Structural Dynamics and

Earthquake Engineering
 Theory of Vibrations
• Difference between static loading and dynamic loading
• Degree of freedom
• Idealisation of structure as single degree of freedom
system
• Formulation of Equations of motion of SDOF system
• D‟Alemberts principles
• Effect of damping
• Free and forced vibration of damped and undamped
structures
• Response to harmonic and periodic forces.
Arul.D, AP, Civil, CIT, Coimbatore 2
 Theory of Vibrations
• Vibration:
– Motion of a particle or a body or a system of concentrated
bodies having been displaced from a position of equilibrium,
appearing as an oscillation.
– Vibration in structural systems may result from environmental
sources such as wind, earthquakes and waterways.

– Earthquakes are most important due to enormous potential

for damage to structures and loss of life.
– On an average every year around 10, 000 people die
worldwide due to earthquakes.

9
 Theory of Vibrations
• Vibration:
– Study of repetitive motion of objects relative to a stationary
frame of reference or equilibrium position.
– Vibrations can occur in many directions and results in
interaction of many objects.
– Motion of vibrating system is governed by the law of
mechanics, and in particular by Newton’s second law of
motion (F=ma).

10
 Theory of Vibrations
• Basic concepts of Vibration:
– Bodies having mass and elasticity are capable to vibrate.
– When body particles are displaced by the application of external
force, the internal forces in the form of elastic energy present in
the body, try to bring it to its original position.
– At equilibrium position, whole of the elastic energy is converted
into kinetic energy and the body continuous to move in in the
opposite direction.
– Whole K.E. is converted into elastic or strain energy and inturn
body returns to equilibrium position.
– This way, vibration motion is repeated continuously and
interchange of energy takes place.
– And hence, any motion repeats itself after an interval of time is
called vibration or oscillation.

11
 Theory of Vibrations
• Dynamic loading:
– Dynamics: Study of forces and motions with time dependency.
– Dynamic load: Load magnitude, direction and position changes
with time.

– Structural response to dynamic loading can be done by two

methods:
• i) Deterministic analysis : Structural response i.e. displacement,
acceleration, velocity, stress are known as a function of time.
• Ii) Non-deterministic analysis : Time variation of of vibration is not
completely known.

12
 Theory of Vibrations
• Comparison of static loading and dynamic loading:
– i) In static problem: Load is constant with time.
W
Ex: Weight of a bridge
span on bridge pilings.

– In dynamic problem: Loading and its response varies with time.

W (t) Ex: A truck moving across the

same bridge span exerts a
dynamic load on the pilings.
Inertia forces

13
 Theory of Vibrations
• Comparison of static loading and dynamic loading:
– ii) In static problem: Response due to static loading is
displacement only.
W

– In dynamic problem: Response due to dynamic loading is

displacement, velocity and acceleration.
W (t)

14
 Theory of Vibrations
• Comparison of static loading and dynamic loading:
– iii) In static problem: Solution of static problem is only one.

– In dynamic problem: Solutions of dynamic problem are infinite

and are time dependent.

W (t)
 Dynamic analysis is more
complex and time consuming
than static analysis

15
 Theory of Vibrations
• Comparison of static loading and dynamic loading:
– iv) In static problem: Response calculation is done by static
equilibrium.
W

– In dynamic problem: Response not only depends on load but

also depend on inertia forces which oppose the accelerations
producing them.
W (t)
 Inertia forces are most
important characteristics of a
structural dynamic problem.

16
 Theory of Vibrations
• Causes of dynamic effects:
– Natural and manmade sources may influence the dynamic effect in
the structure.
– The most common causes are as follows:
• i) Initial conditions: Initial conditions such as velocity and displacement
produce dynamic effect in the system.
Ex: Consider a lift moving up or down with an initial velocity . When
the lift is suddenly stopped , the cabin begin to vibrate up and down since it
posses initial velocity.
• ii) Applied forces: Some times vibration in the system is produced due to
application of external forces.
Ex: i) A building subjected to bomb blast or wind forces
ii) Machine foundation.
• iii) Support motions : Structures are often subjected to vibration due to
influence of support motions.
Ex: Earthquake motion.
17
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– Number of coordinates necessary to specify the position or
geometry of mass point at any instant during its vibration.
– All real structures possess infinite number of dynamic degrees of
freedom. Hence infinite number of coordinates are necessary to
specify the position of the structure completely at any instant of
time.
– Each degree of freedom is having corresponding natural frequency.
Therefore, a structure possesses as many natural frequencies as it
has the degrees of freedom.
– For each natural frequency, the structure has its own way of
vibration.
– The vibrating shape is known as characteristic shape or mode of
vibration.

