Science

In ancient times, natural phenomena were explained based only on personal observations and
understanding. During the time of the Greek mathematician Pythagoras, arithmetic, geometry,
music, and astronomy were recognized as sciences. However, by the nineteenth century, scientists
realized that pure mathematics was not science because it was a series of logical relations that did
not depend on the laws of nature. But because mathematics is often used in science, it is now
considered an allied field. In fact, it is referred to as the language of science because it is used to
communicate the results obtained in scientific works.

The word science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning "to know." Science is a body of
knowledge and a process of learning how things happen or work. It is a systematic and objective
means of establishing knowledge to explain natural and physical occurrences. It employs skills such
as measuring, analyzing, observing, and experimenting.

Science is classified into pure science, applied science, and technology. Pure science involves
gathering information through experimentation, while applied science deals with searching for
practical uses of such information established as scientific knowledge and laws. Examples of
applied science are food science and aerospace engineering.

Pure science is divided into three main branches: life science, physical science, and earth science

life science - science of living things.

botany
zoology
genetics

physical science - science of matter and energy.

physics
chemistry
astronomy

earth science - science of Earth, its physical features, origin, and composition.
geology
paleontology
oceanography
meteorology

Technology comes from the Greek word techne, which means "art" or "skill," and logia, which
means "word" or "saying." It is defined as the application of science that improves the quality of
human life. Technology includes innovations and inventions that package scientific knowledge into
practical solutions to a specific problem or need.

Superstitions
Biting your tongue when someone thinks of you might just be coincidentalSurely, person might be
thinking of you, so your guess may or may not be correct.

In contrast, the next belief does have a scientific explanation. Singing the Happy Birthday" at a
normal pace takes about 15 seconds on average, and singing it twice takes about 30 seconds. This
is about the same time needed to cook a soft-boiled egg. Doing other activities that take 30
seconds, such as singing the nursery rhyme "Jack and Jill" at a normal pace, will also give the same
result.

Such beliefs ruled the lives of early Filipinos. As a result, superstitious beliefs and practices have
become an important part of the Filipino culture. Sometimes, they are termed "old wives tales," or
pamahiin in Filipino. Today, some of these beliefs are still being observed

The Scientific Method

Scientists employ the scientific method to differentiate fact from myth and superstition, and to
validate or refute speculations. The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigating and
explaining phenomena and solving problems using carefully gathered and analyzed data.

Steps in the Scientific Method:

1) observing to identify a problem
2) researching to gather related information
3) formulating a hypothesis
4) testing the hypothesis by designing and performing an experiment
5) analyzing data
6) drawing a conclusion.

Scientists, however, do not always follow the exact order of the steps of the scientific method.
Slight deviations may be done depending on the nature of the problem or phenomenon under study.
Thus, it is necessary that scientists share their findings with the world so that other scientists can
validate their results.

Identifying Variables
A scientist always asks questions. Below are guide questions to identify components or aspects in
an experiment that need to be changed, measured, or kept constant.

What factor do I want to change or manipulate? This factor refers to the independent variableFor
instance, if a researcher wants to see the effect of earthworms on soil quality, the factor to be

changed or the independent variable is the presence of earthworms. What factor do I want to
observe or measure? This factor refers to the dependent variableIt is the result of the change in the
independent variable. In the investigation of how earthworms affect soil quality, the dependent
variable is the soil quality, which can be described through ocular observation and measured using
certain instruments.

What factors should I keep constant or the same? The answer refers to the controlled variables.
These are the factors that have to be kept the same for all setups. In the aforementioned
experiment, the controlled variables include the type of soilthe species of earthworm, and the size
of the container.

What Is a Fair Test?

A fair test is an experimental design that defines and studies only one independent var keeps all
other variables the same. Conducting a fair test is one of the best experimental research because it
helps prove that the outcome is attributed only to the manipulated variable.

Hypothesis, Theory, and Law

As mentioned previously, a hypothesis is an educated guess about the effect of a variable to
another in an experiment. It is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon or problem. When
consistent results are obtained from many repeated experiments, then the hypothesis becomesa
theory.

A theory is a statement based on facts and relies on observation, research, and experimentation. It
explains the how and/or the why of a phenomenon.

