Failure, Normal Lungs
Disorder of respiratory control: overdose, brainstem lesion, CNS disease
Neuromuscular disorders: muscular dystrophy, GBS, Myasthenia Gravis, ALS
Anatomic: trauma, ankylosing spondylitis, kyphosis/severe scoliosis
Hypercarbic Respiratory Failure, Abnormal Lungs
Increased airway resistance: AECOPD, asthma exacerbation
Decreased gas exchange: scarring, IPF

Assessment
Look Listen Feel
Mental status, colour, Auscultate for breath Tracheal deviation,
chest wall movement, sounds crepitus, flail segments,
accessory muscle use Signs of obstruction chest wounds
Paradoxical abdominal Air entering or escaping
movement Wheeze and stridor

Investigations
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, cardiac enzymes +/- D-dimer +/- BNP, VBG
Tests: POCUS, CXR +/- CT Chest

Management of Breathing
Spontaneously Breathing Patient
Nasal prongs
Face mask, Non-rebreather face mask
High flow nasal oxygenation (ie. MaxTech)
Temporizing Measures for Inadequate Ventilation
Bag-valve mask +/- nasal airway
CPAP/BiPAP: acute exacerbations of CHF, COPD, asthma
Definitive Measures for Inability to Maintain/Protect Airway
Oro-tracheal intubation
Surgical airway
Additional Modalities
Needle or finger thoracostomy for tension pneumothorax
Chest tube to drain pleural effusion/hemothorax/pneumothorax
Key References: Journal of Critical Care 2016; 34: 111-115. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine:
Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed, 2014; Chapter 2.
Circulation
Causes of Shock
Hemorrhage Third spacing
Hypovolemic
GI losses Dehydration
Shock Overdiuresis
Pulmonary embolism Valvular dysfunction
Obstructive Shock
Cardiac tamponade Congenital heart disease
(Intra-Thoracic) Tension pneumothorax Air embolism
Septic shock Drug overdose
Distributive Shock
Anaphylactic shock Adrenal crisis
(Vasodilation) Neurogenic shock
ACS Cardiac structural damage
Cardiogenic Shock Cardiomyopathy Dysrhythmias

Assessment
Clinical symptoms and signs suggestive of shock
Vitals: HR, BP, RR High initial lactate
Urine Output <0.5mL/kg/hr Skin mottling
Capillary refill time > 3 secs Altered mental status

Investigations
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, Cr, LFTs, TnI, VBG, lactate
Tests: CXR, ECG, POCUS – RUSH exam (cardiac, IVC, lungs, aorta)

Management
Perfusion Goals
Urine Output >0.5mL/kg/h, MAP >65mmHg, improved mentation, improved
cap refill time, lactate clearance (poor evidence)
Hemorrhagic Hypovolemic Shock: fill the tank
Control hemorrhage (tourniquets, direct compression, pelvic binders)
Fluids until blood available, blood product transfusion (1:1:1 of
pRBCs:platelets:FFP)
Obstructive Shock: alleviate obstruction
Tension pneumothorax: needle decompression then chest tube
Cardiac tamponade: IV crystalloids, pericardiocentesis
PE: IV crystalloid, inotropes, thrombolysis
Distributive Shock: source control, squeeze the pipes
Anaphylaxis: Epinephrine IM, IV crystalloids, antihistamines, corticosteroids
Sepsis: Broad-spectrum antibiotics, IV crystalloids +/- norepinephrine
Cardiogenic Shock: support forward flow
Norepinephrine 5mcg/min, dobutamine 2.5 mcg/kg/min
Treat underlying cause: cath lab, mechanical circulatory support (IABP,
Impella, VAD, ECMO), heart transplant
Cellular Toxins
Antidotes for various toxins (see toxicology)

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 6.
Trauma Resuscitation
Primary Survey
1. Airway 3. Circulation
Assess patency of airway, look for Assess LOC, signs of shock (HR, BP,
obstruction (blood, emesis, teeth, skin color, urine output, base deficits),
foreign body), ensure C-spine sources of bleeding (external, chest,
precautions, airway management abdomen, pelvis, femur)
2. Breathing 4. Disability
Expose chest, assess breathing, GCS assessment
auscultate for breath sounds, Neurological evaluation
rule out tension pneumothorax
5. Exposure/Environment
Fully expose patient, logroll patient to inspect for injuries, spine tenderness
and rectal exam for high-riding prostate and tone
Keep patient warm and dry to prevent hypothermia
Adjuncts
eFAST Exam: subxiphoid pericardial window, perisplenic, hepatorenal,
pelvic/retrovesical, bilateral anterior lung
Portable X-ray: chest, pelvis, grossly deformed limbs
ECG: evaluate for dysrhythmias

Investigations Trauma Triad of

Bloodwork: CBC, lytes, BUN, Cr, glucose, lactate, Death
INR/PTT, fibrinogen, B-hCG, tox bloodwork, T+C, U/A Coagulopathy
Imaging: CT (selective vs. pan-scan) - for stable Hypothermia
patients; unstable patients may require emergent OR
Acidosis
Management
General Resuscitation
Immediate hemorrhage control (Stop the Bleed)
Blood transfusion: balanced resuscitation to avoid dilutional coagulopathy
Tranexamic acid: 1g IV over 10 minutes then 1g IV over 8 hours
Consider permissive hypotension
Head Trauma
Seizure management/prophylaxis, treat suspected raised ICP, neurosurgical
intervention for severe head injury/bleeds
Spinal Cord Trauma
Complete immobilization, treat neurogenic shock, consult spine service
Chest Trauma
Airway management, bedside resuscitative thoracotomy in arrest, surgery for
life-threatening lung, diaphragmatic, esophageal, aortic, myocardial injuries
Abdominal Trauma
Laparotomy for hemodynamically unstable and hollow organ injuries
Orthopedic Injuries
Reduce and immobilize when possible, irrigate open fractures, assess for
neurovascular and skin compromise, adequate analgesia, consult ortho

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 36. ATLS Manual, ACS – 9th ed, 2012.
Symptoms Approach
Syncope
Definition: sudden and transient loss of consciousness and loss of
postural tone accompanied by a rapid return to baseline
Pathophysiology: dysfunction of both cerebral hemispheres or the
brainstem (reticular activating system) usually from hypo-perfusion

Differential Diagnosis
Rhythm Disturbances: dysrhythmias, pacemaker issues
Cardiac Structural: outflow obstruction (aortic stenosis, HOCM), MI
Other CV diseases: dissection, cardiomyopathy, PE
Vasovagal: sensory or emotional reactions
Orthostatic: postural related, volume
Reflex
depletion
(neurally
Situational: coughing, straining
mediated)
Carotid sinus pressure: shaving
Non- Subclavian steal: arm exercises
Cardiac CCBs, B-blockers, digoxin, insulin
Medications QT prolonging meds
Drugs of abuse
Focal CNS Hypoxia, epilepsy, dysfunctional brainstem
Hypoperfusion

Assessment
History: syncope character (ask about exertion!), cardiac risk factors,
comorbidities, medication/drug use, family history, orthostatic symptoms
Rule out seizure/stroke/head injury
Physical Exam: cardiac exam (murmurs, rate), CNS exam

Investigations
Labs: CBC, glucose, lytes, extended lytes, BUN/Cr, CK/TnI, B-hCG
ECG intervals ECG rates
Short PR: WPW Tachydysrhythmias: SVT, Afib, Vtach,
Long PR: conduction blocks Vfib
Deep QRS: HOCM Bradyarrhythmias: AV conduction blocks,
Wide QRS: BBB, Vtach, WPW sinus node dysfunction
QT intervals: Long QT syndromes

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, IV access
Cardiogenic Syncope
Consult cardiology for workup, pacemaker consideration
Non-Cardiogenic Syncope
Benign causes or low-risk syncope: discharge with GP follow-up
Consider outpatient cardiac workup
Risk Stratification Prediction Rules
Canadian Syncope Risk Score

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 15. CMAJ 2011; 183(15): 1694-1695. CMAJ 2016; 188(12): E298.
Altered Mental Status
Definition: decrease in LOC caused by either diffuse CNS dysfunction
(toxic/metabolic causes) or primary CNS disease
Differential Diagnosis
Drugs
Abuse: Opiates, benzodiazepines, alcohol, illicit drugs
Accidental: Carbon monoxide, cyanide
Prescribed: Beta-blockers, TCAs, ASA, acetaminophen, digoxin
Withdrawal: Benzodiazepines, EtOH, SSRIs
Infection
CNS: meningitis, encephalitis, cerebral abscess
Systemic: sepsis, UTI, pneumonia, skin/soft tissue, bone/joint,
intraabdominal, iatrogenic (indwelling lines or catheter), bacteremia
Metabolic
Kidneys: electrolyte imbalance, renal failure, uremia
Liver: hepatic encephalopathy
Thyroid: hyper or hypothyroid
Pancreas: hypoglycemia, DKA, HHS
Structural
Bleeds: ICH, epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, SAH
Brain: Stroke, seizures, surgical lesions, hydrocephalus
Cardiac: ACS, dissection, arrhythmias, shock

Assessment
History: collateral from family/friends/EMS, onset and progression,
preceding events, past medical history, medications, history of trauma,
comparison to baseline
Physical Exam: ABCs, primary survey, vital signs including temp and
glucose, rapid neurological exam (GCS and focal neurological deficits)
Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, glucose, BUN, Cr, LFTs, INR/PTT, serum osmolality,
VBG, troponin, urinalysis, toxicology panel
Tests: ECG, CXR, CT head
Management
General
Monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access
Airway management for declining GCS and inability to protect airway
Treatment
Treat underlying cause, universal antidotes (dextrose, oxygen,
naloxone, thiamine), broad-spectrum Abx, warm/cool, BP control
Disposition
Consider admission for working up underlying cause
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 16.
Headache
Common Types
Migraine: POUND (pulsatile, onset 4-72hrs, unilateral, N/V, disabling
intensity), photophobia/phonophobia, chronic, recurrent, +/- aura
Cluster: unilateral sudden sharp retro-orbital pain, <3 hours usually at
night, pseudo-Horner’s symptoms, precipitated by alcohol/smoking
Tension: tight band-like pain, tense neck/scalp muscles, precipitated
by stress or lack of sleep

Differential Diagnosis
Intra-cranial Extra-cranial
Bleed: epidural, subdural, subarachnoid, Acute angle closure glaucoma
intracerebral hemorrhage Temporal arteritis
Infection: meningitis, encephalitis, brain Carotid artery dissection
abscess CO Poisoning
Increased ICP: mass, cerebral venous Pregnancy-related headaches
sinus thrombosis