18
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– Consider a block as shown in figure that is free to move in 3-
dimensional space, which may move without rotation in each of the
three directions X, Y, Z. These are called the three degrees of
translation.

– The block may also rotate about its own axes, these are called the
three degrees of rotation.
– Thus to define the position of the block in space, we need to define
six coordinates, that is three for translation and three for rotation.

19
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– Depending on the independent coordinates required to describe
the motion, the vibratory system is divided into the following
categories.
(i) Single degree of freedom system (SDOF system)
(ii) Multiple degree of freedom system
(iii) Continuous system.
– If a single coordinate is sufficient to define
the position or geometry of the mass of the
system at any instant of time is called single or one degree of
freedom system.

20
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– Example for SDOF:

x
k1
m

x
Spring – mass system

Building frame
21
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– If more than one independent coordinate is required to completely
specify the position or geometry of different masses of the system
at any instant of time, is called multiple degrees of freedom
system.
– Example for MDOF system:

x1 x2
k1 k2
m1 m2

22
 Theory of Vibrations
• Degrees of freedom:
– If the mass of a system may be considered to be distributed over its
entire length as shown in figure, in which the mass is considered to
have infinite degrees of freedom, it is referred to as a continuous
system. It is also known as distributed system.
– Example for continuous system:

x3
x3 x x1
x3 2

Cantilver beam with infinite number of degrees of freedom

23
 Theory of Vibrations
• Mathematical modelling of an SDOF system:
x
F(t)
• To understand the dynamic behaviour of structure,
K it is necessary to develop their models under
dynamic loads such as earthqukes, wind, blasts etc.
Portal frame
• Assumptions to develop mathematical model:
 Total mass is assumed to act at slab level, since mass of columns are
less and ignored.
 The beam/slab is assumed as infinitely rigid, so that the stiffness of the
structure is provided by the columns, i.e. flexibility of slab/beam is
ignored.
 Since beams are built monolithically within the columns, the beam
column joint can be assumed as rigid as without any rotations at joint.

24
 Theory of Vibrations
• Mathematical modelling of an SDOF system:
x
F(t)
• The possibility of lateral displacement is due to rigid
K beam/slab only.
• The model resulting from the above mentioned
assumptions is called as shear building model.
Portal frame

c x
Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
m Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m F(t)
Spring force, Fs =kx
k
FBD

25
 Theory of Vibrations
• Mathematical modelling of an SDOF system:
x
F(t) Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m F(t)
Spring force, Fs =kx
FBD

• ‘m’=mass of slab and beam. Energy is stored by mass m in the

form of kinetic energy.
• ‘k’ represents combined stiffness of two columns for lateral
deformation that is elastic restoring force and it stores the
potential energy (internal strain energy ) due to columns.
• Dashpot having damping coefficient ‘c’ represents the energy
dissipation, i.e. frictional characteristics and energy losses of the
frame.
• An execution force F(t) representing the external lateral force.
26
 Theory of Vibrations
• Mathematical modelling of an SDOF system:
x
F(t) Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m F(t)
Spring force, Fs =kx
FBD

• Passive (inactive) elements = mass, spring, damper

• Active element = excitation element, F(t)
• Since the above dynamic system is divided into independent
discrete elements, this model is known as lumped parameter
model.