A scientific law describes a natural phenomenon that holds true under certain conditions. It is a
universal rule, principle, or statement that explains how (and not the why) a phenomenon happens
and is usually expressed as a mathematical equation. Similar to a theory, a scientific law is
supported by consistent findings from observations and experimentations

To illustrate the difference between a scientific theory and law, consider the law of gravitation and
the atomic theories. While the law of gravitation describes what gravity does, it does not explain
what gravity is and why it existIn contrast to this, theories on atomic structure provide evidences on
what an atom looks like. The atomic theory helps explain the law of conservation of mass and the
law of definite proportionsboth of which will be discussed in your higher science courses

Observation, Inference, and Conclusion

Science is grounded on observation and inference. Observation is what one perceives through the
senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. When direct observations are not possible,
especially in scientific investigations, an inference is formulated. An inference is a suggestion or
implication one draws from an observation. For example, a person observes that the sky is dark in
the morning. Consequently, the person may infer that it could be a rainy day.

Sometimes, scientists rely on indirect evidence to build their theories. For example, although atoms
cannot be seen with the naked eye or even through a powerful microscope, scientists have
described its structure based on indirect evidences from experimentation. They formulated
inferences for their observations, and drew conclusions about the structure of the atom by
synthesizing the inferences.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

When conducting an investigation, a scientist can encounter two types of data-qualitative
quantitative.

Qualitative data are non-numerical descriptions. For instance, one can say that the plant grew talle
in Setup A than in Setup Bor that Food A is sweeter than Food B. One can also note down behavioral
patterns. For example, mice fed with chitin-rich food were more irritable than those given a normal
diet

Quantitative data are more exact than qualitative data because they are presented in numbers
Certain numerical expressions, called measurements that contain a magnitude and a unit of
measure, can be used to tell how tall or short the experimental subject is, or how low or high the
temperature is Using these data, a scientist can determine definite changes in the experimentTable
1-1 lists examples of qualitative and quantitative data.

In some investigations, either a qualitative or a quantitative data may be sufficient to make a

conclusion. In other cases, both types of data are needed to establish meaningful scientific results.

Traits of a Scientist
There is no specific requirement to becoming a scientist. Superior intelligence is not an absolute
prerequisiteHowever, there are common traits shared by most scientists that help them succeed in
their endeavors.

Curiosity and Fascination

Asking the question "why?" is the springboard to scientific discovery. Curiosity and fascination fuel
one's passion for science, and all scientists possess these traits. Scientists always ask questions
and wonder about the world. They may have random questions at first, but they eventually deduce
them into more focused questions to answer. They then identify what data to gather and plan how
to answer such questions.

Humility and Healthy Skepticism

A scientist must be humble enough to accept that he/she does not have the answer to every
question. He/She should also admit to committing mistakes. These safeguard scientists against
arrogance, which limits the pursuit of science.

Scientists practice healthy skepticism; they do not always readily accept what anyone claims to be
true. Instead, they usually verify the sources of the information. Similarly, students should also
practice healthy skepticism when performing experiments to verify theories.

Remember that not all claims are reliable. Skeptics only accept claims of knowledge with critical
analysis. They view knowledge as probably true and accept it only when sufficient evidence
supports the claim.

Positive Attitude Toward Failure

Science is not only about getting the correct answer. It is also about learning from the process of
getting the answer. Science experiments are not always successful; failed experiments are common
and to be expected. It is from failure that one learns to modify and improve an experiment. Even if
an experiment does not support the hypothesis, its results may provide ideas that can be used to
design other experiments

Open-Mindedness
Open-mindedness means accepting criticism and changing one's views if reliable evidences are
availableThis signifies showing respect for the work and ideas of others and being open to other
possibilities and new ways of thinkingBeing open-minded is not easy, especially when new views
and ideas contradict what one thinks and believes is true and correct..

Scientists with open minds are not afraid to reexamine established knowledge and are open to
trying new techniques to revalidate it. However, many scientists who challenged the status quo have
been ridiculed.

Perseverance
Being patient, especially when dealing with complex problems and unexpected setbacks, is
necessary for scientific pursuits. A scientist does not easily give up when things do not work as
expected, especially when desired results take time to occur, and incessant challenges are met
during the course of an investigation. Additionally, publishing scientific works requires patience
because reports are revised several times before they are accepted for publication.

When scientists encounter challenges, even because of physical or learning disabilities, they
persevere to succeed and show resilience

Intellectual Honesty
Science is a continuum of knowledge built on scientific discoveries of different people. Scientists
should acknowledge others' contributions and refrain from claiming to author other people's works.