Assessment
History: red flags (sudden onset, thunderclap, exertional onset,
meningismus, fever, neurological deficit, AMS), symptoms of increased
ICP (persistent vomiting, headache worse lying down and in AM)
Physical Exam: vitals, detailed neuro exam (cranial nerves, gait,
coordination, motor/sensory, reflexes), neck for meningeal irritation,
eye exam (slit lamp, IOP), temporal artery tenderness

Investigations
Neuroimaging to rule out deadly causes. Most benign headaches do NOT
need further investigation. Refer to Ottawa SAH Rule.
LP: if CT head negative (>6h from onset) but suspicion of SAH
ESR/CRP: if suspect temporal arteritis

Management
Common Benign Headache Regimen
Fluids: No clear evidence but consider in dehydrated patient
Antidopaminergic: Metoclopramide 10mg IV
Antihistamine: Diphenhydramine 25mg IV
Analgesic: Acetaminophen 1g PO
NSAIDs: Ketorolac 15-30mg IV or Ibuprofen 600mg PO
Steroids: Dexamethasone 10mg PO/IV (rebound migraine prophylaxis)
Non-Traditional Uses
Cluster Headaches: oxygen, sumatriptan, verapamil
Refractory Headaches: magnesium, lidocaine, propofol, ketamine, valproate
Nerve Blocks: greater occipital nerve, sphenopalatine block, trigger points

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 20. Headache 2016; 56: 911-940.
Shortness of Breath
Definitions
Tachypnea: RR >18 in adults
Hyperpnea: high minute ventilation to meet metabolic demands
Orthopnea: dyspnea lying flat
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea: sudden dyspnea at night

Differential Diagnosis
Pulmonary Cardiac
Airway obstruction Pulmonary edema
Respiratory failure (refer to Type 1 Myocardial infarction
vs Type 2 in “Breathing” section) Cardiac tamponade
Anaphylaxis Pericardial effusion
Pulmonary embolism Arrhythmias
Tension pneumothorax
Toxic-metabolic Neuro-endocrine
Toxin ingestion (organophosphates, Thyrotoxicosis
CO poisoning) Guillain-Barre syndrome
Sepsis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Acidosis (DKA, lactic, etc.) Multiple sclerosis

Assessment
History: OPQRST, recent travel, trauma, PE risk factors (Wells Criteria,
PERC rule), sick contacts
Physical Exam: appearance, signs of respiratory distress, cardiac/resp
exam
Investigations
Blood work: CBC, lytes, BUN/Cr, VBG, cardiac enzymes +/- D-dimer
Tests: ECG, POCUS, CXR (portable if unstable)

Management
General
Monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access, ABCs
Intubate
If not protecting airway or significant respiratory distress
Empiric Treatment
Trauma: ATLS guidelines
Anaphylaxis: epinephrine, antihistamines, steroids, fluids
Cardiac causes: see various cardiac sections below
Asthma/COPD: oxygen, bronchodilators, corticosteroids +/-
antibiotics
Infection: antibiotics, consider broad-spectrum if septic

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 25.
Chest Pain
Differential Diagnosis
Deadly Six (PET MAC) Cardiac
Pulmonary embolism Pericarditis
Esophageal rupture/mediastinitis Myocarditis
Tension pneumothorax Endocarditis
Myocardial infarction
Aortic dissection
Cardiac tamponade
Respiratory GI
Pneumonia Esophagus – Mallory-Weiss tear,
Pleural effusion esophageal spasm
Acute chest syndrome (sickle cell) Stomach – GERD, dyspepsia/PUD
Lung or mediastinal mass Pancreas - pancreatitis
Gallbladder - biliary colic,
cholecystitis, cholangitis
MSK Other
Intramuscular pain Panic attack
Rib pathology Herpes Zoster

Assessment
History: character of pain, cardiac risk factors (see HEART score), PE
risk factors (see PERC rule), recent trauma, neuro symptoms
Physical Exam: appearance, cardiac exam, resp exam, neuro screen,
vitals + pulse deficits
Investigations
Tests: ECG, CXR +/- CTPA
Labs: CBC, lytes, abdo panel, CK/TnI +/- D-dimer
Management
General ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access, equipment
ACS ASA, nitro (avoid in RV infarct), clopidogrel/ticagrelor,
UFH, code STEMI (PCI vs. thrombolytics)
PE Anticoagulation +/- thrombolysis for massive PE
Esophageal Urgent thoracics consult, IV antibiotics, NPO, further
rupture imaging
Tension Needle decompression (2nd ICS at MCL) then chest tube
pneumothorax (4th or 5th ICS)
Tamponade Pericardiocentesis
Dissection Urgent vascular consult, reduce BP and HR with IV
labetalol, surgery vs. medical management
Disposition Diagnosis and risk stratification dependent

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 26.
Chest Pain Risk Stratification
HEART Score
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Patients ≥21 years old New STEMI >1mm or other new ECG changes,
presenting with symptoms hypotension, life expectancy <1 year,
suggestive of ACS noncardiac medical/surgical/psychiatric illness
H = History
0 = slightly suspicious
+1 = moderately suspicious
+2 = highly suspicious
E = ECG
0 = normal
+1 = No ST depression but LBBB, LVH, repolarization changes
+2 = ST depression/elevation not due to LBBB, LVH, or digoxin
A = Age
0 = age < 45
+1 = age 45 – 64
+2 = age ≥ 65
R = Risk factors
Risk factors = HTN, hypercholesterolemia, DM, obesity (BMI >30), smoking
(current or smoking cessation ≤3 months), positive FHx (parent/sibling with
CVD <65yo), atherosclerotic disease (prior MI, PCI/CABG, CVA/TIA, or PVD)
0 = No known risk factors
+1 = 1-2 risk factors
+2 = ≥3 risk factors or history of atherosclerotic disease
T= Troponin (initial)
0 = initial troponin ≤normal limit
1 = initial troponin 1-2X normal limit
2 = initial troponin > 2X normal limit
Interpretation
Scores 0-3: 0.9 – 1.7% risk of MACE Use the HEART Pathway (HEART score
Score 4-6: 12-16.6% risk of MACE + delta TnI) to further lower risk of
Score ≥7: 50-65% risk of MACE MACE (not prospectively validated but
1% risk of MACE in retrospective data)

PERC Rule
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Patients where pre-test Moderate to high risk for PE
probability of PE is
considered to be low-risk
(<15%)
Patients can be safely ruled out and do not require further workup
if no criteria are positive:
Age ≥50, HR ≥100, SaO2 <95% on room air, unilateral leg swelling,
hemoptysis, recent surgery or trauma (<4 weeks ago), prior PE or DVT,
hormone use (OCPs, hormone replacement, estrogen)

Key References: Neth Heart J. 2008; 16(6): 191-6. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6(5): 772-80.
Abdominal Pain
Differential Diagnosis
RUQ Epigastrium LUQ
Hepatitis Gastritis Pancreatitis*
Biliary colic Dyspepsia/PUD Gastritis
Cholecystitis/Cholangitis* Duodenitis Pneumonia
Pancreatitis* Pancreatitis* Pleural effusion
Pneumonia Cardiac – ACS* PE*
Pleural effusion
PE*
Right Flank Umbilicus Left Flank
Colitis Colitis Colitis
Perforation* Perforation* Perforation*
Obstruction* Obstruction* Obstruction*
Renal colic Aortic dissection* Renal colic
Pyelonephritis AAA* Pyelonephritis
AAA* Early appendicitis AAA*
RLQ Hypogastric LLQ
Appendicitis UTI (Cystitis) Diverticulitis*
Ectopic pregnancy* Renal colic Ectopic pregnancy*
PID, TOA Obstruction PID, TOA
Testicular torsion, Testicular torsion,
epididymitis, orchitis epididymitis, orchitis
Ovarian torsion Ovarian torsion
Renal colic Renal colic

Can’t-Miss Diagnoses* Risk Factors

Ruptured Ectopic Hx of STI/PID, recent IUD, previous ectopic,
smoking, fallopian tube surgery, tubal ligation
Ruptured AAA Elderly, hx HTN/DM, smoking, trauma hx
Pancreatitis Alcohol use, biliary pathology
Cholangitis Charcot’s Triad: fever, RUQ pain, jaundice
Mesenteric Ischemia Elderly, CAD, CHF, dehydration, infection
Obstruction Operative or malignant history, elderly
Perforated Viscus Risk factors for diverticulitis or PUD, malignancy
or instrumentation (i.e. colonoscopy)
Comp. Diverticulitis Elderly, low-fibre diet, Western population
Assessment
History: OPQRST, associated symptoms (N/V, fever, chills, bowel movement,
urinary symptoms, pelvic discharge/bleeding)
Physical Exam: abdominal exam +/- pelvic exam, cardiac/resp exam
Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, BUN/Cr, LFTs, lipase, lactate, B-hCG +/- CK/TnI
Tests: ECG, CXR, POCUS
Radiology performed U/S (biliary pathology, ectopic, AAA), CT abdo/pelvis
Management
ABCs, NPO, analgesics, anti-emetics, consult surgery as needed
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 27.
Pelvic Pain
Differential Diagnosis
Gynecological
Ovaries: Ruptured cyst, abscess, torsion
Fallopian tubes: Salpingitis, tubal abscess, hydrosalpinx
Uterus: PID, endometriosis, fibroids
Pregnancy related (1st trimester): Ectopic pregnancy, threatened
abortion, ovarian hyperstimulation
Pregnancy related (2nd-3rd trimester): Placental abruption, round
ligament pain, Braxton-Hicks contractions
Other: Bartholin abscess
Urinary Tract Urological Other
Urolithiasis Testicular torsion Sexual or physical
Pyelonephritis Prostatitis abuse
Cystitis

Assessment
History: OPQRST, associated symptoms (vaginal bleeding, discharge,
dyspareunia, bowel or bladder symptoms), pregnancy and sexual history
Physical Exam: vitals, abdominal exam
Pelvic exam (assess cervical motion tenderness, adnexal tenderness)
Speculum exam (look for discharge, blood, take samples as needed)

Investigations:
Labs: CBC, lytes, BUN/Cr, b-hCG, +/- vaginal and cervical swabs
Tests: PoCUS – rule out ectopic, free fluid assessment
Formal abdo/pelvic ultrasound