27
 Theory of Vibrations
• Mathematical modelling of an SDOF system:
x
F(t) Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m F(t)
Spring force, Fs =kx
FBD

• The elements to determine the dynamic behaviour:

• i) the inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
• Ii) the restoring force or spring force, Fs =kx
• iii) the damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥
• iv) the exciting force, F(t)

• Considering the equilibrium of all forces in X- direction, the

govrning equation of motion for the SDOF is,
𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝐤𝐱 = 𝐅(𝐭)
28
 Theory of Vibrations
• Free vibration of undamped SDOF system:

x
Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
m m
k
Spring force, Fs =kx
FBD

• Considering the equilibrium of all forces in X- direction, the

governing equation of motion for the SDOF is,
• 𝐹𝑖 + 𝐹𝑠 = 0
𝒎𝒙 + 𝐤𝐱 = 𝟎

29
 Theory of Vibrations
• Derivation of equation of motion:
Differential equation describing the motion is known as equation
of motion.

Methods to derive the equation of motion:

i) Simple Harmonic Motion method
ii) Newton’s method
iii) Energy method
iv) Rayleigh’s method
v) D’Alembert’s principle

30
 Theory of Vibrations
• i). Simple Harmonic motion method:
• If the acceleration of a particle in a rectilinear motion is always
proportional to the distance of the particle from a fixed point on
the path and is directed towards the fixed point, then the particle
is said to be in SHM.

• SHM is the simplest form of periodic motion.

• In differential equation form, SHM is represented as

𝑥 ∝ −𝑥 −− −(1)
𝑑2 𝑥
Where x is the rectilinear displacement and 𝑥 is acceleration ( 2 )
𝑑𝑡

31
 Theory of Vibrations
• i). Simple Harmonic motion method:
• 𝑥 ∝ −𝑥 −− −(1)
• The negative sign in Eq.(1) indicates the direction of motion of a
particle towards a fixed point which is opposite to the direction
of displacement.
• Let the constant proportionality be 𝜔𝑛 2 which is an unknown
parameter.

• Now Eq.(1) can be rewritten as, 𝑥 = −𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥

𝑥 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = 0 −− − 2
This is known as equation of motion and is second order
linear differential equation.
• The constant 𝜔𝑛 is yet to be determined by the analysis.

32
 Theory of Vibrations
• ii). Newton’s second law of motion:
• The equation of motion is just another form of Newton’s second
law of motion.

• The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the

impressed forces and takes place in the direction in which the
force acts.

33
 Theory of Vibrations
• ii). Newton’s second law of motion:
• Consider a spring – mass system of figure which is assumed to
move only along the vertical direction. It has only one degree of
freedom, because its motion is described by a single coordinate
x.

k∆
∆= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 Static equilibrium
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 position k (∆ + 𝑥)
m m
x
W m m
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
W
34
 Theory of Vibrations
• ii). Newton’s second law of motion:
• A massless spring of constant stiffness k is shown in Figure.
𝑊
• 𝑘 = , ∴ 𝑊 = 𝑘∆
∆
From the equilibrium position , the load W is pulled down a little
by some force and then pulling force is removed.

k∆
∆= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 Static equilibrium k (∆ + 𝑥)
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 position
m m
x m
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 W m
W

35
 Theory of Vibrations
• ii). Newton’s second law of motion:
• The load W will continue to execute vibration up and down
which is called free vibration.
• Restoring force in X- direction= 𝑊 − 𝑘(∆ + 𝑥)
= 𝑘∆ − 𝑘∆ − 𝑘𝑥
= −𝑘𝑥

k∆
∆= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 Static equilibrium k (∆ + 𝑥)
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 position
m m
x m
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 W m
W

36
 Theory of Vibrations
• ii). Newton’s second law of motion:
• According to Newton’s second law, 𝑚𝑥 = −kx
𝑚𝑥 + kx = 0
𝑘
𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 −− − 3
𝑚
Compared with Eq.(2) i.e., 𝑥 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = 0 −− − 2

2
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
𝒌
∴ 𝝎𝒏 =
k∆ 𝒎
∆= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 Static equilibrium k (∆ + 𝑥)
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 position
m m
x m
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 W m
W

37
 Theory of Vibrations
• iii). Energy method:
• Assumption: System is to be conservative one.
• Conservative system: Total sum of energy is constant at all
time.

• For an undamped system: since there is no friction or

damping force, the total energy of the system is partly
potential and partly kinetic.

• ∴ 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

• The time rate of change of total energy will be zero.