Intellectual honestly in scientific works was seemingly not evident in the discovery of the DNA.
Rosalind Franklin, a physical chemist at King's College in London, proposed the double helix
structure of the DNA molecule in 1951. Using a technique she devised, she took X-ray photographs
of the DNA molecule, which clearly showed a helical structure. At that time, no one else had been
able to produce such photographs.

Good Ethics
The code of ethics must guide all scientific worksThe word ethics is derived from the Greek word
ethos, which means "character" or "custom". Ethics dictates the anonymity of human subjects in
scienti works; that is, subjects should not be made public.This can be observed in medical books,
where faces of human subjects are either covered or not shown.

The extent of scientific studies is also bound by ethics. Just because scientists can make
something happen does not mean they should. They will have to discern if a proposed method is
ethical- that is if it will not negatively impact society, humanity, and the environment.

Cloning experiments, for instance, usually involve ethical considerations. Their use or misuse on
humans and other life-forms is almost always a subject of debates.

Properties of Matter
All matter is defined by a distinct set of properties. Therefore, exploring the different properties of
matter allows for the conclusive identification of substances. For example, laboratory techniques
can be used to distinguish water, acetone, and rubbing alcohol, even though they are all colorless
liquids.

Properties of matter can be classified as physical or chemical. Physical properties can be observed
or measured without changing the composition of matter. Chemical properties, in contrast, are
associated with the change in the composition of matter; they can be described based on how a
substance changes into another substance

The properties of matter can also be classified into extensive and intensive. An extensive property
changes when the size or amount of matter changes. Examples include mass, height, length, width,
and volume. An intensive property is independent of the size or amount of matter present. Examples
include color, density, temperature, odor, luster, hardness, malleability, ductility, opacity, and
attraction to magnets, among many others.

Pure Substances
Pure substances are forms of matter that have a definite and constant chemical composition. This
means that the substance has the same physical and chemical properties regardless of their
source. Salt, water, baking soda, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are all examples of pure
substancesThey can be classified either as elements or compounds.

Elements
Elements are pure substances that are composed of only one type of atomThey are the simplest
form of matter because they cannot be broken down further by either physical or chemical means.
Each element has a distinct set of properties, including reactivity and metallic properties, which
allow their different uses.

There are currently 118 known elements listed in the periodic table, an organized representation of
the chemical elementsThe elements can be written using element symbols, which consist of one or
two letters; the first letter is always capitalized, and the second (if any) in lowercase.

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

the squares are shaded in three different colo th Elements on the left-hand side of the periodic
table, except for hydrogen, are metalsThe few elemen on the right-hand side of the table, including
hydrogen, are nonmetalsBetween the metals and nonmetals are the metalloids or semimetals.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are generally hard and lustrousThey are
also solids at room temperature, except for mercury, which is a liquid. Solid metals are malleable;
they can be hammered or flattened into thin sheets. They are also ductile, which means they can be
drawn into thin wires without breakingMany metals-such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au)-
are chemically unreactive to other solids at room temperature and resistant to chemical corrosion
and rusting. However, some metals, such as lithium (Li), potassium (K), and sodium (Na)are
extremely reactive with air and water.

Unlike gold and silver, many metals are not found in nature as pure elementsMost metals are
chemically combined with other elements in mineral ores, which must be processed to extract their
different components

Nonmetals generally exist as gases or solids in nature. The only liquid nonmetal is bromine.Solid
nonmetals are not lustrous. They are also brittle, which makes them neither malleable nor ductile.
Moreover, they usually do not conduct heat and electricity

Metalloids either have some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals or have
properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals. For example, silicon, a brittle solid
(a typical feature of nonmetals), conducts a limited amount of electricity, making it a
semiconductor. Silicon is found in granite, quartz, clay, and sandIn its most basic form, it has the
same crystalline structure as a diamond. That is why grains of sand reflect light like diamonds when
illuminated by sunlight.

Compounds
Compounds are pure substances that consist of chemically combined atoms, which are either called
molecules or formula unitsThey can be decomposed into simpler substances (i.e, elements and/or
simpler compounds) through chemical meansFor example, water comprises two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. It can be decomposed into pure forms of the two gases through the chemical
process called hydrolysisWater is characteristically different from hydrogen and oxygen in terms of
propertiesFor instance, water is a liquid at room temperature, while hydrogen and oxygen are gases.

