Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Volume 41 | Issue 3 Article 6

2016

Technology Integration in Elementary Classrooms:

Teaching Practices of Student Teachers
Ping Liu
California State University - Long Beach, ping.liu@csulb.edu

Recommended Citation
Liu, P. (2016). Technology Integration in Elementary Classrooms: Teaching Practices of Student Teachers. Australian Journal of
Teacher Education, 41(3).
http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2016v41n3.6

This Journal Article is posted at Research Online.

http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol41/iss3/6
 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Technology Integration in Elementary Classrooms: Teaching Practices of

Student Teachers

Ping Liu
California State University Long Beach
U.S.A.

Abstract: This study examines how and why student teachers

integrated technology to enhance instruction in elementary
classrooms. The participants were 31 student teachers who completed
an assignment of eight weeks. Multiple data sets including observation
notes of 347 lessons were obtained from three key groups for data
triangulation. Results reveal that the primary technological means
used to enhance teaching was to provide visuals for attention,
engagement and interaction. All participants chose to integrate
technology but varied substantially in their teaching practices. They
applied technology for a number of reasons: student engagement, time
management, motivation and meeting individual students’ needs.
Variables such as influence of mentor teachers, technology access,
skills, pedagogical competence and personal attitudes had an impact
on their application. While most of them followed their mentor’s
practices, some student teachers took initiative and made
contributions to their mentors’ professional development in
technology integration. Implications on teacher preparation programs
are discussed.

Introduction

Technology application is becoming part of the teaching and non-teaching practices of K-

12 teachers more than ever before. Attention has also been given to research and learning
theories of teacher preparation regarding the use of technology (Ottenbreit-Leftwich, et. al.,
2012; Slagter van Tyron & Schwartz, 2012). California Standards for the Teaching Profession
include the use of technologies to support student learning (California Department of Education,
2009). In a national survey conducted in the U.S.A. (Gray, Thomas, & Lewis, 2010), less than 50%
of the teachers were found to often apply technology during instructional time but technology
was utilized more in their completing administrative tasks. Teachers and pre-service teachers are
challenged to integrate technology into their instruction. Kopcha (2012) provided a summary of
research on the identified barriers in technology integration: access or quality of facilities, vision
of school administration, teacher beliefs, time required for preparation and professional
development. Professional development is a means to help teachers overcome these identified
barriers in their technology application. However, the quality of professional development is

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 87

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

often related to connection between technology use and classroom practices (Mouza, 2009;
Wells, 2007).
In the past decade, research topics on technology application in teaching and
learning extend from barriers (Butler & Sellborn, 2002; Kopcha, 2012), subject specific
instruction such as math and social studies (Fraser, Garofalo, & Juersivich, 2011;
Henning, Peterson, & King, 2011; Keiper, Harwood, & Larson, 2000; Menard, 2010;
Whitney, 2007) to practices of new teachers after program completion (Wright & Wilson,
2005). The participants of the above studies involve teachers and pre-service teachers in
K-12 school setting. Pre-service teachers are in the process of developing teaching
abilities through applying a variety of instructional strategies and resources. To increase
quality of teacher preparation, more research is needed to examine how pre-service
teachers apply technology in an instructional context.
Empirical evidence indicates that a large number of pre-service teachers have
acquired technology skills, but they are yet to develop abilities to integrate technology
(Liu, 2012; Maddux & Cummings, 2004; Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999; Selinger, 2001).
During field experiences or student teaching, mentor teachers play a major role in
assisting pre-service teachers to integrate technology into their teaching (Kopcha, 2012;
Liu, 2012). This impact of mentor teachers is confirmed in the synthesis of qualitative
evidence in preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology (Tondeur et. al., 2011):
13 of the 19 selected studies highlighted teacher educators serving as a role model for
pre-service teachers. One aspect that Tondeur and colleagues (2011) proposed for further
research is the “influence of cultural and contextual factors on the development of pre-
service teachers’ capacity to apply technology in daily classroom practices” (p. 10).
Similarly, others (Kopcha, 2012; Rosenberg & Koehler, 2015) call for more research that
looks into the complexity of practices and context of technology integration instead of
relying on the self reports (Hew & Brush, 2007; Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009; Lawless
& Pellegrino, 2007).
In teacher preparation, studies have been conducted on technology integration of
pre-service teachers (Choy, Wong & Gao, 2009; Jaipai & Figg, 2010, 2015; Margerum-
Leys & Marx, 2000). The focus of these studies is on the change of intention and action
related to a technology course, acquisition of knowledge about educational technology of
student teachers and mentor teachers, or application of a collaborative model to support
technology integration. All of these studies were conducted on the field-based practice of
pre-service teachers in an elementary school setting, and below is a brief review of each
of them.
Choy, Wong, and Gao (2009) explored the change of pre-service students’
intention and action to integrate technology into their teaching before and after taking a
technology course. Over 100 pre-service teachers completed a survey at different times of
the program. Findings indicate that the participants increased intention of using
technology in instruction with their development of pedagogical knowledge about
technology integration. However, a gap existed when the pre-service teachers took
actions primarily due to various external factors such as “software availability, plug-in
problems, and Internet connection speed” (p. 190). As a result, the pre-service teachers
were not able to fully translate their intention of integrating technology to enhance
instruction and promote student centered learning.