𝑑
• 𝑘. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. = 0
𝑑𝑡

38
 Theory of Vibrations
• iii). Energy method:
1 1
• 𝑘. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑥 2
2 2
1
• 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑘𝑥 2
2

𝑑 1 1
• 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 2

1 1
• 𝑚2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘2𝑥𝑥 = 0
2 2

• 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎

39
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). Rayleigh’s method:
• Assumptions:
• (1) Maximum K.E. at the equilibrium position is equal to the
maximum potential energy at the extreme position.

• (2). The motion is assumed to be SHM, then 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

• Where x is the displacement of the system from its mean position

after time t.

• A is the maximum displacement of the system from equilibrium

position to extreme position.

40
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). Rayleigh’s method:
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

• 𝑥 is maximum when sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡=1

• 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴

• 𝑥 = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴 cos 𝜔 𝑛 𝑡

• Velocity 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = 1

• 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴

41
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). Rayleigh’s method:
1
So maximum K.E. at the equilibrium position= 𝑚𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
1 2
= 𝑚 𝜔𝑛 𝐴
2
1
Maximum P.E. at the extreme position= 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
1
= 𝑘 𝐴 2
2
1 2
1 2
𝑚 𝜔𝑛 𝐴 == 𝑘 𝐴
2 2
2
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
𝒌
∴ 𝝎𝒏 =
𝒎

42
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). D’Alembert’s method:
To find the solution of a dynamic problem by using the methods
of statics.
According to Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 − 𝑚𝑎 = 0
This is in the form of an equation of motion of force equilibrium
in which sum of a number of force terms equals zero.

Hence, if an imaginary force which is equal to ‘ma’ were applied

to the system in the direction opposite to the acceleration, the
system could then be considered to be in equilibrium under the
action of real force F and the imaginary force ‘ma’.

The imaginary force ‘ma’ is known as inertia force and the

position of equilibrium is called dynamic equilibrium.
43
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). D’Alembert’s method:
D’Alemberts principle states that ‘a system may be in dynamic
equilibrium by adding to the external forces, an imaginary force,
which is commonly known as the inertia force’.

According to the principle, the transformation of a problem in

dynamics may be reduced to one in statics.

Consider a spring-mass system in the following Figure.

x
Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
m m
k
Spring force, Fs =kx

Spring – mass system Dynamic equilibrium

44
 Theory of Vibrations
• iv). D’Alembert’s method:
– Using D’Alembert’s principle, to bring the body to a dynamic
equilibrium position, the inertia force ‘𝑚𝑥 is to be added in
the direction opposite to the direction of motion.

– Equilibrium equation is 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝑚𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥 = 0
− 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑘
𝑥+ 𝑥=0
𝑚
2
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
𝒌
𝝎𝒏 =
𝒎

45
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– The governing differential equation of motion is
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
It is in the form of homogeneous second order linear equation.

There are five different solutions for the above equation of

motion.
1. 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
2. 𝑥 = 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
3. 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
4. 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ∅)
5. 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ∅)
Where A and B are constants depending on their initial
condition of the motion.
46
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.1:
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −− −(1)
To determine the constant A, let us use the initial condition by
assuming that at time t=0, the displacement 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
Substituting this in the above equation (1), we get
𝑥0 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑛 × 0)
∴ 𝑥0 = 𝐴
Hence the solution, 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒏 𝒕

47
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.2:
𝑥 = B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −−− −(2)
To determine the constant B, let us use the initial condition by
assuming that
(i) at time t=0, the displacement 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
(ii) At time t=0, 𝑥 = 𝑥0
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time,
𝑥 = 𝐵𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
Applying initial conditions,
𝑥0 = 𝐵 𝜔𝑛 .
𝑥0
𝐵=
𝜔𝑛
𝒙𝟎
Substituting in equation (2), 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝝎𝒏
48
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.3:
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −−− −(3)

The superposition of the above two solutions is also a solution.