Another example of a compound is sodium chloride, commonly known as table saltIt is made up of
sodium and chlorine. Chlorine. is a poisonous green gas with a pungent odorSodium is a soft metal
that is highly reactive to waterThese individual properties are entirely different from those of sodium
chloride, a white crystalline compound used as a food preservative or seasoning

Mixtures
Mixtures are made up of two or more substances that are physically combinedThey can either be
homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous Mixtures
Homogeneous mixtures have only one phase. Every portion of a homogeneous mixture has the
same properties and composition. Examples of this type of mixture are brass (mixture of copper and
zinc), tea, and airThey exist in only one phase of matter-solid, liquid, and gas, respectively-in which
their components cannot be visibly identified.

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The most common examples are salt water and rubbing
alcohol. Salt water is made up of dissolved sodium chloride in water, while rubbing alcohol is
composed of isopropyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol and water.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
Heterogeneous mixtures form more than one phase. Their components can be distinguished visually
and separated physically. An example of a heterogeneous mixture is oil in water, where two layers of
liquid are seen. Another example is a salad with various fruits and other ingredients, and an ice
cream sundae with different toppings. The components of these mixtures are physically distinct
from one another.

The components of mixtures, both homogeneous and heterogeneous, can be separated through
physical means. Physical separation methods include filtration, sublimation, decantation, and using
magnets.

Filtration is a process of separating undissolved solids from a liquid. It involves pouring the mixture
through a funnel lined with filter paper. The solids are retained on the filter paper, while the liquid
passes through the filter. Sublimation is employed for a solid-solid mixture where one of the
components sublimes (i.e., turns from solid to gas) without forming liquid upon heating, leaving
behind the other components that do not undergo sublimation. Decantation involves allowing solids
to settle at the bottom of the container and then pouring out the liquid component of the mixture
into another container. The use of a magnet is employed for solid mixtures with metallic and
nonmetallic components.

Distillation and chromatography are more complex methods of separating the components of
mixtures.

Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids and Bases
Acids generally taste sour. Vinegar, for example, has a sharp sour taste caused by acetic acid
(CH,COOH). The sourness of lemons and other citrus fruits is attributed to their citric acid (C,H,O,)
content. Lactic acid (C,H,O,) gives unsweetened yogurt its characteristic aftertaste.

In aqueous solutions, acids can conduct electricity. They also change blue litmus paper to red.
Litmus paper is a strip of paper treated with a specific indicator that changes color depending on
the acidity or basicity of the solution it is used with.

Acids react with certain metals such as magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and tin (Sn), liberating
hydrogen gas in the process.

They also react with calcium carbonate (CaCO,) in limestone to produce carbon dioxide (CO).

In contrast, bases taste bitter. This taste is recognizable in certain antacids containing the base
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO), also known as baking soda. Bases are slippery (as observed in
soaps), reactive with grease and oils, and turn red litmus paper into blue. In aqueous solutions, they
conduct electricity like acids.

Strength of Acids and Bases

The strength of acids and bases is measured in terms of pH. The pH scale, which ranges from 0 to
14, was introduced by Danish chemist Søren Sørensen in 1909. The more acidic the solution, the
lower its pH value is; the more basic the solution, the higher its pH value is. Table 2-1 shows the
approximate pH values of common substances and mixtures.

pH < 7.00 - acidic solution

pH = 7.00 - neutral solution
pH > 7.00 - basic solution

Classifications of pH
0-3: strongly acidic
3-5: moderately acidic
5-7: weakly acidic
7: neutral
7-9: weakly basic
9-11: moderately basic
11-14: strongly basic
Some Important Acids and Bases
Strong acids:
Hydrochloric acid - present in the human stomach and aids in digestion
Sulfuric acid - used in refining metals and petroleum and in pickling steel to retard corrosion

Weak acids:
Acetic acid - used in the production of vinegar
Carbonic acid - used as an ingredient in soft drinks

Strong bases:
Sodium hydroxide - used to manufacture paper, soap, and drain cleaners
Potassium hydroxide - used to make fertilizer, soap, detergent, and oven cleaners

Weak bases:
Magnesium hydroxide -used as an antacid in the form of solid Mg(OH)2 suspended in water (also
called milk of magnesia)
Aqueous ammonia - used in household cleaners

pH Indicators
The acidity or basicity of solutions may be qualitatively or quantitatively determined using
substances called indicators. These compounds change color with pHas shown in the examples in
table 2-4. One commonly used indicator is phenolphthalein, which changes from colorless to
reddish pink at a pH between 8.3 to 10.0.