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 88

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

With a much smaller number of participants but more comprehensive data

collection, Margerum-Leys and Marx (2000) examined teacher knowledge of educational
technology and application in a teaching context through a case study of three pairs of
student teachers and mentor teachers. The researchers collected data about the classroom
practices of these participants. Findings indicate that the student teachers contributed
their learning acquired from university course work on technologies while the mentors
played the role of pedagogical guides in the collaboration. The identified obstacles to
apply educational technology include lack of time and classroom management.
The third one is also a case study (Jaipai & Figg, 2010), applying a school based
collaborative model in support of elementary pre-service teachers to integrate technology
in teaching. The four participants received assistance from a team comprised of two
university faculty members, a school board technology consultant and a master’s student,
when they planned and taught technologically enhanced lessons during a 7-week period
in two schools. The researchers analyzed the characteristics of application through a cross
case analysis of data. Furthermore, based on the findings of longitudinal studies of pre-
service and in-service teacher teaching with technology in elementary schools, Jaipai and
Figg (2015) presented a framework, TPACK-in-practice with characteristics and actions
demonstrated in elementary teaching practices of technology integration. The framework
was developed on the basis of the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPACK) (Koehler & Mishra, 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The TPACK-in-practice
framework includes three intersections: technological content knowledge, technological
pedagogical knowledge and technological pedagogical content knowledge, extending
from technological skills and beliefs to external variables in a teaching context. Four
stages for designing content-centric professional development workshops in technology
integration are also proposed.
Based on the above literature review, this study was designed to explore the technology
integration practices of pre-service teachers in an instructional context of elementary schools.
Their practices are discussed in reference to the TPACK-in-practice framework (Jaipai & Figg,
2015). The emphasis is placed on investigating how their technology integration is pertinent to
the three intersections of the framework. Furthermore, why the student teachers applied
technology to enhance teaching is also part of the study. Specifically, the purpose of this study
was to examine how and why the student teachers addressed technology integration to teach in
K-5 classrooms during an assignment of eight weeks. Aspects such as the participants’ access to
and actual use of technology, and their explanation of technology use will be analyzed. Two
research questions posed for the study are: 1) How did the student teachers integrate technology
into the lessons they taught in K-5 classrooms? 2) Why did they integrate technology into their
instruction?

Research Design

Mixed methods of descriptive survey research and case study of the group
(Lodico, Spaulding & Voegtle, 2010) were applied in this study. Both quantitative and
qualitative data were collected throughout a student teaching assignment. Multiple sets of
data at different time or places and directly from or about the participants were collected
and analyzed to answer the research questions.

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 89

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Participants

A total of 31 student teachers in an elementary teaching credential program

participated in the study. They were required to fulfill all other course requirements
before they began student teaching. In addition to a generic technology course,
technology was embedded in the course work they completed before student teaching
took place. For example, the pre-service teachers were required to create an e-story with
animation for a target subject matter. However, they did not have an opportunity to teach
a lesson integrated with technology to K-5 students, not to mention reflection on teaching
experience.
During student teaching, the participants completed an assignment of eight weeks
in an elementary classroom adhering the school daily schedule. The student teaching
placements were spread out in 15 public schools of a suburban area. All the schools were
K-5 with a few that offered transitional kindergarten classes. The enrollment of these
schools was between 700 and 1,100 students. The K-5 students eligible for free or
reduced lunch ranged from 70% and 13% among these schools. The ethnic background of
the students was diverse, and many of them were English Language Learners or had
identified needs.
Each of the student teachers was assigned to work full day in the classroom to
gradually assume all non-teaching and teaching responsibilities. One main task for the
student teachers was to design lesson plans and teach lessons of different subjects (math,
science, English language arts…) following the school district curriculum. They were
observed by a university supervisor once a week and submitted a lesson plan for each
observation. They also developed and taught a unit of study including at least five lesson
plans. The participants reflected on their application of technology in the classroom as
related to teaching effectiveness and completed a survey on access and use of technology.
They received evaluations from their university supervisor and mentor teacher, aligned
with the standards for the teaching profession.

Data Collection

Multiple sets of data were collected on a weekly basis from and about the participants
during the 8-week period. The data extended from observation logs of the participants’ actual use
of technology in teaching the 347 lessons, report of access to technology in the classroom to the
student teachers’ reflection on their application and evaluations by their mentors. In particular,
the following types of data were collected: 1) classroom observation logs of the student teachers’
technology integration into teaching as well as after lesson debriefing, 2) written lesson plans
with reflection, 3) summative reflection on technology integration with justification, and 4) a
survey regarding access and general use of technology in a classroom. In addition, student
teaching evaluations were collected to analyze their technology integration. All types of data
were obtained from the three key groups: student teacher, mentor teacher and university
supervisor, who were directly involved in the process. The written information provided by the
student teachers or participants included lesson plans, reflection journals and their summative
reflection on technology integration. A mentor teacher and supervisor were present in the lessons
taught for observation. They participated in the after teaching debriefing with a student teacher

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 90

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

and wrote formative and summative evaluation. Additional informal information was also
collected from other professionals such as school administrators and staff.

Statistical or Data Processing Methods

Data triangulation (Johnson & Christensen, 2007) regarding the student teachers
and the three key groups was applied to answer the two research questions. Observation
logs of technology integration in the lessons taught by the student teachers were
maintained on weekly basis. The logs provided a brief summary of the technology means
they used and how they applied it in teaching. Original written lesson plans were attached
to the observation logs. Additionally, all student teachers wrote reflection journals after
their teaching in addition to a summative reflection on technology integration. The
participants also explained why they utilized technology to enhance teaching.
NVivo 10 was selected to summarize the data. Coding (Johnson & Christensen,
2007) was applied to analyze data for emergent themes (Wolcott, 1990). After repeated
readings, overlap shown among codes was reduced when similar codes were clustered
together. Then numerous codes were combined into a number of broad themes (see Table
2 of the Results section below). Additionally, all data were analyzed for generative
themes using a constant comparison process in an iterative and recursive manner. When
the themes within and across different types of data were studied and organized, they
were used to answer the research questions and draw conclusions.
To provide more detailed background information of the data, the themes were
tallied to reveal frequency of responses. Tables were used to summarize the themes with
examples as appropriate, a presentation of the most frequently cited items at the top and
the least at the bottom. The themes were also converted to percentage for easier view of
the data summary.