The general solution for this second order differential equation

is
𝒙𝟎
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒏 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝝎𝒏

49
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.4:
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ∅) −−− −(4)
By expanding sine term
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos ∅ + 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin ∅ −− −(4a)
But the general solution is
𝒙𝟎
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒏 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝝎𝒏
By comparing Eq.(4a) with general solution, i.e. comparing
coefficient of cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡,
𝑥0 = 𝐴 sin ∅ − −(5)
Comparing coefficient of sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡,
𝒙𝟎
= A cos ∅ −− −(6)
𝝎𝒏
50
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.4: 𝑥0 = 𝐴 sin ∅ − −(5)
𝒙𝟎
= A cos ∅ −− −(6)
𝝎𝒏
Squaring and adding Eq.(5) and Eq.(6),
2
𝑥0
𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ = 𝑥0 2 + 2
𝜔𝑛
2
𝑥0
𝐴= 𝑥0 2 + 2
𝜔𝑛
𝐴 sin ∅ 𝑥0
Dividing Eq.(5) and Eq.(6), = 𝒙𝟎
𝐴 cos ∅
𝝎𝒏
𝒙𝟎 𝝎𝒏
Hence the phase angle, ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝒙𝟎
51
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.5:
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ∅) −− −(7)
By expanding cosine term, we get
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos ∅ + 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin ∅ −− −(7𝑎)
But the general solution is
𝒙𝟎
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒏 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒏 𝒕
𝝎𝒏
By comparing Eq.(7a) with general solution, we get
𝑥0 = 𝐴 cos ∅ − −(8)
𝒙𝟎
= A sin ∅ −− −(9)
𝝎𝒏
By squaring and adding Eqs. (8) and (9), we get
2
𝑥0
𝑥0 2 + 2 = 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
𝜔𝑛
52
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution of the equation of motion:
– Solution No.5:
2
𝑥0
𝑥0 + 2 = 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
2
𝜔𝑛
2
𝑥0
𝐴= 𝑥0 2 + 2
𝜔𝑛
𝒙𝟎
𝐴 sin ∅ 𝝎𝒏
Dividing Eq.(9) and Eq.(8), =
𝐴 cos ∅ 𝑥0
𝒙𝟎
Phase angle, ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝒙𝟎 𝝎𝒏

53
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
Introduction:
• Without damping force or frictional force the system vibrates
indefinitely with a constant amplitude at its natural frequency.
• But in reality the vibration without decreasing amplitude is never
realized.
• Frictional forces (or) damping forces are always present in any
physical system while undergoing motion.

• The presence of damping forces or frictional forces, form a

mechanism through which the mechanical energy of the system
(kinetic energy or potential energy) is transformed to other form
of energy such as heat energy.
• This energy transformation mechanism is called a dissipation
energy. This is quite complex in nature.
54
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
What is damping?
• A phenomenon in which the energy of the system is gradually
reduced or the amplitude of the vibration goes on decreasing
and finally the vibration of the system is completely eliminated
and the system is brought to rest is known as damping.

• The decreasing rate of amplitude depends upon the amount of

damping.

• The damping is useful to control the amplitude of vibration.

55
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
Types (or) Nature of damping : Mainly 5types of damping

• 1. Viscous damping

• 2. Coulomb damping

• 3. Structural damping

• 4. Active damping (or) Negative damping

• 5. Passive damping

56
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
1. Viscous Damping:
• When a system is made to vibrate in a
surrounding viscous medium that is under the
control of highly viscous fluid, the damping is
called viscous damping.

• This type of damping is achieved by means of V

device called hydraulic dashpot.

• The main components of viscous damper or

dashpot are cylinder, piston and viscous fluid as
shown in Figure.

• Fluid mechanics concepts are to be used here.

57
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
1. Viscous Damping: F

• Let us consider that the two plates are

separated by fluid film of thickness t as shown
t
in Figure.

• The upper plate is allowed to move parallel to

the fixed plate with a velocity 𝑥 . V

• The force ‘F’ required for maintaining this

velocity 𝑥 of the plate is given by
𝜇𝐴
𝐹= 𝑥 −− −(1)
𝑡
= 𝑐𝑥
c=damping coefficient (N-s/m)
58
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
1. Viscous Damping: F

• Viscous damping is a method of converting

mechanical vibrational energy of a body into
t
heat energy, in which a piston is attached to the
body and is arranged to move through liquid in
a cylinder that is attached to a support.
V
• Shock absorber is the best example of the
viscous damping.

• Viscous damping is largely used for system

modeling since it is linear.