Management
General
ABCs, IV access, analgesia, antiemetics, +/- admit and consult
Ovarian Cyst
Uncomplicated: analgesia with follow-up
Hemoperitoneum or hemodynamically unstable: surgery
Ovarian Torsion/Testicular Torsion
Surgical detorsion or removal
PID
Severe infection: admit with IV antibiotics (cefoxitin 2g IV q6h IV +
doxycycline 100mg IV q12h x24hrs then switch to PO)
Mild-moderate infection: Ceftriaxone 250mg IM x 1 + doxycycline
100 PO BID x 14 days

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 33.
Back Pain
Deadly Differential Diagnosis
Spinal Vascular
Cauda equina and spinal cord Aortic Dissection
compression: Ruptured AAA
Spinal metastasis Pulmonary Embolism
Epidural abscess/hematoma Myocardial Infarction
Disc herniation
Spinal fracture with subluxation
Meningitis
Vertebral osteomyelitis
Transverse myelitis

Assessment
History: fracture history, cancer risk, infection risk, steroid use,
red flags (BACK PAIN): Bowel/Bladder dysfunction, Anesthesia (saddle),
Constitutional symptoms (night pain, weight loss, fever/chills), Chronic
disease, Paresthesias, Age >50, IVDU/infection, Neurological deficits
Physical: vitals + pulse deficits, inspect skin for infection/trauma, abdo
exam for AAA, cardiac exam (aortic murmur), MSK lower back exam,
neuro exam (lower extremity, reflexes, rectal tone), post void residual

Investigations
Bloodwork: usually not indicated unless suspected infection (CBC, ESR,
CRP)
Bedside U/S : rule out AAA, look for bladder distention post-void
PVR: cauda equina syndrome (PVR > 200cc has sensitivity of 90% for
CES)

Management
Cauda Equina Syndrome
Urgent MRI, spine consult, analgesia, IV dexamethasone
Aortic Dissection
Immediate specialist consultation, IV labetalol to control HR and BP
Ruptured AAA
Blood resuscitation, immediate OR if unstable
Epidural Abscess or Vertebral Osteomyelitis
MRI to definitively diagnose +/- bone scan (osteomyelitis), broad
spectrum antibiotics, orthopedics consult
MSK Back Pain
Analgesia: Acetaminophen, NSAIDs
Multidisciplinary approach with GP follow-up

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 35.
Selected Emergencies
Anaphylaxis
Definition: life-threatening immune hypersensitivity systemic reaction
leading to histamine release, vascular permeability, and vasodilation
Common Triggers: foods (egg, nuts, milk, fruits), meds (antibiotics,
NSAIDs), insect bites, local anesthetics, occupational allergens,
aeroallergens
Differential Diagnosis: shock (of any etiology), angioedema, flush
syndrome, asthma exacerbation, red man syndrome (vancomycin)

Diagnostic Criteria:
Acute onset (minutes to hours) + ANY of the following three:
Involvement of skin +/- mucosa WITH EITHER respiratory difficulty or low BP
Exposure to likely allergen with 2 of 4 signs:
Skin-mucosal involvement (urticarial, angioedema, flushing, pruritis)
Respiratory difficulties (dyspnea, wheezing, stridor, hypoxemia, rhinitis)
Low BP (hypotonia, syncope, pre-syncope, headache, collapse)
GI symptoms (abdo pain, cramps, N/V)
Low BP after exposure to known allergen

Assessment
General: TREAT FIRST, ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access
appearance, respiratory distress, visualize swelling (lips, tongue,
mucous membrane)
History: exposure to any known or likely allergen, co-morbidities,
recent medication use, family history, atopy

Management
General Management
If need to protect airway: ketamine as induction agent
Epinephrine: 0.3-0.5 mg IM (1:1000 conc.) to anterolateral thigh q5-10 mins
Antihistamines: Benadryl 50mg IV/PO, Ranitidine 50mg IV/150mg PO
Steroids: Methylprednisolone 125mg IV/prednisone 50mg PO
Fluids: 0.5 – 1 L NS bolus
Refractory Hypotension
Epinephrine drip 1-10ug/min IV (titrate to desired effect)
Consider norepinephrine 0.05 – 0.5ug/kg/min
Patients with Beta-Blockers
If epinephrine unsuccessful, glucagon 1-5mg IV over 5-10 mins followed by 5-
15ug/min infusion
Disposition
May discharge as early as 2 hours if stable.
Education to avoid allergen, consider allergy testing, Epi-pen prescription
Meds at discharge: Benadryl 50mg PO OD, Ranitidine 150mg PO OD and
prednisone 50mg PO OD x3 days

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 109. The World Allergy Organization Journal 2011; 4(2): 13-37.
Asthma
Definition: chronic inflammatory airway disease with recurrent
reversible episodes of bronchospasm and variable airflow obstruction
Triggers: URTIs, environmental allergens, smoking, exercise

Classification (CAEP/CTS Asthma Severity):

Respiratory Arrest/Fatal
Appearance: altered mental status, cyanotic, decreased resp. effort
Vitals: low HR, high RR, low O2 sat <90% despite oxygen
Exam: Silent chest – consider preparing for advanced airway intervention
Severe
Appearance: agitated, diaphoretic, labored respirations, difficulty speaking
Vitals: high HR, high BP, O2 sat 90-95%
Exam: worsening resp. distress, exp/insp. wheezing, FEV1 <40% predicted
Moderate
Appearance: SOB at rest, cough, congestion, nocturnal symptoms
Vitals: O2 sat >95%
Exam: exp. wheezing, FEV1 40-60% predicted
Mild
Appearance: SOBOE, chest tightness
Vitals: O2 sat >95%
Exam: exp. wheezing, FEV1 >60% predicted
Assessment
History: triggers, recent infection, thorough asthma hx including prior
exacerbations, hospitalizations + interventions/ICU stays, family history
Asthma Control Criteria: daytime symptoms <4/week, no exercise limitation,
no absenteeism, no nocturnal symptoms, rescue puffer <4/week, normal PFT,
exacerbations mild/infrequent
Physical Exam: vitals, sign of distress, accessory muscle use, respiratory exam

Investigations: CXR, ECG +/- VBG, +/- PEFR (to estimate FEV1), bloodwork
(CBC – infection, lytes – potassium)

Management
Treat Exacerbation (“0.5 – 5 - 50”)
Ipratropium bromide 0.5mg neb OR 4-8 puffs via MDI+spacer q20mins x 3
Salbutamol 5mg neb OR 4-8 puffs via MDI+spacer q20mins x 3
Prednisone 50mg oral
NOTE: MDIs are superior to nebs unless patient too tachypneic to use MDI
Severe Asthma
MgSO4 2g IV over 30 mins
Epinephrine 0.3mg IM then 5mcg/min IV infusion
Ketamine 1mg/kg (in conjunction with BiPAP)
Respiratory failure
Consider NiPPV first (BiPAP)
Intubate (LAST RESORT): ketamine 1mg/kg IV + succinylcholine 1.5mg/kg IV
Involve ICU early
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 73. CMAJ 1996; 155(1): 25-37.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Risk Factors: smoking (#1), occupational dust, chemical exposure
Triggers of AECOPD: viral URTI, pneumonia, environmental allergens or
pollutants, smoking, CHF, PE, MI

Assessment
Cardinal Symptoms: ↑ SOB, ↑ sputum production, ↑ sputum purulence
Key Elements on History: duration of symptoms, severity of airflow
limitation, number of previous episodes (total/hospitalizations), co-
morbidities, premorbid functional status, present treatment regimen,
previous use of mechanical ventilation, use of home oxygen
Clinical Signs of Severity: rapid shallow pursed-lip breathing, use of
accessory muscles, paradoxical chest wall movements, worsening or
new onset central cyanosis, peripheral edema, hemodynamic
instability, decreased LOC or confusion, decreased O2 sat

Investigations
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, VBG, lactate
Tests: CXR, ECG, pulse oximetry

Management
Oxygen
Venturi masks (high-flow devices) preferred over nasal prongs
Target SaO2: >88% Goal PaO2 = 60-65 mmHg
Bronchodilators
SABA: salbutamol 2.5-5mg via nebulizer or 4-8 puffs via MDI with spacer
q15mins x3 prn
Anticholinergic: Ipratropium bromide 500mcg via nebulizer or 4-8 puffs
q15mins x3 prn
Systemic Corticosteroids
Oral is equivalent to IV in most exacerbations
Oral prednisone 40-60mg for 5-10 days
IV methylprednisolone 125 mg BID-QID (for severe exacerbations or not
responding to oral steroids)
Antibiotics
Indication: ≥2 of: 1) ↑ sputum production 2) ↑ sputum purulence 3) ↑ SOB
Simple exacerbation: amoxicillin, 2nd/3rd gen cephalosporin, macrolide,
doxycycline or TMP/SMX
Complicated exacerbation: fluoroquinolone or amoxicillin/clavulanate
Ventilation
NIPPV such as CPAP or BiPAP (consider in respiratory acidosis, severe dyspnea
or distress)
Intubation
For life-threatening exacerbations, failed NIPPV, altered LOC, severe
hypoxemia, cardiovascular instability, respiratory or cardiac arrest

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 74. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 187(4):347-365.
Myocardial Infarction
Definition: evidence of myocardial ischemia on the spectrum of ACS (unstable
angina, NSTEMI and STEMI). Diagnosed by cardiac marker abnormalities and one
of: ECG changes or HPI consistent with ACS.
Stable Angina
Transient episodic chest discomfort secondary to myocardial ischemia
Precipitated by exertion or emotion, lasts < 15 mins, relieved by rest or nitro
Unstable Angina
Angina with minimal exertion or at rest, new-onset angina, angina post
MI/PCI/CABG, worsening change from baseline angina, increased duration of
pain or threshold, or decreased response of previously effective angina meds
NSTEMI
Infarction without ST elevation
STEMI
Infarction with ST elevation: ≥1mm STE in 2 contiguous leads
For V1 – V3 leads: >1.5 mm for females; >2.5 mm for males under 40; >2mm
for males over 40
Assessment
History: character of pain, associated symptoms (diaphoresis, radiating pain,
vomiting, and exertional pain have highest LRs for AMI)
Classic Risk Factors: male, smoking, diabetes, HTN, FHx, dyslipidemia
Atypical Features in: women, elderly, diabetics, non-Caucasians, dementia
Complications of AMI: arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock, papillary muscle
rupture, pericarditis, stroke
Physical Exam: vitals, cardiac exam, resp exam, pulses, signs of complications
Investigations: ECG (ST-T changes, new BBB, pathological Q waves), CXR
Labs: CBC, lytes, cardiac enzymes
Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access
Pain control: NTG (avoid for RV infarcts) or morphine if resistant to NTG
ACEi, B-blockers, Statins
Atorvastatin 80 mg PO in STEMI. Do NOT delay transfer to cath lab for statin
No role for initiating ACEi or B-blocker in the ED
ACEi, B-blocker + statins likely to be initiated during hospital admission (<24-
48 hrs from time of presentation)
Antiplatelet Therapy
ASA 325 mg chewed
Clopidogrel 300mg PO OR ticagrelor 180mg PO (if going for primary PCI)
Antithrombotic Therapy
Primary PCI: UFH 4000 units (max) then 12 U/kg/hr
Fibrinolytics: enoxaparin or fondaparinux IV bolus then sc dose daily
Goals
Primary PCI: within 90 mins of hospital arrival
Lytics: <12 hours of symptoms OR cannot get to PCI centre within 120 mins,
given within 30 mins of hospital arrival
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 78. Circulation 2013; 127:00-00.
Congestive Heart Failure
Etiology: CAD, HTN, valve abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, infarction,
pericardial disease, myocarditis, cardiac tamponade, metabolic
disorders (i.e. hypothyroidism), toxins, congenital