Results

All sets of data were analyzed to answer the two research questions. Findings would be
reported by the research questions in order. The primary data to answer the first research
question were the observation logs of the participants’ use of technology during their actual
teaching, lesson plans of the observed lessons as well as their report of access and use of
technology. For the second research question, the focal data were the student teachers’
summative reflection on their teaching practices with justification and lesson-based reflection. In
the meantime, all other types of data were used to enrich, further explain or clarify in answering
the research questions.

Research Question 1: Types of Technology Integrated in Teaching

All of the student teachers integrated some types of technology into their teaching
and non-teaching practices during the assignment. However, none of them used all
technology means available in a classroom, and technology was not integrated into all of
the lessons for observation. Among the observed lessons, the use of technology ranged
from none to all with the majority in between. In data processing, lessons were first

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 91

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

grouped into technology integrated (197 lessons or 57%) and non-technology integrated
(150 lessons or 43%). In the 197 technology-applied lessons, some participants integrated
more than one type of technology, and all types of technology utilized were recorded for
classification. Also, it is important to specify that major differences revealed in how the
participants used the same technology means to engage and support their students in
instruction.
Table 1 is a summary of all types of technology used when the participants taught
the lessons for observation. Each of them taught approximately six lessons with 347 in
total. The analysis of these lessons was also converted to percentage for a quick review of
summary. Of all the observed lessons, although 43% did not involve technology
integration, the participants used one or more traditional means such as whiteboard, chart
paper, sentence strips, pictures, flash cards, mini whiteboard and other environmental
print in the classroom to provide visuals in instruction. For the rest 57% of the lessons, at
least one type of technology was integrated.

Type # of use ％

Document camera (Elmo) 151 70.89

Smartboard 17 7.98
Video 15 7.04
Powerpoint 13 6.10
Audio player & microphones 11 5.16
Internet 6 2.82

Of all the lessons taught and observed, 150 (or 43%) did not show any technology integration.
Table 1: Technology Used in the Teaching of 347 Lessons

As Table 1 shows, the most frequently used technology (70.89%) was document
camera or Elmo to show a variety of visuals related to a lesson. The visuals extended
from learning goals, part of textbooks, graphic organizers to written summary of
text/information and recorded oral discussion highlights. Sometimes, the student teachers
also displayed manipulatives and realia or demonstrated experiments to engage their
students in learning or discuss steps of problem solving procedures. Still other times,
Elmo was switched on but was not appropriately used to present information along with
progression of a lesson. Or it was only used to at the beginning, middle or end of a lesson.
Furthermore, even for the same activity with Elmo, differences were clear in
procedures, time management and level of student participation. For example, Elmo was
used to share student written work. Some student teachers chose the work of their
students for display as an example or for making clarifications as appropriate. Other
times, they called some students to Elmo one at a time to write and then explain their
written work. When several students were called to the front to re-write their answers
under Elmo followed by an oral explanation, time for each part of the activity must be
allocated.
Evidence of teacher and student interaction shows that both parties benefited from
the above sample sharing activity on Elmo in various aspects. The teacher had an
opportunity to understand the students’ thinking process in problem solving, assess
learning, and use the assessment information to redirect instruction. For the students, they

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 92

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

should be motivated to complete work efficiently, develop presentation skills, justify

their answers, and receive feedback from others about their work. On the other hand,
there were some issues a student teacher had to face in organizing the activity such as
time efficiency and level of student participation. Time could easily be lost in waiting for
one student to walk to/from Elmo and rewrite/copy their work. Another issue would be
related to getting all other students involved when one was writing on Elmo. These issues
were not about the technology hardware but rather time, behavior management and
student participation.
The second most frequently used technology at 7.98% of the lessons was
Smartboard, an advanced version of Elmo. Smartboard, an integration of visuals, video
and audio, connected to a computer/laptop and whiteboard, was only available in a few
classrooms, and the student teachers experimented with part of Smartboard functions
similar to Elmo. Sometimes, the participants used Smartboard rather minimally to display
a title, key vocabulary or learning goal in a lesson.
Videos were another way of technology integration (7.04%) on the list, and the
clips were shown on a video player connected to a monitor or were played directly on
laptop or desktop. The video clips were either obtained from an online resource such as
Youtube, a paid online program or digital video disks. However, major differences
existed in how the video clips were used. Some allowed little transition before and after
the video play in a lesson and run through a video with no interruption. Others asked
questions before or after playing a video to hold/redirect their students’ attention or
review information at the end of a video show. During video play, discussion was also
generated between pauses to make a connection to the lesson objectives. Moreover,
variance was shown in the means through which to play a video: LCD projector, TV
monitor or laptop. It was challenging for everyone in a group to see well when a video
was played on a laptop. Some student teachers had to use a laptop as alternative when
they and their mentor applied parallel teaching with a split of the class of students into
two groups.
The next item on the list is rather software-based, the application of PowerPoint at
6.1%. Differences were clearly visible in the file design (visuals only, visuals and
animation, or visuals and sound effects combined) and slide structure (text, picture,
colors/highlights and graphic organizer). Even more differences presented in how the
files were used in teaching. Some decided to quickly go through a collection of pictures,
some paused between slides to generate oral discussion, and others showed a jeopardy
game with questions on each slide for review. Still others sequentially organized all key
information of a complete lesson with objectives, pictures of objects, posed questions,
charts, text and samples in addition to exercises for students and lesson review. After
witnessing the success of some lessons taught by their student teacher, some mentors
requested a copy of e-files for their own future use. To use this application or software, a
desktop, laptop or ipad was chosen.
The participants’ use of online resources with direct Internet connection during a
lesson was scarce. In two cases, an e-map from the Internet was used in a lesson of
geography, and a social networking website was shown to discuss the students’ written
responses to the posted questions. However, most of the student teachers selected
materials such as pictures, text and charts from online sources and showed the