59
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
1. Equation of motion for viscous damping:
c x
Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
m Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m
Spring force, Fs =kx
k
F. B.D.
Viscous damping oscillator

From FBD, the governing differential equation of motion is,

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + kx = 0 −− −(2)
Assuming the solution may be in the form of
𝑥 = 𝑒 λ𝑡
Where λ is a constant to be determined.
This exponential function leads to algebraic equation instead of a
differential equation.
60
 Theory of Vibrations
Damped free vibration of SDOF system:
1. Equation of motion for viscous damping:
c 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + kx = 0 −− −(2)
x
Inertia force, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
m Damping force, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐𝑥 m
Spring force, Fs =kx
k
𝑥 = 𝑒 λ𝑡
𝑥 = λ𝑒 λ𝑡
𝑥 = λ2 𝑒 λ𝑡
Substituting the values of 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑥 in equation (2) we get,
𝑚λ2 𝑒 λ𝑡 + c λ𝑒 λ𝑡 + k𝑒 λ𝑡 = 0
𝑚λ2 + cλ+k 𝑒 λ𝑡 = 0
The non-trivial solution is 𝑚λ2 + cλ+k=0
2 𝑐 𝑘
λ + λ+ = 0
𝑚 𝑚 61
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping:
• It was named because Charles Augustin de Coulomb carried on
research in mechanics.
• In this damping energy is absorbed constantly through sliding
friction, which is developed by relative motion of the two
surfaces that slide against each other.
• Coulomb damping absorbs energy with friction, which converts
that kinetic energy into thermal energy or heat.
• Static and kinetic friction occur in a vibrating system undergoing
Coulomb damping.
• Static friction occurs when two bodies are stationary or
undergoing no relative motion.
Frictional force, 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
μs = coefficient of static friction.

62
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping:
• Kinetic friction occurs when the two bodies are undergoing
relative motion and they are sliding against each other.
Frictional force, 𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
μk = coefficient of dynamic friction

EOM for right to left motion, 𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 + 𝐹, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0

EOM for left to right motion, 𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝐹, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
𝐹
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 +
𝑘 𝐹
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −
𝑘63
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for first half cycle (𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻/𝟐):
• Let us consider the movement of the mass to the left in a
Coulomb damping system as shown in figure.

• The governing differential equation is

𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 + 𝐹
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹 −− −(1)
𝑥 𝐹
2
+𝑥 =
𝜔𝑛 𝑘
The solution of the above equation can be written as
𝐹
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 +
𝑘
64
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for first half cycle (𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻/𝟐):
𝐹
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + −− −(2)
𝑘
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑥𝑝
Where 𝑥𝑐 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = complimentary sulution
𝐹
𝑥𝑝 = = Partcular integral
𝑘
𝑘
Where 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
Let us assume the initial condition to determine the constants A and
B
(i) At t=0; 𝑥=𝑥0
(ii) At t=0; 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = −𝐴𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

65
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for first half cycle (𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻/𝟐):
𝑥 = −𝐴𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + B𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −− −(3)
Applying initial condition (ii) i.e., At t=0; 𝑥 = 0 in the above equation
0 = B𝜔𝑛
Since 𝜔𝑛 ≠ 0
∴𝐵=0
Applying initial condition (i) i.e., at t=0;𝑥 = 𝑥0
𝐹
𝑥0 = A +
𝑘
𝐹
𝐴 = 𝑥0 −
𝑘
Hence Equation (2) can be written as
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 − ) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2
𝑘 𝑘
This solution holds good for half cycle only.
66
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for first half cycle (𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻/𝟐):
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 − ) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇/2 −− −(4)
𝑘 𝑘
2𝜋
We know that, 𝑇 =
𝜔𝑛
𝜋
For half cycle, 𝑇 =
𝜔𝑛
𝜋
When t= , half cycle is completed. So displacement for half the
𝜔𝑛
cycle can be obtained from Eq.(4).
𝜋
𝑡=
𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = 𝜋
Substituting the value of 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 in Eq.(4),
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 − )cosπ +
𝑘 𝑘
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 − )(−1) +
𝑘 𝑘
67
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for first half cycle (𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻/𝟐):
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥= (𝑥0 − )(−1) +
𝑘 𝑘
𝑭
𝒙 = − 𝒙𝟎 − 𝟐
𝒌
This is the amplitude for the left extreme of the body.
From this equation it is clear that the initial displacement is
reduced by 2F/k.