Precipitants of CHF exacerbation

Cardiac Medications
Ischemia, dysrhythmias, Forgot meds, negative inotropes
mechanical complications (i.e. (CCB, b-blocker), NSAIDs, steroids
papillary muscle rupture)
High Cardiac Output Other
Anemia, infection, pregnancy, Lifestyle (high salt intake), renal
hyperthyroidism failure, PE, HTN

Assessment
Symptoms Signs
Left-sided: SOB, PND, fatigue, General: Tachypnea, tachycardia,
orthopnea, angina, syncope, hypertension, hypotension, weak
altered mental status, cough + pulses
wheeze (pulmonary congestion) Left-sided: hypoxia, crackles,
Right-sided: fatigue, abdominal wheezes, S3 or S4
distension, leg swelling, weight Right-sided: pitting edema, JVP
gain, nocturia elevation, hepatomegaly, ascites

Investigations
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, AST, ALT, BUN, Cr, Troponin, BNP (or NT-
proBNP)
Tests: CXR, ECG, PoCUS (systolic function, pulmonary edema)

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, 100% O2 non-rebreather facemask, vitals, IV access,
position upright, +/- Foley catheter, treat precipitating factor
Morphine 1-2 mg IV prn
First-line
Nitroglycerin 0.4mg sl q5min (if sBP>100) +/- topical nitroglycerin
patch (0.2-0.8mg/h)
Furosemide: double home dose, 20 mg IV if furosemide naive
Second-line
Double furosemide dose
Nitroglycerin infusion if acute distress (start 10 mcg/min and titrate)
If hypotensive (sBP<90): norepinephrine 2-12 mcg/min or dobutamine
2.5mcg/kg/min

Key References: Canadian Journal Cardiology 2007; 23(1): 21-45. Circulation 2009; 119:
1977-2016. Journal of Cardiac Failure 2010; 16(6): e134-156
Cardiac Dysrhythmias
Causes:
Enhanced Automaticity: MI, drugs, toxins, lyte imbalances
Triggered Activity: Torsades de Pointes, post-MI reperfusion
Re-entry: VT and SVT

Main Classifications
Bradydysrhythmias and AV Conduction Clocks
10 = prolonged PR interval
20 (Mobitz I) = gradual PR interval prolongation then QRS drop
20 (Mobitz II) = PR interval constant with QRS drop
30 = P wave and QRS complex unrelated, PP and RR intervals constant
Supraventricular Tachydysrhythmias (narrow QRS)
Regular rhythm
Atrial: sinus tachycardia, atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter
AV: SVT (AVNRT > AVRT), junctional tachycardia
Irregular rhythm
Atrial: atrial fibrillation, multifocal atrial tachycardia, SVT w/ aberrancy
Ventricular Tachydysrhythmias (wide QRS)
Regular rhythm: Ventricular tachycardia, SVT with aberrancy
Irregular rhythm: Ventricular fibrillation, polymorphic VT, Afib with WPW

Assessment
Unstable Patient: altered mental status, respiratory distress, hypotension,
syncope, chest pain with AMI, signs of CHF, shock
Stable Patient: light-headedness, SOBOE, palpitations, mild anxiety

Management
General: monitors, oxygen, continuous monitoring, IV access
Initial Approach: ABCs, treat symptomatic and unstable patients immediately
ACLS Guidelines (for unstable patients)
Bradycardia Algorithm
Atropine 0.5mg IV bolus q3-5mins x 6
+/- infusions: dopamine 2-10 mcg/kg/min OR epi 2-10 mcg/min
If ineffective: transcutaneous pacing, prepare for IV pacing
Type II 20 AV block OR 30 AV block: transcutaneous pacing
Tachycardia Algorithm
Synchronized cardioversion (with premedication)
Atrial Fibrillation/Atrial Flutter
Synchronized cardioversion (higher risk of stroke if rhythm >48hrs and
patient not anticoagulated)
VF/pVT
Shock-CPR-pulse rhythm check cycles, epinephrine 1mg IV q3-5mins, consider
amiodarone 300mg IV bolus with 2nd dose 150mg IV
PEA/Asystole
CPR, airway support, IV access, epinephrine 1mg IV q3-5mins
*See detailed ACLS algorithms in a separate section
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 6. Heart & Stroke Foundation: ACLS provider manual – 2015.
Vascular Emergencies
Ruptured AAA
Risk Factors: FHx, HTN, PVD/CAD, DM, connective tissue disease, smoking
AAA <5cm AAA 5cm – 7cm AAA >7cm
0.3% risk of rupture/yr 10% risk of rupture/yr 20% risk of rupture/yr

Assessment
Classic Triad: acute onset back/abdo/flank pain + hypotension (with or without
syncope) + pulsatile abdominal mass
Other Presentations: syncope, UGIB/LGIB, high output CHF, ureteral colic,
bowel obstruction symptoms, neurological symptoms
Tests: PoCUS to detect AAA (>3cm), ECG, CT (for stable patient)

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access
STAT vascular surgery consult
Resuscitation
IV crystalloids, blood - aim for systolic BP 90 – 100mmHg
Massive transfusion protocol
Urgent Surgical Intervention
Open surgery with graft replacement or endovascular aneurysm repair
Post-op Complications
Infection – graft contamination or hematogenous seeding
Ischemia – Spinal cord ischemia, CVA, visceral ischemia, erectile dysfunction
Aortoenteric fistula – commonly present as GI bleeding
Endo Leak – blood flow outside of the graft lumen

Acute Arterial Occlusion

Definition: acute embolus or arterial thrombosis, true emergency as
irreversible damage can occur within 6-8 hours
Risk Factors: atherosclerosis, MI with LV thrombus, AFib, valve stenosis,
stent/grafts

Assessment
History (6Ps): pain, paresthesia, pallor, polar (cold), pulselessness, paralysis
(late finding)
Tests: Doppler probe to leg with proximal BP cuff – perfusion pressure
<50mmHg, ABI <0.5

Management
STAT vascular surgery consult
Immediate heparinization with 5000 IU bolus
Revascularization vs. CT angiogram (depends on if emboli from Afib vs.
secondary to PVD)

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 86+87. NEJM 2012; 366(23): 2198-2206. BMJ 2000; 320: 854-857.
Deep Vein Thrombosis and
Pulmonary Embolism
Risk Factors: venous stasis (surgery or trauma), vessel injury (surgery or
trauma), hypercoagulability (inherited thrombophilia, active malignancy,
estrogen, prior PE/DVT)
Assessment
Modified Wells Criteria for DVT Wells Criteria for PE
+1 Active cancer +3 Signs + symptoms of DVT
+1 Paralysis, paresis, or recent +3 PE = #1 diagnosis
immobilization of lower limb +1.5 HR >100
+1 Bedridden >3 days or major +1.5 Immobilization >3 days OR
surgery in last 12 weeks surgery in last 4 weeks
+1 Tenderness along DV system +1.5 Hx DVT/PE
+1 Entire leg swollen +1 Hemoptysis
+1 Calf swelling 3cm > asymp. side +1 Active cancer
+1 Pitting edema in symptomatic leg
+1 Superficial non-varicose veins Results:
+1 Previous DVT Non-high risk = 0-4 points
-2 Alternative diagnosis High risk = >4 points

Results:
DVT unlikely = score ≤1
DVT likely = score ≥2
How to Interpret Results from Wells Criteria
DVT unlikely Non-high risk
Order D-Dimer: Order D-Dimer:
If negative = no DVT if negative = no PE
If positive = obtain leg Doppler If positive = obtain CTPA
DVT likely High risk
Obtain leg Doppler Obtain CTPA
PERC Rule
Apply to patient where diagnosis of PERC negative if: Age<50, HR<100,
PE is being considered, but patient is SpO2<95%, no hemoptysis, no
deemed low-risk. estrogen use, no history of
If PERC negative AND clinician’s pre- surgery/trauma, no prior PE/DVT, no
test probability is <15%, there is <2% present signs of DVT
chance of PE

Management
DVT
LMWH, warfarin, fondaparinux
Heparin infusion for patients with renal impairment
Transition to oral anticoagulation x3-12 months
PE
Similar treatment as DVT
tPA reserved for massive PE, cardiac arrest, extensive clot burden

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 88. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6:772-80. NEJM 2003; 349(13):1227-35.
Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Risk Factors: medications (NSAIDs, anticoagulants), excessive vomiting,
bleeding disorders, malignancy, alcohol use, ulcer history, H. pylori
Differential Diagnosis
Upper GI bleed (proximal to Ligament of Treitz)
Peptic ulcer disease (gastric > duodenal)
Gastritis/esophagitis
Esophageal varices
Mallory-Weiss tears
Gastric cancer
Lower GI bleed (distal to Ligament of Treitz)
Colitis (inflammatory, infectious, ischemic)
Anorectal pathology (hemorrhoids, fissures, proctitis)
Angiodysplasia
Diverticulosis
Malignancy
Assessment
History: blood quantity/quality, symptoms of anemia (fatigue, SOB,
chest pain), Hx liver disease, medication review, smoking/EtOH,
bleeding disorders, constitutional symptoms
Beware mimics: Pepto-Bismol, iron ingestion can cause dark stools
UGIB: hematemesis, coffee ground emesis, melena, BRBPR if brisk UGIB
LGIB: hematochezia, BRBPR
Physical Exam: ABCs, vitals, inspect nasal-oral cavity, abdominal exam,
DRE
Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, INR/PTT, BUN/Cr, lactate, VBG, T+S/T+C
Tests: ECG, CXR +/- CT if indicated for LGIB