Indicators are especially useful in determining the completion of the reaction between an acid and a
base. For example, when a sodium hydroxide solution is added to a hydrochloric acid solution
containing phenolphthalein, the change in color (from colorless to reddish pink) would indicate that
the reaction has been completed. This process is done through an analytical technique called
titration.

Chemical indicators are also present in commercial pH papers. The substance in the paper strips
displays varying colors when moistened with solutions of different pH. By comparing the resulting
color of the pH paper to the color chart calibrated at different pH values, the pH of a solution can be
estimated.
Litmus papers, which are available in blue and red colors, also contain indicators. These papers are
treated with a specific indicator that allows the paper to change color depending on the acidic or
basic nature of the test solutionHowever, unlike pH papers that can give approximate pH readings,
litmus papers only indicate if a solution is acidic or basic.

Some plant extracts can be used as pH indicators.

The pH of solutions can also be determined using electronic pH probes or pH meters. However,
these devices do not contain chemical indicators. They are used for quick and more accurate pH
measurements.

Neutralization Reaction
The reaction between an acid and a base is called neutralization. It usually forms a salt and water.

acid + base → salt + water

The reverse process of neutralization reaction is hydrolysis, meaning, a salt reacts with water and
produce an acid and a base. The resulting solution can be neutral, basic, or acidic, depending on
the produced acid or base. The solution neutral if the salt (for example, NaCl) is produced from a
strong acid (HCl) and a strong base (NaOH). The solution is basic if the salt (for example,
NaCH,COO) is produced from a strong base (NaOH) and a weak acid (CH,COOH)The solution is
acidic if the salt (for example, NH4NO3) is produced from a weak base (NH4OH) and a strong acid
(HNO3).

Safe Handling of Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are all considered hazardous chemicalsThey pose risks to one's health and safety
if not handled with special care and attention. It is, therefore, necessary to take proper
precautionary measures when using acidic or basic substances and solutions, both inside and
outside the laboratory.

The extent of damage produced by acids and bases depends not only on the strength of the
chemical but also on the length of exposure and the actions taken after contamination.
Concentrated acids and bases can damage tissues and cause severe injuries to the skin and eyes
upon contact. When inhaled, vapors from caustic solutions (e.g., ammonia and concentrated
sulfuric acid) and basic powders such as baking soda can damage the respiratory tract. Burns,
nausea, or irritation are other health effects of these chemicals.
Using personal protective equipment (PPE) such as goggles, laboratory gown, mask, and acid-
resistant gloves is a minimum requirement when working with acids and bases. The PPE serves as
the first line of defense against untoward incidents such as spills. Another way to protect oneself
from the dangers of these substances is to use them in a properly ventilated area. In the laboratory,
use small or only the required quantities of these chemicals and work under a fumehood. In diluting
acidic solutions, the acid must be added to water and never the other way around. This prevents
splattering, overheating, or sudden boiling of the solutions that may lead to spills and
contamination. Moreover, acids and bases should be stored

separately in appropriate and properly labeled containers and storage cabinets.

Acids and bases are labeled with hazard symbols for easy recognition and identification of their
associated hazards. Generally, their labels include the Harmful, Corrosive, and Health Hazard
symbols For strong oxidizing acids such as sulfuric acid and nitric acid, the oxidizer symbol is
added.

Acids and Bases in the Environment

Acid rain is composed of different acids, including sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and carbonic acid.
Burning of sulfur and sulfur-containing fossil fuels produces sulfur dioxide that reacts with oxygen
in the atmosphere to form sulfur trioxide. The sulfur trioxide then reacts with atmospheric water
vapor to produce sulfuric acid, a strong acid. This acid reacts with metals and limestones used in
building statues and infrastructures, causing them to corrode.

Burning nitrogen-containing fuels form nitrogen oxides. Additionally, high temperatures in

automobile engines and in the environment cause atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react and
form the same oxides. These compounds react with water vapor or rain water and produce nitric
acid.

Furthermore, carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air can also react with rain water and form carbonic acid.

