From The Need To The Knowledge Feeding Emotions and Thoughts Assessing Emotion

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2023, 64, 212–229 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.
12873
Personality & Social Psychology

From the need to the knowledge. Feeding emotions and thoughts:
Assessing emotion regulation strategies in food tribes
AGATA ANDO’, GIULIA PASSARIELLO and ALESSANDRO ZENNARO
Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Ando’, A., Passariello, G. & Zennaro, A. (2023). From the need to the knowledge. Feeding emotions and thoughts: Assessing emotion regulation strategies
in food tribes. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64, 212–229.
Some people choose to follow a certain dietary habit because they are guided by strong beliefs, but also to pursue a healthy lifestyle. Food tribes are
defined as social groups sharing common values and beliefs that underlie food and lifestyle choices. The current study aimed to investigate potential
differences in emotion regulation between specific food tribes, and when comparing food tribes to people who conversely do not follow a dietary habit.
Specifically, we examined the presence of rumination, psychological inflexibility, and emotional contagion as components of emotion dysregulation. A
Google form was developed to obtain all the information needed to respond to our research questions and goals, and investigate the following food groups:
Veganism, Fruitarianism, Raw Food Diet, Paleodiet, Blood Type group, Breatharianism, Macrobiotic Diet, and Other. The final sample consisted of 378
healthy subjects (117 males, 258 females, 3 other) ranging in age from 18 to 70 years. The first part of Google form consisted of general questions about
the participant’s dietary habits while the second part included specific questionnaires assessing the psychological constructs we investigated. Vegan people
were less conditioned by others in their food choices when compared to the other food tribes. The Paleodiet group associated its food choice with health
reasons as well as the Blood Type group. Differences were found in the presence of cognitive inflexibility and rumination, reflective thinking, emotional
dysregulation, emotional contagion and also in the representation of their real and ideal (food) communities. Clinical implications are discussed.
Key words: Food tribes, diet, emotion regulation, rumination, emotional contagion, psychological inflexibility.
Agata Ando’, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Torino (TO), Italy. E-mail: agatamariaclaudia.ando@unito.it
INTRODUCTION Anderson, 1979). Below, we report a brief description of the