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, 2 large bore IVs, GI consult
Intubate early if suspect unprotected airway or risk of aspiration
Transfusion threshold: Hb <70, Plt <50, or hemodynamically unstable or with
active bleeding
UGI Bleed
Pantoloc 80mg IV bolus then 8mg/h infusion
Octreotide 50mcg IV bolus then 50mcg/h infusion – for suspected variceal
bleeding
Ceftriaxone 2g IV: for suspected variceal bleeds, prevention of SBP
Tranexamic acid: hemodynamically unstable patients (no clear evidence)
Balloon tamponade: crashing GI bleeding patient
LGI Bleed
NPO, IV fluids, manage underlying etiology (i.e. Abx, steroids)
Colonoscopy to evaluate cause of bleeding

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 30.
Stroke
Definition
ACA stroke
Leg > face/arm contralateral motor + sensory deficits
Bowel and bladder incontinence
Impaired judgement/insight
MCA stroke
Face/arm > leg contralateral motor + sensory deficits
Contralateral hemianopia; gaze preference towards lesion
Aphasia (dominant) or neglect (non-dominant)
PICA stroke (Wallenberg syndrome)
Pain/temperature loss on contralateral side + ipsilateral face
Ipsilateral Horner’s-like syndrome
4D’s: dysphagia, diplopia, dysarthria, dysphonia

Assessment
History: time of onset (usually abrupt, maximal), LOC (usually normal, non-
significant decrease), focal symptoms, headache (pain more suggestive of
hemorrhagic stroke or dissection)
Stroke mimics: seizure, migraine, syncope, metabolic derangements, sepsis,
tumor, conversion disorder, Todd’s paralysis
Physical Exam: vitals, neuro (NIHSS scale), look for comorbidities
CV (dissection, arrhythmias, valvular pathology)

Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, extended lytes, glucose, BUN, Cr, INR, PTT
ECG: rule out Afib
Neuroimaging: acute stroke protocol (CT/CTA immediately)

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access +/- intubation (declining GCS,
evolving symptoms, or presumed hemorrhagic transformation)
BP control: lower if HTN severe (>220/120), BP < 185/110 if giving tPA
Consult neurology, admission to stroke unit
Antiplatelet Therapy
Don’t give acutely, start ASA daily once discharged
Stroke time windows
tPA < 4.5 hours
Endovascular therapy < 6 hours
Consideration of endovascular therapy (in consultation with stroke team)
upto 12 hours
Stroke Prevention
Primary: stratify based on CHADS2 (stroke risk with Afib), Ottawa TIA Risk
Score, Rx ASA or DOACs
Secondary: oral anticoagulation started 1-2 weeks post stroke

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 101. NEJM 1995; 333:1581-1588. AMJ Neuroradiol 2001; 22:1534-1542.
Transient Ischemic Attack
Definitions
TIA Definition (Canadian Stroke Best Practices)
A brief episode of neurological dysfunction caused by focal brain, spinal cord
or retinal ischemia without imaging evidence of acute infarction, typically
resolving within one hour.
Very High-risk TIA
Symptom onset within 48 hours
Motor or speech disturbance
Sensory loss, vision loss
Posterior circulation stroke: diplopia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia
High-risk TIA
Symptom onset between 48 hours and 2 weeks
Motor or speech disturbance
Moderate-risk TIAs
Symptom onset between 48 hours and 2 weeks
Sensory loss, vision loss
Posterior circulation stroke: binocular diplopia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia
Low-risk TIAs
Symptom onset greater than 2 weeks

Assessment
History: time of onset, differentiate between motor, speech and vision
disturbances
Physical Exam: vitals, neurological exam, look for functional comorbidities, CV
exam (dissection, arrhythmias, valvular pathology)

Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, extended lytes, glucose, BUN, Cr, INR, PTT
ECG: rule out Afib
Neuroimaging: very high to high-risk TIAs (CTA head/neck), low to moderate-
risk TIAs (non-contrast CT head)

Management
General
ABCs, monitors, oxygen, vitals, IV access +/- intubation (declining GCS,
evolving symptoms, or hemorrhagic transformation)
High-risk TIA features
Loading dose: Clopidogrel 300mg PO + ASA 160mg PO
Dual antiplatelet therapy: Clopidogrel 75mg PO daily + ASA 81mg PO daily
Monotherapy (after 21 days): ASA 81mg PO daily
Low-risk TIA features
ASA 81mg PO daily
Disposition
Stroke clinic follow-up within 3 weeks
Risk stratification: CHADS2 (stroke risk with Afib), Ottawa TIA Risk Score
Outpatient carotid dopplers or CT angiogram +/- endarterectomy

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 101. Canadian Stroke Best Practices, 2018. Stroke 2018; 49:2278-2279.
Diabetic Emergencies
Definitions
DKA HHS
Predominantly Type 1 DM Predominantly Type 2 DM
Insulin deficiency + stressor  Relative insulin deficiency + stressor
counter-regulatory hormone excess  counter-regulatory hormone excess
 ↑ lipolysis (ketoacidosis) and  osmotic diuresis (dehydration)
osmotic diuresis (dehydration) Serum glucose: >30 mmol/L
Serum glucose: >16 mmol/L Onset: days to weeks
Other labs: HCO3<15, pH <7.3 Features: severe dehydration, hyper-
Onset: hours to days osmolality, often elderly with AMS
Features: dehydration, often young
Stressor (7 Is): infection, infarction, intoxication, insulin (dose
changed/missed), incision (surgery), initial (diagnosis), impregnated

Assessment
History: N/V, abdominal pain, polyuria/polydipsia, weakness, anorexia
Physical Exam: rapid, deep breathing (Kussmaul) respirations, tachycardia,
ileus, acetone breath
Investigations
Labs: glucose, urine/serum ketones, beta-hydroxybutyrate, CBC, lytes,
extended lytes, glucose, BUN, Cr, VBG, lactate +/- cultures, B-HCG, cardiac
enzymes (if indicated)

Management
Fluid Resuscitation
NS 1-2 L over 1 hours
Change to D5½NS when BG <16
Insulin
Short acting insulin Regular
Infusion of 0.1 U/kg/h (goal = lower BG by 4-5)
Once gap closed: continue infusion x 1hr but overlap + switch to sc insulin
Electrolyte Replacement
Potassium
K <3.3 mmol/L: hold insulin and give 40 mmol/L KCl
K 3.3 – 5 mmol/L: give 20-30 mmol/L KCl
K >5 mmol/L: recheck K in 1-2 hours
Phosphate: Low phosphate can be replaced if severe levels or metabolic
disturbances (muscle weakness, paralysis, rhabdomyolysis)
Sodium: Pseudohyponatremia common due to dilutional decrease
Disposition
Admission if: first time presentation, co-morbidities, unable to close gap,
iatrogenic complications (ARDS, cerebral edema, fluid overload), or DKA/HHS
due to stressors listed above (i.e. need to manage MI or sepsis in hospital)
Education: diet, insulin administration, fluid replacement

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 118.
Sepsis
Definitions
Sepsis
Life threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response
to infection with a SOFA score  2
Septic Shock
Vasopressor requirement to maintain a MAP  65
Serum lactate  2mmol/L in the absence of hypovolemia
Clinical tools to aid in sepsis recognition
SIRS 2 or more of:
T <36 or >38.3 | HR >90 | RR >20 or CO2 <32 | WBC <4 or >12
qSOFA 2 or more of:
GCS < 15 | RR  22 | sBP < 100

Assessment
History: associated symptoms, full review of systems, co-morbidities
Physical Exam: vitals, volume status, look for a focus (respiratory, urine,
abdomen, skin, blood, brain), permanent lines

Investigations
Full Septic Workup: CBC, lytes, extended lytes, BUN/Cr, LFTs, VBG, lactate,
INR/PTT, blood C+S, urine C+S, ECG, CXR
RUSH Exam: heart (PSL, 4 chamber), IVC view, Morrison’s and splenorenal
views, bladder window, aorta, pneumothorax

Management
General
Monitors, oxygen, vitals, 2 large bore IVs
Early antibiotics (within 1 hour), crystalloids (RL > NS)
Endpoints: MAP > 65, capillary refill time, lactate clearance, urine output
Resuscitation
Crystalloids: Ringer’s Lactate for patients with hypotension or lactate  4
Vasopressors: norepinephrine 5-10 mcg/min (if not fluid responsive),
vasopressin 0.04 U/min (if moderate doses of NE being used)
Steroids: if refractory to fluids + pressors, or on chronic steroids
Antibiotics
Empiric treatment: Pip-Tazo 3.375g IV +/- Vancomycin 1g-1.5g IV
Respiratory: Ceftriaxone 2g IV + Azithromycin 500mg IV
Urinary: Ceftriaxone 2g IV + Tobramycin 3-5mg/kg (single dose)
Meningitic doses: Ceftriaxone 2g IV + Vancomycin 2g IV + dexamethasone
10mg IV +/- Acyclovir 1g IV (for HSV encephalitis)
Disposition
Admission to medicine +/- ICU (if requiring vasopressors or intubated)

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 6. NEJM 2001; 345(19): 1368-77. JAMA 2016; 315(8): 801-10. Crit Care Med
2017; 45(3): 486-552. JAMA 2019; 321(7): 654-664. AJRCCM 2019; 199(9): 1097-1105.
Electrolyte Disturbances
History: review of systems, neurologic symptoms (headache, lethargy,
weakness, muscle cramps, ↓ LOC, personality changes, seizures), co-
morbidities, infection, intake + losses, past history of electrolyte disturbances

Hyperkalemia: [K] >5.5 mmol/L

Causes
Pseudohyperkalemia (#1), chronic renal failure, acute acidosis, medications*
(ACEi, NSAIDs, K-sparing diuretics, digoxin, septra), cell death (rhabdo,
burn/crush injuries, hemolysis, TLS)
ECG Changes
Peaked T waves  PR prolongation  loss of P waves  widened QRS  sine
wave
Management
Protect: 1 amp CaCl or 3 amps Ca gluconate (*if ECG changes noted)
Shift: 1-2 amps D50W + 10 U R insulin, albuterol nebs +/- bicarbonate (if
acidotic)
Excrete: fluids, Lasix, PEG3350 +/- dialysis if critical K or unable to excrete

Hypokalemia: [K] <3.5 mmol/L

Causes
Renal losses (diuretics), non-renal losses (vomiting, diarrhea), metabolic
alkalosis
ECG Changes
Loss of T waves  U waves  prolonged QT  TdP, VTach, Vfib
Management
Replace: KCl 10-20 mmol/hr IV or KCl 40-60 mmol PO q2-4hrs
HypoMg: MgSO4 500mg/h IV to ensure K being driven into cells