While acids form acid rain, they can also be used to reduce acid rain formation. When water is
removed from an acid or a base, the resulting compound is called an acid anhydride or a base
anhydride, respectivelyWhen these two anhydrides react, they form a saltThis general process is
used to regulate the formation of sulfuric acid in the environment. For example, sulfur dioxide
(SO2), an acid anhydride, reacts with calcium oxide (CaO), a base anhydride, to produce calcium
sulfite. This is a way of removing SO, from industrial plants so that some of the abundant high-sulfur
coal can be used without damaging the environment.
 Types of Solutions
Solution is a homogeneous mixture. It has two components- a solute and a solvent. The solute is the
component that is being dissolved, while the solvent is the dissolving agent. Usually, the solute is
lesser in quantity than the solvent. A solution may also contain more than one solute. Unlike pure
substances, solutions have variable composition; that is, the solute and solvent can be mixed in
different proportions.

Solutions can be grouped into three main classifications -solid, liquid, and gas- based on the
physical state of the solvent. They can be further classified depending on the physical state of the
soluteThe common solutions are solids dissolved in liquids, liquids dissolved in other liquids, gases
dissolved in liquids, and a mixture of gases.

Solid solutions, also called alloys, have solid solvents. Steel, for example, is a solid solution made of
carbon dissolved in molten iron. When the iron solidifies, the carbon remains dissolved in the solid
steel. Another solid solution is brass, which is composed of copper and zinc.

Liquid solutions have liquid solvents. Most liquid solutions have water as the solventWater can
dissolve more solutes than other liquids; thus, it is called the universal solvent. An example of a
liquid solution with a solid solute is salt water. Gases can also dissolve in liquids such as in
carbonated drinks (carbon dioxide dissolved in water).

Gaseous substances can also mix to produce a gaseous solution. Air is an example of a gaseous
solution comprising 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases.

Factors That Affect Solubility

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of
solvent at a specified temperature. For example, the solubility of sodium chloride (NaCl) at 60°C is
100 grams of waterBeyond this amount, NaCl crystals will remain undissolved. 378/100 g waterThis
means that at 60°C, only 37 grams of NaCl, or less, can completely dissolve in

Solubility can be regarded as qualitative and relative. A substance may be described as very
soluble, slightly soluble, or insoluble in a solventAlthough these terms describe the degree of
solubility of a solute, they do not reflect the exact amount of solute that is dissolved in the solvent.

Two other terms are used to o specifically describe the solubility of a liquid in another liquid-
miscible and immiscible. Liquids that can mix and form a solution are miscible. Those that do not
mix homogeneously are immiscible. For example, ethyl alcohol and water are miscible in each other
in all proportions. Oil and water are immiscible because they form two layers when mixed; thus, they
are said to form a heterogeneous mixture. Three main factors affect the solubility of a solute: the
nature of the solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure.

Nature of Solute and Solvent

When a solution forms, solute particles disperse uniformly among solvent particles. For this to
happen, the attractions between solute-solute particles and between solvent-solvent particles must
first be broken. This is governed by the principle "like dissolves like." "Like" pertains to the similarity
in polarity of the solute and solvent particles, a property attributed to having positive and negative
portions in a particle. Polar solutes tend to dissolve in polar solvents but not in nonpolar solvents.
For example, table sugar (polar) dissolves in water (polar) but not in oil (nonpolar). Conversely,
nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents but not in polar solventsThus, grease (nonpolar)
dissolves in gasoline (nonpolar) but not in water.

This principle is applied in dry cleaning. Grease can be removed from clothes using a nonpolar
solvent such as perchloroethylene.

Other than polar solutes, some substances described as ionic compounds also dissolve in polar
solvents. Examples are the table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate,
NaHCO,)These substances dissociate into particles called ions when mixed into polar solvents such
as water.

Temperature
The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with increase in temperature. This is evident when
bubbles emerge as water is heated even below its boiling temperature. These bubbles are dissolved
oxygen molecules that escape from the solution as the substance becomes less soluble in water at
higher

temperatures. The decreasing trend of solubility can be explained in terms of the attractive forces
between gas and liquid substances. Gaseous solute particles must form weak "bonds" with solvent
molecules to dissolve in it. An increase in temperature increases the energy and motion of the gas
solutes, disrupting their weak "bonds" with the solvent and allowing them to escape from the
solution.