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 93

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

information on Elmo/Smartboard or displayed a hard copy on chart paper in the

classroom.
Other than the above means, the participants also used non-visual technology or
audio facilities to support learning in the teaching of a small number of the lessons. An
audio player was to play sounds (e.g., farm animals) or background music, and songs
were played for choral sing along related to the target content. Audio was also used to set
up routine or for the purpose of making transition between activities. In addition, other
means was selected to address the special needs of individual students. For instance,
microphones were utilized to help the hearing impaired students.
It is interesting to note that the participants responded differently to lack of desirable
facilities. Most of them chose to use what was available in the classroom just like their mentors.
When they encountered barriers with technology, some had to step away from their initial plan of
integrating technology and used traditional means as alternative to show visuals. For example,
when lighting quality of projection was problematic or an upgrade was unavailable, chart
paper/poster was selected as replacement. In contrast, some others took action to address issues
by seeking assistance from their mentors and technology support staff or bringing in additional
resources such as laptop or ipad to implement their plan of integrating technology. When they
took the step, they helped their mentors improve the use of technology in the classroom through
equipment set up/upgrade or producing new e-information for their mentors to use in the future.
Encouraged by a mentor and the principal, one student teacher even provided a training session
to the interested teachers at the school on the use of technology to enhance the teaching of a
science unit.

Research Question 2: Reasons to Integrate Technology

Why did the participants decide to use technology? They provided summative
responses and wrote reflection on the lessons they taught to explain their choices and
action taken. Some of them contributed to more than one theme in their responses. Table
2 is a summary of the reasons to integrate technology given by the group.

Reasons Example Count / %

Student - “I made a lot more connections to the texts and found it more 15 /
engagement and entertaining when content was presented with technology.” 31.91%
motivation - “This made both teaching and learning fun as all students
were engaged, curious, and eager to discuss.”
Get organized in - “…save time as compared to writing the same information on 9/
lesson planning a whiteboard.” 19.1%
& teaching to - “When using the white board, I have to constantly step out of
improve time the way so the students can see. Using the Elmo allows all
efficiency the students a clear view of the information.”

Behavior - “Students were excited to receive points and would 8/

management participate in discussions in hopes of gaining points on 17.0%
with rewards & ClassDojo.”
routines - “The audio player was used to help create the routine and
establish an atmosphere of learning.”

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 94

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Meet individual - “All students, especially English Language Learners need 7/

needs of visuals to help them learn.” 14.8%
students - Use technology for a student who broke her arm and two
students wearing hearing aids.
Influence of - “My mentor teacher used it fairly extensively in his 2 nd grade 7/
mentor teachers classroom, so I followed suit in my own teaching and found it 14.8%
very useful in my lesson planning and implementation. “
- “I decided to use the ELMO as instructed by my MT. She
uses it extensively and has mentioned that in the near future she
will have access to a Smartboard which would further the ease
of modeling instructional material.”
Table 2: Summary of the Reasons to Use Technology by the Participants

As Table 2 presents, the top one reason on the list stated by 15 (31.91%)
participants was to engage the K-5 students through attracting or holding their attention
and making a lesson interactive and entertaining. One participant commented: “I made a
lot more connections to the texts and found it more entertaining when content was
presented with technology.” Another student teacher shared her students’ excitement by
describing their responses to the use of technology in teaching:
The students in the Kindergarten class were engaged as soon as they entered the
classroom after recess. They said things like, “Wow! Are we going to see a
movie!” … A somewhat dry content of comparison between apples and pumpkins
became a very exciting subject for the students.
On the other hand, the comments made by a different participant focused on the
interactive aspect through asking questions to make the students think.
While watching the videos, I paused at strategic points to pose questions and
engage students in brief discussions. After watching all three video clips, I posed
the big question and the vast majority of students could express specific reasons,
which dealt with safety and survival.
The second most frequently cited reason to enhance teaching was related to
getting organized in planning and teaching (9 or 19.15%). The student teachers specified
time management or organization in their use of technology. They were able to make it
more efficient when they prepared e-information for effective display, or they saved
instructional time when they minimized writing on whiteboard during teaching. Another
way they increased efficiency was to get familiar with operation of equipment: “I’ve
learned how to quickly switch projection between the ELMO and the computer so that we
don’t waste class time on technical issues.” Without the required technical skills, the
effect would be different as it was in the case below.
I’m still getting used to teaching with the Elmo (zooming in and out of text,
getting the lighting right, etc.). So I feel that it affects my teaching at times
because I get distracted trying to figure out how to use it and lose my train of
thought. Fortunately, it doesn’t happen often but it’s helped me realize that
successfully using any piece of technology for instruction requires investing time
(non-instructional time) getting familiar with the equipment.
The third reason is related to behavior management or routines when students
were encouraged to stay on task and be active participants in learning (8 or 17.02%). The
student teachers were able to use technology to reward students with points for
participation. Moreover, technology application was perceived as a means to set up or