Hyponatremia: [Na] <135 mmol/L

Causes
Hypo-osmolar most common - hypervolemic (CHF, cirrhosis, nephrotic
syndrome), euvolemic (SIADH), hypovolemic (adrenal insufficiency, vomiting,
diarrhea, diuretics, poor PO fluid intake)
Management
Known acute (<24-48h) [Na]<120 or symptomatic (↓ LOC, focal neurological
symptoms): max Na 8mmol/L in 24 h to prevent central pontine myelinolysis
Dose option: IV 3% saline 100cc IV over 10 mins (if seizing)

Hypercalcemia: [Ca] >2.6 (corrected for albumin)

Causes
Malignancy (breast, lung, kidney, multiple myeloma), hyperPTH,
granulomatous diseases, meds (thiazides, Li, estrogen, vitamin A/D toxicity)
ECG Changes
Short QT, ST elevation, bradyarrhythmias, AV block
Management
Bolus NS until normal perfusion, then infusion to 200cc/hr with goal of UOP
2L/day. Lasix to promote diuresis, bisphosphonates and calcitonin.
Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 117.
ENT Emergencies - Vertigo
Important Causes
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV)
Short lived (20-30 secs) vertigo brought on by lying down, turning over or
getting out of bed. Resolves when still. No spontaneous nystagmus.
Vestibular Neuritis
Hours or days of constant severe vertigo, worse with head movements.
Difficult with gait. Spontaneous or gaze evoked nystagmus in first few
days. Resolves over a few weeks.
Posterior Circulation Stroke
Can present similar to vestibular neuritis. May have focal paresthesia,
weakness, headache or neck pain, and deadly Ds (dysarthria, diplopia,
dysmetria, dysphonia, dysphagia).
Vestibular Migraine
Often under-diagnosed. Multiple episodes of dizziness lasting minutes to
days. History of migraines. Half of the episodes have either typical migraine
headache, and/or associated photophobia/phonophobia.

Other less common causes: Meniere’s, multiple sclerosis, labyrinthitis,

other central causes (cerebellar hemorrhage, PICA stroke, head trauma)

Assessment
Positional testing (Dix-Hallpike or Roll Test): if short episodes initiated with
head movement and without spontaneous or gaze evoked nystagmus.
HINTS exam: if constant vertigo and nystagmus present.
Central cause: neuro exam, gait and coordination exam
Dix-Hallpike Test (diagnose posterior-canal BPPV)
Head turned 450 to one side while patient sitting. Patient moved to supine
position with head hanging over edge of bed. Observe for vertical upward or
rotatory nystagmus. Repeat with patient looking 450 in other direction.
Roll Test (diagnose horizontal-canal BPPV)
Patient initially supine, head on bed. Turn head 900 to one side, observe for
horizontal nystagmus. Both sides will show horizontal nystagmus.
HINTS Exam (differentiate vestibular neuritis vs. posterior stroke)
Must have all three to be diagnosed vestibular neuritis:
Head Impulse: corrective saccade as examiner turns head away from
direction of spontaneous nystagmus
Nystagmus: unidirectional horizontal/rotatory nystagmus
Test of Skew: No vertical or slanted eye movements on cover-uncover test

Management
Peripheral
Epley’s Maneuver for PC BPPV, Gufoni for HC BPPV. Consider steroids for
vestibular neuritis (evidence poor)
Central
Neuroimaging, neuro consult +/- stroke management

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 19.
ENT Emergencies
Epistaxis
Causes: trauma (nasal, digital, facial), URI, allergies, low humidity,
polyps, foreign body, idiopathic causes (familial), systemic causes
(atherosclerosis, anticoagulation, pregnancy, coagulopathies, diabetes,
liver disease)
Assessment: visualize nares + oropharynx for active bleeding
Labs: CBC, INR/PTT +/- cross+type
Management
General
ABCs, vitals, volume assessment
Initial step: compress cartilaginous part of nose x 20 mins
Next step: compress with lidocaine/epinephrine/decongestant-soaked
pledget +/- topical TXA
+/- Silver nitrate if able to identify site
Anterior Bleeds (90% Kesselbach’s plexus)
Anterior packing: nasal tampon, rhino rockets or Vaseline gauze pack
Apply anterior pack to active side first, if ineffective, pack both nares
Posterior Bleeds
Epistat or Foley catheter. Apply traction once inserted.
Keflex x 5d course or until pack removal to prevent TSS

Pharyngitis
Etiology: viruses (rhinovirus, adenovirus), bacterial (Group A Strep)
Assessment
History: odynophagia, URI symptoms, complications are rare (ie.
rheumatic fever)
Physical Exam: vitals, ABCs, red flags
Can’t Miss Diagnoses
Peritonsillar abscess: muffled voice, uvular deviation
Retropharyngeal abscess: drooling, airway compromise
Tracheitis: may be confused with croup, stridor, labored breathing
Epiglottitis: fever, stridor, rapidly progressive swelling

Modified Centor Criteria

Age Tonsillar exudates = +1
3-14 years old = +1 Tender anterior cervical lymph nodes = +1
15-44 years old = 0 Temp >380C = +1
>44 years old = -1 Absent cough = +1

Management: fluids, antipyretics, single dose dexamethasone may

reduce pain/duration.
Antibiotics reduce symptoms by 16 hours. They do NOT reduce
incidence of suppurative complications.

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 23+72.
Urological Emergencies
Renal Colic
Risk Factors: hereditary (RTA, G6PD deficiency, cystinuria, oxaluria), lifestyle
(minimal fluid intake, excess vit C, oxalation, purines, calcium), meds (loop
diuretics, acetazolamide, topiramate), medical conditions (UTI, IBD, gout, DM,
hypercalcemia), obesity
Assessment
History: unilateral flank pain +/- radiating to groin, “writhing” in pain, N/V,
trigonal irritation (frequency, urgency)
Physical Exam: vitals (fever, HR, RR), abdominal exam, CVA tenderness
Investigations: CBC, urinalysis, B-hCG (females)
CT
Vast majority do NOT need CT imaging
Relative indications: first presentation of renal colic, complicated renal
colic, elderly patients, suspicion of a serious alternative diagnosis
Ultrasound
Most helpful in detecting hydronephrosis (98% sensitivity)
KUB
Plain X-rays are neither sensitive nor specific for detection of renal stones.
KUB may be used to follow stone progression.
Management
General IV NS if clinically dehydrated
N/V Zofran 4-8mg IV
Analgesia Morphine 6mg IV + ketorolac 30mg IM/IV or Naproxen 500mg PO
MET Tamsulosin 0.4mg PO OD x3 weeks (large stone >4mm or distal
stones)
Disposition can be safely discharge with appropriate GP/urology follow-up
Urology intractable pain, infected stone, compromised renal function
consult (single kidney, transplanted kidney, bilateral obstruction)

UTI and Pyelonephritis

Causes: E. coli (85%), Klebsiella, Proteus, Saprophyticus
Assessment
History: UTI (frequency, urgency, dysuria, hematuria), pyelo (fever/chills, flank
pain, N/V), associated vaginitis/cervicitis symptoms, sexual history
Investigations: urine dipstick, urine R+M, urine C+S +/- CBC, BUN/Cr
Management
Uncomplicated UTI
Septra DS PO BID x 3 days
Macrobid 100mg BID x 5 days
If suspected STI: Levofloxacin 500mg po daily x 1 week + CTX 250mg IM x1
Complicated UTI/Uncomplicated Pyelonephritis
Ciprofloxacin 500mg PO BID or Septra DS PO BID x 10-14 days
Consider US/CT imaging for complicated UTI
Complicated Pyelonephritis
Ceftriaxone 1g IV q24h

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 99. NEJM 2014; 371(12):1100-10. Cochrane DB Syst Rev 2014;4:CD008509
Environmental Emergencies
Hypothermia (T < 350C)
Causes: ↑ heat loss (EtOH, environmental), ↓ thermogenesis (hypothyroidism,
hypoglycemia, adrenal insufficiencies), impaired thermogenesis (toxins, CNS
lesions, SC injury)
Risk Factors: low SES, age extremes, drug OD, psych co-morbidities
Assessment
Mild (320 – 350C): excitation response (↑ HR/BP/RR, +shivering)
Moderate (280 – 320C): physiologic slowing, NO shivering, AMS, ataxia
Severe (240 – 280C): dysrhythmias (brady>slow Afib>Vfib>asystole), irritable
myocardium (avoid invasive heart procedures), fixed/dilated pupils
Investigations
Labs: CBC, lytes, BUN/Cr, VBG, lactate, INR/PTT, glucose
Tests: ECG (Osborne waves), pCXR (aspiration pneumonia, pulmonary edema)

Management
General
Monitors, O2, IV access, vitals + rectal, esophageal or Foley temp
Remove wet clothes
Cardiac Arrest
Focus on rewarming
Ensure NO pulse x 1 min then ACLS protocol (can try 1-3 shocks for Vfib)
Passive Rewarming (T> 320C)
Cover patients with insulating blanket, let body generate heat
Active Rewarming (T< 320C)
Warming blankets, radiant heat, place extremities in 45 0C water
Non-invasive: warm IVF (420C), warm O2
Invasive: heated irrigation (pleural, stomach, peritoneal, bladder), dialysis,
ECMO

Heat Stroke (T >40.50C)

*differentiated by heat exhaustion by AMS/elevated LFTs
Classic/non-exertional: elderly, heat waves, indoors with no AC
Exertional: young athletes, runners
Assessment
Classic: dry/hot skin, not always dehydrated, HIGHER mortality
Exertional: diaphoretic skin, profound dehydration, more morbidities (liver
failure, renal failure, DIC, lactic acidosis)

Management
General
Monitors, cooled IV fluids, rapid evaporative cooling
Antipyretics NOT effective (as not a hypothalamus problem, can also make
DIC/liver failure worse)
Treat Symptoms
Shivering: midazolam 2mg IV Rhabdomyolysis: IVF, Lasix, NaHCO3
Seizures: Lorazepam 2mg IV Hyperkalemia: protect, shift, eliminate

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 138+139.
Orthopedic Injuries – Upper Limb
Assessment
History: mechanism of injury, associated neurological symptoms, blood loss
Exam: ABCs +vitals, look + feel, active and passive ROM, neurovascular status,
assess bleeding/open fractures, skin tenting, complications of compartment
syndrome, examine joint above and below fracture
Investigations: radiographs as clinically indicated

Colle's Fracture
Upper Limb
Distal Radius Fracture : FOOSH. Several fracture
patterns. Colle’s fracture is most common (distal radial
fracture with dorsal displacement, volar apex
angulation, and is extra-articular).
Exam: “dinner fork deformity” if dorsally angulated as
in Colle’s fracture.
Management: hematoma block, reduction to restore
radial length and correct dorsal angulation. Success of
reduction depends on several factors (intra- vs. extra-
articular, comminution, quality of cast mold)
Scaphoid Fracture

Scaphoid Fracture : 15-40yo with FOOSH. High

complication rate (5-40% with AVN/non-union).
Exam: limited wrist/thumb ROM, snuff box tenderness,
axial loading of 1st MC, pain to scaphoid tubercle volarly
Management: thumb spica splint for suspected fractures
(even if negative XR) x 6-12 weeks, repeat imaging in 10
days.