For most solid solutes dissolved in liquid solvents, the solubility increases with temperature.
However, there are exceptional substances whose solubility remains relatively constant or
decreases as temperature increases.
Pressure
Small changes in pressure have negligible effect on the solubility of solid and liquid solutes in liquid
solvents but have a significant effect on the solubility of gases in liquids. This principle was
established by English chemist William Henry (1775-1836), who proved that the solubility of a gas in
liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the liquid. This is known as Henry's
law, which explains that when more gas solute is introduced above a liquid solvent in a closed
container, the pressure of the gas on the liquid increases, and more solute will dissolve in the
liquid.git

This law is evident in carbonated drinks. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in beverages at high pressure
inside containers. When a container is opened, the pressure above the solution decreases, reducing
the solubility of carbon dioxide in the liquid and allowing the gas to escape from the solution. This is
observed as effervescence in the beverage.

Factors That Affect Rate of Dissolution

The process of dissolving a solute in a solvent to form a solution is called dissolution. The relative
rate (fast or slow) at which dissolution occurs is influenced by several factors-stirring, particle size,
temperature, and concentration.

Stirring
When a solute is put into a solvent, it initially comes in contact with solvent particles within its
immediate vicinity. As more of the solute dissolves, its immediate surroundings become
concentrated, hampering the dissolution of the remaining solute. Stirring redistributes solute
particles in less concentrated portions of the solution, allowing other solvent particles to dissolve
the solute and thereby facilitating faster dissolution.

Particle Size
Small solid solutes dissolve more readily than large ones because they have a larger total surface
area exposed to the solvent. Thus, their dissolution is faster than that of large particles. To
illustrate, a solid lump of sugar will dissolve more slowly than granulated sugar of the same amount.
Try dissolving the same mass of rock salt and iodized salt in the same amount of water. Observe
which of the two will dissolve faster.

Temperature
Temperature affects the energy and motion of the solute and solvent particles. At low temperatures,
the particles have low energy and move slowly. The reverse occurs at high temperatures.
With high energy, the particles can break away from each other more rapidly and move faster within
the solutionConsequently, the solute and solvent particles come in contact more frequently,
resulting in a higher dissolution rate.

Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solutionIt can be expressed qualitatively and quantitativelyBecause reactions often occur
in solutions, it is important to understand the ways of expressing concentration and know how to
prepare solutions of specific concentrations.

Dilute and Concentrated Solutions

The concentration of a solution can be qualitatively described using the terms dilute or
concentrated. A dilute solution contains relatively small amounts of solute, while a concentrated
solution contains rather large quantities of solute. For example, a cup of water with one-fourth
teaspoon of coffee is a dilute solution compared to the same amount of water with one teaspoon of
coffee.

Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions The three terms describes the degree of
saturation of a solution, which is based on the solubility of the solute in the solvent.

In preparing a solid-in-liquid solution, an initial amount of solute is dissolved in the solvent. As more
solute is added, it reaches a point at which the solvent can no longer dissolve any additional solute.
At such point, the solution is described as saturated.

A saturated solution contains as much solute as can be dissolved at a given temperature. This
means it has reached the solubility of the solute in the solvent. For example, a saturated sucrose
solution contains 204 grams of dissolved sucrose per 100 milliliters of water at 20°C. A saturated
sodium chloride solution contains 36 grams of dissolved NaCl per 100 milliliters of water at the
same temperature.

Saturated solutions of the same solute will have the same concentration regardless of the volume of
the solution. For instance, if another sucrose solution is prepared at 20°C but using only 50
milliliters of water, only a maximum of 102 grams of sucrose will dissolve in the solvent. Any solid
added into an already saturated solution will only settle at the bottom of the solution's container.

An unsaturated solution contains less solute than a saturated solution. Most solutions used in the
laboratory are unsaturated. Solutions containing 100 grams of sucrose in 100 milliliters of water and
15 grams of sodium chloride in 100 milliliters of water, both at 20°C, are examples of unsaturated
solutions.