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 95

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

enforce classroom routines and procedures. For example, an audio player was to “help
create the routine and establish an atmosphere of learning” in a first grade classroom. The
comment was echoed by another student teacher: “Consistent use of the technology made
it a routine for the classroom. The students become used to it as a method of learning.”
Also, effective use of technology would allow a student teacher to sweep the classroom
for behavior management and progress monitoring during a lesson.
I have found that the first grade class loves to socialize as well as get up move.
When writing with your back to the class they tend to socialize more. With the
Elmo, I can place myself in front of the class while also facing them. This makes
it really easy to survey the class during instruction and assess if the class is able to
understand the different teaching points I am trying to get across.
The fourth reason regarding technology integration was to address the needs of
individual students (7 or 14.89%). One type was to create a meaningful context with
visuals and sounds for English language development. Some other needs were associated
with physical disabilities such as hearing impairment or hand injury, which could be
temporary or long term.
Last but not the least, although only seven of the participants made specific
comments on the influence of their mentors, practically all student teachers were more or
less affected by their mentor teachers and other staff. One student teacher tried an
application in teaching as result of a staff meeting.
I decided to use the Popplet app, because during a staff meeting, one of the
teachers modeled how she used it to make a thinking map with her students. She
also mentioned how students were excited about using this app to create thinking
maps. It was a great way to show vivid realistic pictures of the different parts of
plants.
In addition to the influence of other staff, the above participant also shared that she
received assistance from a family member in using the application. She brought in an
ipad to teach the lesson for better student engagement. Several other student teachers also
used laptops (unavailable in the classroom) to show video clips or pictures in their
teaching of a group or whole class.
On the other hand, five student teachers had to reduce their initially planned level
of technology integration due to lack of support from their mentors, set up of facilities or
quality of equipment. Two were unable to integrate technology as they had hoped
because trying a new technology went beyond the comfort zone of their mentors. In other
instances, they were not able to use the facilities in the classroom because of hardware set
up or quality. For instance, it was challenging to address classroom management when
one had to use the technology station in the classroom with his/her back to the class.
Similarly, Elmo was not used because the lighting of projection was of low quality.
The participants’ report of technology integration was reflected in the evaluation
of their mentors. The average rating of the student teachers’ technology use on a 1-4
point scale (with 4=Exceptional Beginning Practice and 1=Inconsistent Beginning
Practice) was over 3.5. Some mentors made specific comments to elaborate their rating.
One praised a student teacher for using “Power Points and videos to develop schemata
around the theme of patriotism and perseverance”. Another wrote: “She used technology
in the classroom on several of the lessons she taught. The students loved it” because she
made learning exciting. A third mentor complimented her student teacher for taking

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 96

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

initiative to help her “set up the technology system of laptop, Elmo, speakers and Internet
connection and search online resources to enrich teaching”. However, the majority of the
mentors did not provide any specific comments about their student teachers’ technology
application in the written evaluations.

Discussion

The discussion of the participants’ practices in technology integration unfolded in

alignment with the three intersections of the TPACK-in-practice framework (Jaipal &
Figg, 2010). Each of the intersections served a focal point of discussion with reference
made across as needed. The first component was TCK-in-practice (technological content
knowledge, e.g., knowledge of tools, skills, and personal attitude) followed by TPK-in-
practice (technological pedagogical knowledge, e.g., classroom management,
differentiated support and assessment) and TPCK-in-practice (technological pedagogical
content knowledge, e.g., different models of teaching to meet learning goals such as
direct instruction and question-based instruction). The participants’ growth in one aspect
could be connected to their overall development. Additionally, the purpose of using
technology was to enhance instructional experiences (Jaipal & Figg, 2010). In this study,
enhanced instruction referred to appropriate engagement of students, motivation, active
interaction between a teacher and students, and appropriate pacing and time management
to reach learning goals. All of the above aspects were also highlighted in the participants’
reflection on technology integration.

TCK-in-practice (Technological Content Knowledge)

Findings reveal that all of the student teachers applied some types of technology
into their instruction and demonstrated knowledge about content appropriate technology
related to the TCK-in-practice. The evidence was not only revealed in the participants’
work, self reports and reflection but was also confirmed in observations by the second or
third party. Their use of technology was directly influenced or restricted by available
resources in the classroom or external factors (Butler & Sellborn, 2002; Choy, Wong, &
Gao 2009; Kopcha, 2012). In other words, the participants tended to apply the technology,
software or hardware, already available in the classroom, which was also often used by
their mentor teachers. Among different types of technology, the predominant top choice
was to provide visuals via Elmo to engage and support K-5 students in learning, and
traditionally presented visuals were also used in the teaching of all other lessons without
application of technology.
It was essential for the student teachers to possess technology skills in order to
enhance their teaching with smooth transition between activities or lessons for time
efficiency. In addition to technology skills, appropriate equipment set up or upgrade was
also important for the participants to use technology effectively. In the context of field
experience or student teaching, mentor teachers played a major role (Kopcha, 2012)
either because of their level of technology integration or because of their support and
readiness for student teachers to explore new applications. Findings show that most of the
student teachers decided to use a certain type of technology after observing successful