Proximal Humeral
Proximal Humeral Fracture : high energy trauma Fracture
(young), FOOSH (elderly). Neer classification to
determine 1/2/3/4 part fracture. Separate part if
displaced > 1cm or >450 angulation.
Management: minimally displaced (sling or cuff-and-
collar immobilization), displaced GT or 2/3/4 part in
younger patients (ORIF)

Boxer’s Fracture

Boxer’s Fracture : blow on distal-dorsal aspect of closed

fist. Volar angulation of neck of 5th metacarpal into palm.
Management: closed reduction if angulation >400. If stable,
ulnar gutter splint for 4-6 weeks.

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 44, 45, 51, 58.
Orthopedic Injuries – Lower Limb
Assessment
History: mechanism of injury, associated neurological symptoms, blood loss
Exam: ABCs +vitals, look + feel, active and passive ROM, neurovascular status,
assess bleeding/open fractures, skin tenting, complications of compartment
syndrome, examine joint above and below fracture
Investigations: radiographs as clinically indicated, use decision rules for
ankle/foot/knee to guide assessment Weber A Fracture

Lower Limb
Ankle Fracture : inversion/eversion injury. Risk-
stratification based on Weber’s classification.
Weber A: below syndesmosis – typically stable
Weber B: at level of syndesmosis – can be unstable
Weber C: above level of syndesmosis – always unstable
Management: non-operative (Non-WB BK cast), operative
(most of Weber Type B/all Type C)

Jones Fracture
Jones Fracture : Stress injury. Midshaft 5th MT fracture
(greater than 15mm from proximal end of 5 th MT). High
incidence of non-union.
Management: non-WB BK cast x 6 weeks.

Pseudo-Jones Fracture: Traumatic injury. Proximal tubercle

of 5th MT (less than 15mm from proximal end of 5th MT). Non-
union is uncommon.
Management: protective weight bearing in stiff soled shoe or
boot.

Garden Classification
Hip Fracture : fall (elderly), direct
force to hip, rotational force.
Garden I: incomplete, valgus impacted
Garden II: complete, non-displaced
Garden III: complete, partially
displaced
Garden IV: complete, fully displaced
Exam: shortened/abducted/externally
rotated leg, painful ROM
Management: Elderly may get hemi or
total hip arthroplasty. Young adults get
ORIF.

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 51+58. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018 Feb; 476(2): 441–445.
Toxicological Emergencies
Differential Diagnosis
“Hot and Crazy” (DIMES)
Drug-related: sympathomimetics (cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, PCP,
ketamine), anticholinergics, ASA, SS/NMS/MH, EtOH withdrawal
Infection: meningitis, encephalitis, sepsis
Metabolic: hypoglycemia, uremia, electrolytes, thyrotoxicosis, pheo
Environmental: heat stroke
Structural: ICH
“Low and Slow” (ABCDO)
ADHD tablets (clonidine)
Beta-blockers
Calcium-channel blockers
Digoxin
Opiates/Organophosphates

Common Toxidromes
Anticholinergics
Vitals: hyperthermia, tachycardia Antidepressants
Signs: mydriasis, dry skin Antihistamines
Symptoms: agitation, hallucination, constipation, Antipsychotics
urinary retention Antispasmodics
“dry as a bone, red as a beet, blind as a bat, mad as a Atropine
hatter, hot as a hare” Carbamazepine
Cholinergics
Vitals: hypotension, bradycardia Organophosphates
Signs: miosis, diaphoresis, seizures Nerve gas
Symptoms: urination, bronchospasm, vomiting, Mushroom
diarrhea Anticholinesterase
Sympathomimetics
Vitals: hyperthermia, tachycardia, HTN Amphetamines
Signs: mydriasis, diaphoresis, seizures Cocaine
Symptoms: agitation, anxiety LSD
Ephedrine
Sedative/Hypnotics
Vitals: hypothermia, hypotension, bradypnea EtOH, BZDs, GHB
Signs: respiratory depression, miosis (opioids), altered Opioids (morphine,
LOC heroin, fentanyl)
Barbiturates

Basic Approach (ABCDE)

Airway Intubate early if impending airway compromise
Breathing Think metabolic derangements if low RR
Circulation Ensure patient is well perfused
Detect and Correct Consider universal antidotes (dextrose, oxygen,
naloxone, thiamine), correct vitals, correct signs
(i.e. seizure), consider decontamination/enhanced
elimination
Emergency Antidotes Specific antidotes and treatments
Pain Management
General Approach: patient-centred, target specific pain syndromes,
and use non-pharmacological and pharmacological approaches.

Non-opioid analgesics
Acetaminophen
First line foundational analgesia Tylenol
Use in combination with NSAIDs to improve efficacy 975mg PO
NSAIDs
Ibuprofen and Naproxen: best safety profile and least Ibuprofen
side effects 400mg – 800mg PO
Ketorolac: helpful in acute painful condition Naproxen
500mg PO
Topical NSAID preparations: added analgesia for acute
Ketorolac
MSK and joint pain 10mg – 30mg IM/IV
If prescribing NSAIDs, consider concomitant PPI therapy
in patients with higher risk of GI bleeds.
Ketamine
Sub-dissociative doses provide effective analgesia Ketamine
Administer over 20 minutes to minimize risk of 0.1-0.3mg/kg IV
emergence reaction Over 20 mins
Regional and local nerve blocks
Useful in lacerations, acute fractures requiring Lidocaine + Epi
reduction or operation, and headaches (ie. occipital Max 7mg/kg
neuralgia) Lidocaine – Epi
Max 5mg/kg
Bupivacaine
Max 2.5-3mg/kg

Opioid analgesics
Morphine
Pros: less abuse potential, palliative care pain, cancer PO: 0.5mg/kg
pain, dosing range well known IV/SC: 0.1mg/kg
Cons: active metabolites may accumulate in renal
insufficiency
Hydromorphone
Pros: easier titration, more equipotent, better tolerated PO: 1-2mg
in renal insufficiency IV/SC: 0.5-1mg
Cons: initial dosing range unclear, more side effects
Fentanyl
Pros: most effective for acute pain (fractures, trauma) IV/SC: 25-50mcg
Cons: abuse potential, overdose potential, long half life

Gabapentinoids
Pregabalin and Gabapentin
Ideal for neuropathic pain Pregabalin: 50mg PO TID upto 300mg/day
Gabapentin: 300mg PO TID upto 2400mg/day

Key References: Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice – 8th ed,
2014; Chapter 3. 2017 Canadian Guideline for Opioids for Chronic Non-Cancer Pain.
Source: http://nationalpaincentre.mcmaster.ca/guidelines.html
Clinical Decision Rules
Canadian CT Head Rule for Minor Head Injury
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Head injury resulting in Minimal head injury, obvious penetrating
witnessed LOC/disorientation skull injury, acute neurological deficits,
or definite amnesia; initial ED unstable vital signs assoc. with major
GCS > 13; injury within 24hrs trauma, seizure prior to ED assessment,
bleeding disorder, pregnant
High Risk Criteria (neurological intervention)
GCS <15 at 2hrs after injury, suspected open or depressed skull fracture,
signs of basal skull fracture, vomiting >2 episodes, age >65
Medium Risk Criteria (for brain injury on CT)
Amnesia before impact >30 mins, dangerous mechanism
Ottawa Ankle Rules
Inclusion Criteria
Adult patient (ALSO been validated in
pediatrics), any mechanism of blunt
ankle injury
Exclusion Criteria
Age <18, pregnant, isolated skin
injury, injury >10 days, reassessment
of same injury
Ankle X-ray only required if
Bony tenderness at A OR B OR inability to take 4 complete steps in ED
Foot XR only required if
bony tenderness at C OR D OR inability to take 4 complete steps in ED
Ottawa Knee Rules
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Adult patient, blunt knee injury, Age <18, pregnant, isolated skin
“knee” = patella, head/neck of injury, injury older than 7 days,
fibula, proximal 8cm of tibia and return for reassessment, AMS,
distal 8cm of femur paraplegic, multi-trauma
Knee X-ray only required if
Age > 55 OR isolated patellar tenderness OR fibular head tenderness OR
inability to flex 900C OR inability to take 4 complete steps in ED
Ottawa SAH Rule
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Alert patients >15yo, new New neurological deficits, prior aneurysm,
severe atraumatic headache, prior SAH, known brain tumors, chronic
max intensity within 1 hour recurrent headaches (>3 headaches of same
character/intensity for >6 months)
CT is indicated if any criteria are present
Neck pain/stiffness, witnessed LOC, age > 40, onset during exertion,
thunderclap headache, limited neck flexion on examination

Key References: BMJ 2010; 341:c5204. Ann Emerg Med 1992; 21(4):384-390. Ann Emerg
Med 1995; 26(4):405-413. Lancet 2001; 357(9266):1391-6.
Risk Stratification Scales
Canadian Syncope Risk Score
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Age >16, present to Prolonged (>5min) LOC, AMS, witnessed seizure,
ED with syncope major trauma, intoxication, language barrier, head
within 24 hours trauma
Clinical Evaluation Investigations ED Diagnosis
-1 Vasovagal +2 Elevated TnI -2 Vasovagal syncope
predisposition +1 QRS axis <-300 or >1000 +2 Cardiac syncope
+1 Hx heart disease +1 QRS >130ms
+2 sBP<90 or sBP>180 +2 Corrected QT>480ms
Total score = -3 to 11
Interpretation Score of 0 = 1.9% risk of serious adverse event within 30d
Score of 11 = 83.6% risk of serious adverse event within 30d