68
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):
• Let us consider the movement of the mass to the right in a
Coulomb damping system as shown in figure.

• The governing differential equation is

𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝐹
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = −𝐹 −− −(5)
𝑥 𝐹
2
+𝑥 =−
𝜔𝑛 𝑘
The solution of the above equation can be written as
𝐹
𝑥 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −
𝑘
69
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):
𝐹
𝑥 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − −− −(6)
𝑘
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑥𝑝
Where 𝑥𝑐 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = complimentary sulution
𝐹
𝑥𝑝 = − = Partcular integral
𝑘
𝑘
Where 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
Let us assume the initial condition to determine the constants C and
D
(i) At t=0; 𝑥=𝑥0
(ii) At t=0; 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = −𝐶𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

70
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):
𝑥 = −𝐶𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + D𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −− −(7)
Applying initial condition (ii) i.e., At t=0; 𝑥 = 0 in the above equation
0 = D𝜔𝑛
Since 𝜔𝑛 ≠ 0
∴𝐷=0
𝜋 𝐹
Applying initial condition (i) i.e., at t= ;𝑥 = −𝑥0 + 2
𝜔𝑛 𝑘

𝐹
𝐶 = 𝑥0 − 3
𝑘
Hence Equation (2) can be written as
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 −3 ) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − , 𝑇/2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑘 𝑘
This solution holds good for second half cycle only.
71
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 −3 ) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − , 𝑇/2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 −− −(8)
𝑘 𝑘
2𝜋
We know that, 𝑇 =
𝜔𝑛

2𝜋
When t= , second half cycle is completed. So displacement for the
𝜔𝑛
second half the cycle can be obtained from Eq.(8).
2𝜋
𝑡=
𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝑡 varies from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋
Substituting the value of 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 in Eq.(4),
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥 = (𝑥0 −3 )cos2π −
𝑘 𝑘
𝑭
𝒙= (𝒙𝟎 −𝟒 )
𝒌
72
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):
𝑭
𝒙 = − 𝒙𝟎 − 𝟐
𝒌

𝑭
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 − 𝟒
𝒌
In the first half cycle the initial displacement is reduced by 2F/k.
In the second half cycle when the body moves to the right, the
initial displacement will be reduced by 2F/k.

So in one complete cycle, the amplitude reduces by 4F/k.

But the natural frequency of the system remains unchanged in
coulomb damping.

73
 Theory of Vibrations
Coulomb damping for second half cycle (𝑻/𝟐 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻):

74
 Theory of Vibrations
• Example 1:
• A cantilever beam AB of length L is attached to a spring k and
mass M as shown in Figure. (i) form the equation of motion and
(ii) Find an expression for the frequency of motion.

m
L

75
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution:
m
• Stiffness due to applied mass M is L
𝑀 3𝐸𝐼
𝑘𝑏 = = 3
∆ 𝐿 k
– This stiffness is parallel to 𝑘.
– Equivalent spring stiffness, 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘
3𝐸𝐼
= 3 +k
𝐿
3𝐸𝐼 + 𝑘𝐿3
=
𝐿3
The differential equation of motion is,
𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑒 𝑥

76
 Theory of Vibrations
• Solution:
m
𝑚𝑥 = −𝑘𝑒 𝑥
L
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑥 = 0
3𝐸𝐼 + 𝑘𝐿3 k
𝑚𝑥 + 3
𝑥=0
𝐿
𝟑𝑬𝑰 + 𝒌𝑳𝟑
𝒙+ 𝟑
𝒙=𝟎
𝒎𝑳
1 𝑘𝑒
The frequency of vibration, 𝑓 =
2𝜋 𝑚

𝟏 𝒌𝑳𝟑 + 𝟑𝑬𝑰
∴𝒇=
𝟐𝝅 𝒎𝑳𝟑

77
 Theory of Vibrations
• Example 2:
• Find the natural frequency of the system as shown in Figure. Take
𝑁
𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 2000 𝑁/𝑚, 𝑘3 = 3000 and m= 10 kg.
𝑚

𝑘1 𝑘2

m=10 kg

𝑘3

78