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 97

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

practices of their mentor teacher. Furthermore, when a mentor was not competent enough
to provide the expected support in technology integration, the personal attitude of a
student teacher would lead to either maintaining the status quo or taking initiative to
explore alternative ways to reach their goal. Some participants were able to apply
additional technology to their teaching, and the action, supported by their mentor, turned
into an opportunity for a pair to develop new skills. This allowed them both to explore
and improve technologically and pedagogically together instead of having a student
teacher contribute in technology and a mentor contribute in pedagogy (Margerum-Leys &
Marx, 2000). Consequently, the experience was beneficial for them to develop
professionally as equal partners.
Results indicate that classroom access to technology was the main factor in
technology integration for the group. In other words, the technology means that the
participants primarily utilized were already equipped or available in the classroom. These
means included Elmo, LCD projector, desktop, Smartboard, audio player or microphone.
Their technology use was affected by a variety of external factors such as availability,
plug-in problems and Internet connection (Choy, Wong & Gao, 2009; Kopcha, 2012).
However, for some participants, the external factors alone did not stop them from
exploring other ways to integrate technology. Their personal attitude or beliefs (Inan &
Lowther, 2010; Kopcha, 2012) made a difference in their professional development as
student teachers. They took initiative to help their mentors expand the horizon of
technology application with additional software or facilities, getting the existing
equipment connected or updated, and obtaining online information to enrich teaching and
learning. Another contribution made by some participants was to bring in extra resources.
The implication of this finding for teacher preparation is that pre-service teachers should
be encouraged and guided to find alternatives such as portable electronic devices outside
of the classroom to make full use of their existing skills and strengths in technology
integration. Identifying issues and exploring ways to address the issues are essential for a
classroom teacher to be successful. Information of portable electronic resources that pre-
service teachers can tap into for use in a classroom would be helpful to enrich learning
and teaching experience. Also, while mentors can be role models, student teachers should
not mimic but find their own teaching style during student teaching. By playing an active
part in technology integration, student teachers have an opportunity to grow
independence and develop capacity to collaborate with others in the moment and the
future.
Unfortunately, some student teachers were not able to use a desirable devise
because of classroom set up or incompatibility. For example, a participant had hoped to
show a video clip to a small group of students at a table in the back of the classroom but
was unable to do so with the monitor equipped at the front. Opportunities to enhance
teaching would be lost when hardware was not set up properly for maximal use. Such
issues could be prevented if input and feedback of classroom teachers were elicited and
considered. It would be helpful for schools or school districts to maintain effective
communication with classroom teachers so that issues can be tracked for adjustments to
be made in a timely manner.
All of the student teachers considered technology integration important to
enhance the quality of teaching. The technology facilities or software they decided to use
were primarily to engage their students in the senses of sight, hearing or sight and hearing

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 98

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

combined. There seems to be a need for pre-service teachers to explore other

technological means beyond visuals. In the teacher preparation programs, course work
that helps pre-service teachers develop skills in competently using tools, software and
resources to provide support beyond visuals would better prepare them to meet a variety
of students’ needs in the future.

TPK-in-practice (Technological Pedagogical Knowledge)

Classroom management, an element of TPK-in-Practice, was apparently reflected

in the practices of the participants. Results indicate that an obstacle in the use of
technology was related to classroom management or dealing with misbehavior (Bauer &
Kenton, 2005; Lim & Khine, 2006; Margerum-Leys & Marx, 2000; Wachira &
Keengwe, 2010). However, most of the participants in this study integrated technology
for the purpose of keeping the children on task and encouraging appropriate behavior. A
number of them were able to achieve this goal in their teaching with a package of
technology skills, familiarity with equipment, and alignment between selected technology
and target subject matter. Pre-service teachers should be most appropriately prepared for
successful practice in the classroom when they were well trained in all of these aspects.
How to provide differentiated instruction was a key aspect in designing lessons
for a student teacher and a mentor. Based on their lesson planning, they were able to
divide up the physical space in the classroom for each to support a group or half of
students with application of technology. To achieve success, effective communication for
a pair or team would be critical to implement their plan, maximizing the use of available
technology in teaching. A good way to minimize distractions for the two groups would be
to keep the farthest distance in between and with the back of one group of students to the
technology used for the other group. Thus, distractions in visuals and sounds from the
other group would appropriately be reduced for both groups to stay on task.
Moreover, integration of technology could serve as a means for conducting
assessment. The participants evaluated student learning in applying technology during
instruction. They were able to accomplish this in several aspects. One way was to have a
student solve a problem or do an assignment on Elmo while all others were doing the
same task at their seat. This allowed a teacher to monitor student progress and generate
discussion with sample work projected on screen. Other students also had an opportunity
to evaluate the work completed by a peer. Another way to assess student learning was to
display sample work completed by a student or a group on Elmo for evaluation and
discussion in class. To increase time efficiency, it appeared unnecessary to spend extra
time for students rewrite under Elmo and walk between their seat and Elmo. To reduce
distractions, traffic in the classroom should be minimized. A third way to assess student
learning was to apply an e-jeopardy game for review. All questions were displayed one
slide at a time for each student to respond. More active participation would be obtained
when all students were asked to write in their notebook or on mini whiteboard as
compared to an oral response from only one student. A student teacher was able to
provide feedback and make clarifications based on the students’ response to the questions
on each slide.
How the student teachers conducted assessment varied in lesson flow, means for
students to demonstrate learning and level of student participation. What is the best way

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 99

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

to assess student learning of different subjects during a lesson with technology

application? That would be an important topic to explore in strengthening technology
integration for pre-service teachers. The topic is also closely related the next component,
TPCK-in-practice when instructional models are considered.