Ottawa Heart Failure Risk Scale

Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Age >50, symptoms consistent with O2 <85%, HR>120, sBP<90, confusion,
CHFe (acute SOB, fluid retention, ischemic chest pain, acute STEMI on
underlying cardiac abnormality) ECG, prognosis of weeks (due to
and/or response to diuretics chronic disease), arrival from LTC
Initial Assessment Investigations Walk Test
+1 Hx of stroke or TIA +2 New ischemic +1 SaO2<90%,
+2 Hx of intubation for changes on ECG HR>110 during 3-min
respiratory distress +1 BUN>12mmol/L walk test, or too ill
+2 HR > 110 on ED arrival +2 HCO3>35mmol/L to walk
+1 SaO2 < 90% on EMS or ED +2 Elevated TnI
arrival +1 ProBNP>5mcg/L
Total score = 0 to 15
Interpretation Score of 0 = 2.8% risk of serious adverse event within 14d
Score of 9 = 89% risk of serious adverse event within 14d

Ottawa TIA Risk Score

Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Age>18, ED diagnosis of Confirmed stroke, decreased LOC, presentation
TIA >7days following onset of most recent TIA
Clinical Findings Investigations
+2 First TIA (in lifetime) +2 Afib on ECG
+2 Symptoms >10min +1 New or old
+2 History of carotid stenosis infarction on CT
+3 Already on antiplatelet therapy +2 Platelet count >400
+1 History of gait disturbance +3 Glucose >15
+1 History of unilateral weakness
-3 History of vertigo
+3 Initial triage diastolic BP >110 mmHg
+1 Dysarthria or aphasia (history of examination)
Total score = -3 to 14
Interpretation Score of 0 = 0.04% risk of stroke within 7d
Score of 14 = 27.6% risk of stroke within 7d

Key References: CMAJ 2016; 188(12):E289-298. AEM 2017; 24(3):316-327. Stroke 2014;
45(1):92-100.
Advanced Cardiac Life Support
Electrical Cardioversion
Indications
Paroxysmal SVT
Atrial fibrillation/Atrial flutter
Ventricular Tachycardia
Pre-medication
Midazolam 1-5mg +/- fentanyl 50-200mcg
Propofol 50-150mg IV
Ketamine 0.25-1.5mg/kg IV
Etomidate 20mg IV
Synchronized Cardioversion
pSVT/Aflutter: 150J biphasic or 300J monophasic
Vtach/Afib: 200J biphasic or 360J monophasic

Atrial Fibrillation or Atrial Flutter

General
Assess ABCs if stable, monitors, O2, vitals, IV access, ECG
Unstable Chest pain, SOB, LOC, low BP, CHF, AMI
Cardioversion (200J biphasic or 360J monophasic)
Stable
1 Rate control if HR >120
Narrow complex: Diltiazem 20mg IV or Verapamil 2.5-5mg IV or Metoprolol
5mg IV or Amiodarone 150mg over 10 mins or Digoxin 0.5mg IV
Wide complex (WPW or BBB): Procainamide 30mg/min to 17mg/kg or
Amiodarone 150mg over 10mins
2 Rhythm control
Afib <48 hours: cardioversion if non-valvular Afib, not anticoagulated AND
CHADS-65 0-1. If CHADS-65 > 1 then needs cardioversion within 12 hours.
Afib >48 hours: anticoagulate x 3 weeks prior to and 4 weeks after
cardioversion. Alternatively long-term rate control with beta-blockers or CCB

Ventricular Fibrillation/Pulseless Ventricular Tachycardia

General
Intubate, ventilation, early IV/IO access to administer medications
Treat reversible causes: hypovolemia, hypoxia, acidosis, hyper/hypokalemia,
hypothermia, toxins, ischemia
Shock-CPR-Shock Cycles
1. Shock first (200J biphasic or 360J monophasic)
If defibrillator not immediately available start CPR, then shock ASAP
2. High quality CPR for 2 min
Push hard (2-2.4 inches) and fast (100-120/min), complete chest recoil,
minimize interruptions, avoid excessive ventilations (10/min), change
compressors q2min, monitor end-tidal CO2
3. Shock
Drugs Provided during CPR
Epinephrine: 1mg IV q3-5min
Amiodarone: 300mg IV bolus (preferred), 150mg IV (2nd dose)
Lidocaine for refractory VF: 1.5mg/kg IV q3-5min (max 3mg/kg)
Magnesium sulfate for polymorphic VT: 2g IV
Advanced Cardiac Life Support
Wide Complex Tachycardia (85-95% = VT)
General
Assess ABCs if stable, monitors, O2, vitals, IV access, ECG, CXR
Unstable Chest pain, SOB, LOC, low BP, CHF, AMI
Prepare for synchronized cardioversion (200J biphasic or 360J monophasic)
Consider premedication
Stable Consider cardioversion as meds (only revert VT 30% of the
time)
Procainamide: 20-50mg/min (max 17mg/kg)
Amiodarone: 150mg over 10 mins (repeat x2 PRN)
Magnesium sulfate for polymorphic VT: 2g IV
*Avoid multiple antidysrhythmics sequentially (to prevent proarrhythmogenic
effects). If one fails, go to electrical cardioversion.

Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia (AVnRT, AVRT)

Unstable Chest pain, SOB, LOC, low BP, CHF, AMI
Synchronized cardioversion (150J biphasic or 300J monophasic)
Consider premedication
Stable
Vagal manoeuvres
Adenosine: 6mg IV over 3 secs (1st dose), 12mg IV (2nd dose)
Diltiazem: 20mg IV over 2 min (1st dose), 25mg IV (2nd dose)
Metoprolol: 5mg IV (max 15mg)
Verapamil: 2.5-5mg IV over 2 min, repeat 5-10mg in 10 mins

Pulseless Electrical Activity or Asystole

General
Intubate, ventilation, early IV/IO access to administer medications, PoCUS
Management
1. Ongoing CPR
2. Treat reversible causes: 5Hs (hypovolemia, hypoxia, hydrogen acidosis,
hyper/hypokalemia, hypothermia) and 5Ts (toxins, tamponade, tension
pneumothorax, thrombosis – coronary, thrombosis – pulmonary)
3. Epinephrine 1mg IV q3-5mins

Bradycardia (HR <60)

General
ABCs, monitors, O2, vitals, IV access
Unstable Chest pain, SOB, LOC, low BP, CHF, AMI
Atropine 0.5mg q3-5min (max 3mg) – Not effective for 30 heart block
Transcutaneous pacing  Transvenous pacing
Consider infusions: Dopamine 2-10mcg/kg/min OR Epinephrine 2-10mcg/min
Stable
10 AV block or Type I 20 AV block: Observe
Type II 20 AV block or 30 AV block: transcutaneous pacing  transvenous
pacing
Point of Care Ultrasound
Definitions
Hyperechoic: object is more echogenic (ie. brighter) than surrounding tissue
Hypoechoic: object is less echogenic (ie. less bright) than surrounding tissue
Isoechoic: object has same echogenicity than surrounding tissue
Anechoic: object has absence of echoes within it
Near field: area closer to probe Far field: area farther from probe

Recommended Probe Selection

Abdo Cardiac Lung Gyne Soft Tissue MSK
Curvilinear + - + + - -
Phased Array + + + - - -
Linear - - + - + +
Intracavitary - - - + - -

Ultrasound Artifacts
Acoustic shadowing: shadow distal to reflective surface (ie. bone, gallstone)
Acoustic enhancement: posterior enhancement due to transmission through a
fluid filled structure
Edge artifact: refraction of U/S waves due to two different propagation speeds
Reverberation artifact: sound bouncing between highly reflective surfaces and
probe (ie. metal needle)

Cardiac
Clinical questions: Is there a pericardial effusion? Is there cardiac activity? Is
the LV function reduced? Is there RV strain?
Exam:
Parasternal long axis: assess LV function
Fractional shortening < 30 % indicates reduced LV function
Assessed by the difference in LV diameter between end diastole and systole.
E-point septal separation > 7mm indicates reduced LV function
Assessed by looking at the septal slap between anterior mitral valve leaflet
and septum.
Fractional shortening ~ 100% or EPSS ~ 0mm indicates hyperdynamic LV
Can be seen when ventricles are “kissing” or empty
Parasternal short axis: assess LV function, some indication of RV function
Fractional shortening < 30% indicates reduced LV function
RV larger than LV or “D-shaped” LV may indicate RV pressure overload
Apical 4 chamber view: assess RV function
RV = LV or RV > LV suggests right heart strain
Subxiphoid view: assess pericardial effusion
Anechoic area first appearing between pericardium and RV, can expand to
encompass all 4 chambers

AAA
Clinical questions: Is there an abdominal aneurysm?
Exam: Transverse view using curvilinear probe, max AP diameter > 3 cm may
indicate AAA. Does not necessarily provide information of whether it is ruptured
or not.

Key References: Boyd, Jeremy S., et al. "EMERGENCY ULTRASOUND." The Atlas of
Emergency Medicine, 4e Eds. Kevin J. Knoop, et al. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Point of Care Ultrasound
eFAST
Clinical questions: Is there evidence of pneumothorax or free fluid in the
abdomen?
Exam: Curvilinear probe to look at RUQ, LUQ, and suprapubic areas. Free fluid
will appear anechoic, collects early near the caudal edge of liver (RUQ).
Right and left thorax views using cardiac or curvilinear probe. Absence of lung
sliding in pneumothorax.
Positive LUQ Positive RUQ eFAST Views

Lung
Clinical questions: Is there pneumothorax? Is there hemothorax or pleural
effusion?
Exam: Curvilinear probe along mid axillary line at the level of diaphragm
Mirror sign – interface between liquid and air-filled thorax will create a highly
reflective surface for sound. Absent mirror sign in fluid-filled thorax (ie. in
hemothorax or pleural effusion).
Spine sign – visualized when anechoic or hypoechoic Spine Sign
fluid is present in the pleural space.
Lung sliding – shimmering appearance of pleura, “ants
marching on a log”. Absent lung sliding may indicate
pneumothorax.

First Trimester
Clinical questions: Is there an intrauterine pregnancy?
Exam: Curvilinear probe along midline sagittal view
Diagnosis of IUP on POCUS
Confirm bladder-uterine juxtaposition to identify the uterus
Gestational sac within the uterus
Circular anechoic intrauterine area surrounded by thickened echogenic rim
Yolk sac OR fetal pole visualized within the gestational sac
Yolk sac is circular structure with hypoechoic centre within the gestational sac
Fetal pole is a small mass at the margin of yolk sac present between 5-6wks
Myometrial mantle >8mm
Uterine tissue surrounding gestational sac

Key References: Boyd, Jeremy S., et al. "EMERGENCY ULTRASOUND." The Atlas of
Emergency Medicine, 4e Eds. Kevin J. Knoop, et al. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.