A solution that contains more solute than a saturated solution is a supersaturated solution. Its
concentration exceeds the saturation point of the solution at a certain temperature. Such
concentration is achieved by heating because solubility increases with temperature. When a
saturated solution with excess undissolved solute is heated, the solids dissolve because of the
increased solubility. When the solution is removed from the heat source and allowed to cool down
undisturbed, the solids will remain dissolved in the liquid. At this point, the solution is
supersaturated, which is unstableWhen the solution is disturbed by stirring it, dropping a solute
particle (called seed crystal) into it, or scratching the walls of its container, it readily returns to its
saturated state by inducing some dissolved solute to recrystallize.

To illustrate, honey is a supersaturated solution of sugar in water. Sometimes, crystals slowly form
in the honey container. This signifies that it changes from a supersaturated solution into a saturated
solution because the excess solute crystallizes out of the solution.

Percent by Mass
Quantitative descriptions of concentrations include expressions in terms of percentagesOne
expression is mass percent, or percent by mass, which requires all mass measurements to have the
same units of measure.

Percent by mass is commonly used for solid solutions, or alloys. For example, nichrome wire is a
solution of 75% nickel, 12% iron, 11% chromium, and 2% manganese by mass. This means that 100
grams of the wire is composed of 75 grams of nickel, 12 grams of iron, 11 grams of chromium, and 2
grams of manganese.

Using the formula to verify the mass percent of nickel.

Percent by Volume
Solutions formed from two liquids are often expressed as volume percent or percent by volume.
Similar to mass percent, its mathematical formula requires that all volumes are expressed in the
same units of measure.

To illustrate, the label on the bottle of a rubbing alcohol that states "isopropyl alcohol, 70% by
volume" means that the product was made by mixing 70 milliliters of isopropyl alcohol with water to
make a total volume of 100 milliliters. However, because volumes are not necessarily additive, it is
incorrect to say that a 70% by volume isopropyl alcohol solution is made by mixing 70 milliliters
isopropyl alcohol and 30 milliliters water to obtain a final volume of 100 milliliters.

Percent by Mass/Volume
The expression relates the mass of the solute to the volume of the solution. In preparing a 15.0%
(mass/vol) sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, 15.0 grams of NaOH is initially dissolved in small
amount of water, and the solution is diluted to 100 milliliters. The 15.0% solution can also be made
by mixing 30.0 grams of NaOH in water to make 200 milliliters solution or 75.0 grams to make 500
milliliters solution.

Other Properties of Solutions

Solutions exhibit other unique properties. This is because a solute can alter the properties of a
solvent and, consequently, the solutionWhen salt is put on ice, it lowers the freezing point of ice
(water)This property is especially useful during winter months in cold countries to melt icy patches
on roads for drivers' safetyFurthermore, some solutions of water exhibit electrical conductivity.

Conductivity
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity, but tap water isThis is because tap water contains
various dissolved compounds that influence its ability to conduct electricity

Solutes can be classified according to the ability of their aqueous solutions (i.e., solutions with
water as the solvent) to conduct electricityThis electrical conductivity depends on the solute's
ability to dissociate into particles called ions in the solventElectrolytes are solutes whose aqueous
solutions conduct electricity. Nonelectrolytes are those whose aqueous solutions cannot conduct
electricitySalts, such as sodium chloride, are examples of electrolytes because they dissociate into
ions in water. On the other hand, sugar is a nonelectrolyte because it does not dissociate into ions
upon dissolution.

There are two classes of electrolytes: strong and weak. Strong electrolytes are good conductors of
electricity. They completely dissociate into their constituent ions in solutionsAlmost all soluble salts
(e.g., NaCl and KCI), strong acids (e.g., HCl, HNO3, and H₂SO), and strong bases (e.g, NaOH and
KOH) are strong electrolytes. Weak electrolytes are poor conductors of electricity. They only
partially dissociate into ions in solutions. Examples of weak electrolytes are acetic acid (CH,COOH),
carbonic acid (H,CO,), and ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH)Weak acids and bases are essentially
weak electrolytes.

A simple conductivity apparatus can be used to classify substances as electrolytes and

nonelectrolytes depending on the brightness of the light produced by the apparatus. Strong
electrolytes give off bright light, while weak electrolytes give off dim light. Nonelectrolytes do not
produce light at all.

Colligative Properties
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the physical properties of the resulting solution are from
those of the solute and the solvent. These properties, called colligative properties, depend on the
number of solute particles in a solution but not on the identity of the solute. This means that two
solutions of the same concentration composed of different solutes but the same solvent will exhibit
same colligative properties.

Colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression, and osmotic pressure elevation.