TPCK-in-practice (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge)

The participants’ use of the same type of technology also diverged significantly to
meet content learning goals in TPCK-in-practice. The primary models of instruction
revealed in the observed lessons were direct instruction (e.g., a lesson on alphabet letters
or division) and question-based (e.g., a lesson on Native Americans with posed open-
ended questions) for students to process information and develop target concepts. For the
direct instruction model, a learning goal stated in a complete sentence was projected on
screen. The students’ understanding of the learning goal was unknown when they were
only asked to read it chorally. Discussion of the learning goal related to previous lessons
and asking the students questions about the goal would allow a teacher to assess
understanding. In this context, the use of visuals per se does not directly lead to effective
instruction, helping students reach learning goals. The critical element was when and how
to make full use of the displayed visuals via technology to facilitate and assess student
learning, and then use the information to redirect instruction.
Difference was also obvious in how the participants applied technology to address
lesson flow or sequence. Most of them used technology at the beginning, middle or end
of a lesson. Some others had Elmo on throughout a lesson, but few were able to make
effective transition between activities in a lesson. Therefore, pre-service teachers would
benefit more when they are trained to appropriately use technology to maximize student
learning (Liu, 2012; Maddux & Cummings, 2004; Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999;
Selinger, 2001). The aspects to consider for professional development should include
features of a target subject, student engagement, lesson flow and transition related to the
use of identified technology to increase efficiency and effectiveness in instruction.
In summary, technology application does not automatically yield high quality
instruction. In addition to familiarity with technology, the student teachers needed to
learn how to most effectively utilize technology in lesson planning and actual teaching.
When technology was applied to show information not directly related to learning target
or relevant information displayed was not appropriately processed, visuals, sounds, or
visuals/sounds alone or combined did not serve the purpose of helping the students reach
learning goals. Abrupt transition between activities also posed a challenge in instruction
when the students were lost and had to ask many questions for clarifications despite use
of technology.
For elementary pre-service teachers, they should lay a good foundation to
integrate technology in planning and teaching lessons when taking methodology courses.
The primary types of technology can be selected in response to the most commonly
available resources in classrooms of the local school districts. For example, almost all of
the classrooms, regardless of the students’ socioeconomic status, had access to a
desktop/laptop, LCD projector and Elmo. Application of these means aligned with
subject matter in course work would better prepare pre-service teachers to integrate
technology into instruction. Also, pre-service teachers should be encouraged to take

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 100

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

initiative based on their strengths in technology, content or pedagogy to address issues by

making sufficient use of resources in and outside of classroom. Such experience would
create an opportunity for equal partnership and professional collaboration to better
prepare them for independence and leadership as future classroom teachers.
To improve the quality of student teaching, teamwork is a critical component for
partnership between pre-service and in-service sectors as well as a pair of student teacher
and mentor. School districts and teacher preparation programs would both benefit when
they have an opportunity to collaborate on technology integration for professional
development of pre-service and in-service teachers. Some student teachers with advanced
skills in technology can make contributions to professional development at assigned
elementary schools as it was the case with several of the participants. Schools should be
more enthusiastic in hosting student teachers when their staff can benefit from mutual
learning and partnership in the school-university collaboration.

Limitations

Due to its scope, this study focused on examining the practices of student
teachers. Although multiple sets of data were collected about the student teachers from all
key groups, it would strengthen the study when actual technology use of the paired
mentor teachers was also investigated. That would provide an opportunity to better
understand the mentors’ practices in comparison to their student teachers in the same
classroom. In addition, the student teachers were placed at different schools. Besides
access to technology facilities, the impact of school vision on technology could also be
discussed through the action taken by the mentors.
The quality of teaching related to technology integration was examined through
informal assessment of attention, participation, and competence demonstrated by the K-5
students in completing tasks aligned with learning goals in the observed lessons. The
informal assessment was conducted by a student teacher as well as a mentor teacher and
university supervisor. If other types of informal and formal assessments of student
learning outcomes were available for more comprehensive analysis, that would also serve
to enrich the data collection.

Conclusion

Technology integration is practiced by student teachers in the elementary classrooms

with a goal of improving instruction. However, more research is needed to explore how student
teachers can effectively integrate technology in their daily instructional practices. The critical
issue does not appear to be what technology to select but how to apply the selected means to
maximize learning outcomes within given instructional time. Multiple internal and external
variables can affect how they select and utilize technology means for their teaching. While
physical facilities are more associated with school budget, teacher candidates’ personal interests
and technological skills can directly influence their choices and action. They should be
encouraged and guided to make sufficient use of all resources available in and outside of the
classroom to enhance and improve instruction.

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 101

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Student teachers learn to integrate technology into instruction with direct

assistance of their mentor teachers. The practice of mentors no doubt has an impact on
the professional development of their student teachers. In the meantime, student teachers
can also make a contribution when they are advanced in technology skills, have new
ideas to improve teaching and are highly motivated to integrate technology, if their
mentors are open to improvement. This would allow student teachers to take initiative
and feel proud of their ownership and contribution in a true partnership.
Since student teaching is field based, collaboration between a credential program and
local school districts would be powerful in professional development. The teamwork may create
an opportunity for a pair of teacher and student teacher to better meet the needs of students in a
given classroom by making good use of the technological and pedagogical skills they possess.
They can collaboratively explore the most effective and efficient ways to motivate, actively
engage and assess their students in reaching goals across the curriculum.

References

Bauer, J., & Kenton, J. (2005). Toward technology integration in the schools: why it isn’t
happening. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 13(4), 519–546.
Butler, D. L., & Sellborn, M. (2002). Barriers to adopting technology for teaching and
learning. Educause Quarterly, 9(4), 105–127.
California Department of Education (2009). California Standards for the Teaching
Profession. Retrieved May 16, 2015 from http://www.ctc.ca.gov/educator-
prep/program-standards.html
Choy, D., Wong, A. F. L., & Gao, P. (2009). Student teachers’ intention and actions on
integrating technology into their classrooms during student teaching: A Singapore
study. ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 42(2), 175-195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782546
Fraser, V., Garofalo, J., & Juersivich, N. (2011). Enhancing lesson planning and quality of
classroom life: A study of mathematics student teachers' use of technology. Journal
of Technology and Teacher Education, 19(2), 169-188.
Gray, L., Thomas, N., & Lewis, L. (2010). Teachers’ use of educational technology in US
public schools: 2009 (NCES 2010-040). Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Henning, M. B., Peterson, B. R., & King, K. P. (2011). Infusing science, technology, and
society into an elementary teacher education program: The impact on preservice
teachers. Teacher Education and Practice, 24(1), 46-65.
Hew, K., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning:
current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 223–252.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11423-006-9022-5
Hixon, E., & Buckenmeyer, J. (2009). Revisiting technology integration in schools:
implications for professional development. Computers in the Schools, 26(2), 130–
146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07380560902906070

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 102

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Inan, F. A., & Lowther, D. L. (2010). Laptops in the K-12 classrooms: Exploring factors
impacting instructional use. Computers & Education, 55(3), 937–944.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.04.004
Jaipai, K., & Figg, C. (2010). Unpacking the "Total PACKage": Emergent TPACK
characteristics from a study of preservice teachers teaching with technology.
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education,18(3), 415-441.
Jaipai, K., & Figg, C. (2015). The framework of TPACK-in-practice: Designing content-
centric technology professional learning contexts to develop teacher knowledge of
technology-enhanced teaching. In C. Angeli & N. Valanides, (Eds.), Technological
pedagogical content knowledge: Exploring, developing and assessing TPCK (pp.
137-163). New York: Springer
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2007). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative and
mixed approaches (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Keiper, T., Harwood, A., & Larson, B. (2000). Preservice teachers’ perceptions of infusing
computer technology into social studies instruction. Theory and Research in Social
Education, 28(4), 556–579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2000.10505924
Koehler, M., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPACK). Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-
70.
Kopcha, T. J. (2012). Teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to technology integration and
practices with technology under situated professional development. Computers &
Education 59, 1109–1121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.014
Lawless, K. A., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2007). Professional development in integrating
technology into teaching and learning: Knowns, unknowns, and ways to pursue
better questions and answers. Review of Educational Research, 77(4), 575–614.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0034654307309921
Lim, C. P., & Khine, M. (2006). Managing teachers’ barriers to ICT integration in
Singapore schools. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(1), 97–125.
Liu, S.-H. (2012). A multivariate model of factors influencing technology use by preservice
teachers during practice teaching. Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 137–
149.
Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T., & Voegtle, K. H. (2010). Methods in educational
research: From theory to practice. New Jersey: Wiley.
Maddux, C., & Cummings, R. (2004). Fad, fashion, and the weak role of theory and
research in information technology in education. Journal of Technology and
Teacher Education, 12(4), 511-533.
Margerum-Leys, J., & Marx, R. W. (2000). Teacher knowledge of educational technology:
A study of student teacher/mentor teacher pairs. ERIC document: ED 442763.
Menard, L. B. (2010). Elementary teachers’ perceptions of technology as a catalyst for
constructivist practices in the classroom: A case study (Doctoral dissertation).
University of South Florida. ERIC document: ED524910.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A
new framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record. 108(6), 1017-
1054. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 103

 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Moursund, D., & Bielefeldt, T. (1999). Will new teachers be prepared to teach in a digital
age? A national survey on information technology in teacher education. Santa
Monica, CA: Milken Family Foundation.
Mouza, C. (2009). Does research-based professional development make a difference? A
longitudinal investigation of teacher learning in technology integration. Teachers
College Record, 111(5), 1195–1241.
Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., Brush, T. A., Strycker, J., Gronseth, S., Roman, T., Abaci, S.,
VanLeusen, P., Shin, S., Easterling, W., & Plucker, J. (2012). Preparation versus
practice: How do teacher education programs and practicing teachers align in their
use of technology to support teaching and learning. Computers and Education,
59(2), 399-411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.01.014
Rosenberg, J. M., & Koehler, M. J. (2015). Context and Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (TPACK): A Systematic Review. Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 47(3), 186-210.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2015.1052663
Selinger, M. (2001). Learning information and communications technology skills and the
subject context of the learning. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher
Education, 10(1-2), 143-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14759390100200108
Slagter van Tyron, P. J., & Schwartz, C. S. (2012). A pre-service teacher training model
with instructional technology graduate students as peer coaches to elementary pre-
service teachers. TechTrends, 56 (6), 31-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11528-012-
0611-3
Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., Sang, G., Voogt, J., Fisser, P., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2011).
Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education: A synthesis of
qualitative evidence. Computers and Education, 59(1), 134-144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.009
Wachira, P., & Keengwe, J. (2010). Technology integration barriers: Urban school
mathematics teachers perspectives. Journal of Science Education and Technology,
20(1), 17–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9230-y
Wells, J. (2007). Key design factors in durable instructional technology professional
development. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1), 101–122.
Whitney, J. D. (2007). The use of technology in literacy instruction Implications for
teaching students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. ERIC document: ED
498986.
Wolcott, H. F. (1990). Writing up qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Wright, H. W., & Wilson, E. K. (2005). From preservice to inservice teaching: A study of
technology application. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 22(2), 49-55.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Research, Scholarship and Creative Activity Award that the
author received at California State University Long Beach (U.S.A.).

Vol 41, 3, March 2016 104