Food represents one of the basic needs of human beings. The major contemporary food tribes that are considered more
procurement of food has been one of the main drivers of the “integralist” due to their rigid adherence to specific and/or
biological and cultural evolution of the human species, from restrictive food choices (Davis, 2016; McEvoy, Temple &
migrations to the division of labor. Biologically omnivorous, Woodside, 2012; Mozzi, Mozzi & Ziglio, 2012; Niola, 2015;
human beings have developed many different eating behaviors in Wolf, 2013).
conjunction with specific environmental constraints that have been
a strong stimulus for the selection of multiple behavioral
strategies and cultural precepts. (Anderson, 2005). Since ancient Veganism: environmental friendliness and well-being
times, eating habits related to food production and consumption The vegan diet excludes all foods that come from an animal
have been influenced by the practices and cultures of different source, including dairy products, eggs, and sometimes honey and
communities (Anderson, 2005); on the other hand, people’s gelatin (Craig, 2009; McEvoy et al. &, 2012; The Vegan
adherence to certain dietary styles has resulted in several changes Society, 1988); therefore, Veganism includes all types of fruits,
in the food market over the years (e.g., Seppilli, 1994). Health vegetables, nuts, grains, seeds, and legumes. The vegan
and wellness trends in food have increased their influence on movement originated by Donald Watson and Elsie Shringley, who
people’s (healthy) lifestyles, as consumers seem to prefer eating were formerly members of Vegetarian Society in England. In
less processed and more natural alternatives to the products they 1944, they decided to form their own section, which defines itself
are used to; in fact, the nutritional value of a food and the absence as Veganism and is a movement guided by the main principle of
of genetically modified organisms improve the quality of food. emancipation of animals from exploitation by humans. Vegans
Nowadays, some people choose to follow a certain dietary habit adopt a lifestyle that does not cause animals any suffering (e.g.,
because they seem to be committed to and guided by strong they do not wear leather clothing and avoid visiting zoos and
values and beliefs, as well as to follow a healthy lifestyle (e.g., aquariums) and thus support animal rights (Davis, 2016;
Askegaard, Ordabayeva, Chandon et al., 2014). By sharing Hutchison, 2018).
similar dietary habits, food tribes are formed. Food tribes are
defined as social groups that share common values and beliefs
that underlie food and lifestyle choices (Niola, 2015; Plante, Fruitarianism: the fruitarian origins of mankind
Rosenfeld, Plante & Reysen, 2019). Typically, food tribes include The fruitarian diet consists of eating fruits with the exception of
passionate/self-aware consumers who are self-aware enough to sour fruits (such as pineapples, oranges, lemons) and with
challenge conventions to find better options for themselves, the minimal amounts of raw vegetables (such as zucchini, eggplant,
environment, animals, and society (e.g., Foley, Hertzler & squash, tomatoes, peppers), seeds, nuts, oil and spices.
© 2022 Scandinavian Psychological Associations and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Scand J Psychol 64 (2023) Food tribes and emotion regulation strategies 213
Fruitarianism is based on the belief that humans have been The macrobiotic diet: balance between complementary and
frugivorous since their origin and that the human species evolved opposing forces
on the apple tree in a heavenly valley (Cavallucci, 2016). This The macrobiotic diet, conceived by George Ohsawa1 (1893–
latter belief is linked to important findings from comparative 1966), applies the fundamentals of Oriental philosophy derived
anatomy studies; the anatomical and physiological structure of the from Taoism to daily life. Proponents of the macrobiotic diet seek
human digestive system would be typical of frugivorous health by achieving a balance between yin and yang;2 food
anthropomorphic primates. Since the fruitarian human being arises choices distinguish between Acid-Yin foods (e.g., milk and
from instinct and is a genuine expression of the physiological, derivatives, fruits, tea, and spices) and Alkaline-Yang foods (e.g.,
nutritional, and ancestral needs of human cells (D’Elia, 2018), it salt, meat, fish, chicken, eggs). The macrobiotic diet seeks some
therefore appears to be innate. The fruitarian lifestyle includes rules sort of balance in the association of these foods and, in addition,
related to the daily consumption of fruit, taking into account the promotes those that are considered “naturally balanced” (e.g.,
balance of nutrients. However, as the fruitarian diet is even more grains, legumes, and oilseeds). The macrobiotic diet does not
restrictive than the vegan diet, some studies have shown that there include processed foods (foods should not be industrially
is an even greater risk of manifesting serious nutritional produced, come from distant countries, or be eaten out of season;
deficiencies (Ensminger & Ensminger, 1993). In particular, the legumes and fruits should be grown without insecticides or
fruitarian diet appears to be very low in protein, iron, calcium, zinc, chemical fertilizers). Food should be cooked with water, olive oil,
and essential fatty acids (Melina, Craig & Levin, 2016), but or unrefined sea salt and served in earthen or enameled cast-iron
especially in those vitamins of animal origin such as B12 (National vessels; meat should be eliminated from the diet to allow the
Institutes of Health, 2018). brain to reach its maximum capabilities (Ohsawa, 1965). The
macrobiotic diet suggests accepting those liquids that can be
obtained from wheat and rice, coffee, or natural tea.
The raw food diet: refusing any food alteration
The raw food diet (or raw foodism) consists of predominantly or
completely raw and unprocessed foods and may include nutrients The blood type diet: the main role of the immune system
of both plant and animal origin. As reported by some recent functions
studies, the raw food diet is rich in antioxidants, which delay the After the middle of the last century, the naturopath Peter
signs of aging and reduce the risk of cancer by neutralizing free D’Adamo created the Blood Type group. D’Adamo recognized a
radicals (Fuhrman, 2013); it also helps to significantly reduce connection between blood types and individual diet. During the
problems related to hypertension and obesity (Douglass, Rasgon, evolutionary process of mankind, blood types have diversified as
Fleirss et al., 1985). However, some studies have shown that this a result of geographic isolation and different diets. Since blood
diet can cause physical problems such as excessive weight loss, type is the most direct expression of our immune characteristics
amenorrhea (Koebnick, Strassner, Hoffmann & Leitzmann, 1999), (Mozzi, Mozzi & Ziglio, 2012), it could be closely related to the
food poisoning (Sivapalasingam, Friedman, Cohen & healthy nutrients an individual consumes (D’Adamo &
Tauxe, 2004), gastroenteritis, and salmonella (Centers for Disease Whitney, 2016). In addition, each blood group/type appears to be
Control and Prevention, 2008). associated with food tolerance/intolerance and behavioral traits.
The O blood group is associated with those individuals who are
able to cope productively with some stressful conditions (although
The paleodiet: an ancient and carbohydrate-free diet
they have difficulty digesting dairy products and grains); abundant
The Paleodiet (also known as the Cave diet or Palaeolithic diet) physical activity is recommended for people with the 0 group.
involves following a diet plan based on (supposed) eating habits The A blood group includes stress-sensitive people with a less
in the Palaeolithic era. The Paleodiet typically includes reactive immune system; people with the A blood group easily
vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, and meats and usually excludes digest fish, legumes, oilseeds, and carbohydrates. Moderate
foods such as dairy, grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, physical activity is recommended for this blood group. The B
alcohol, and coffee (Wolf, 2013). Therefore, this diet is based on blood group includes individuals with a very low stress threshold
the consumption of fruits and vegetables, “wild” or “caught” fish and a robust immune system, despite a predisposition to blood
with its anti-inflammatory properties, crustaceans and shellfish, and autoimmune disorders; individuals with this blood group
lean meats from grass/hay fed animals, olive and coconut oils, appear to have some difficulty digesting gluten, corn, tomatoes,
and herbs and spices. The main belief that paleo proponents and pork. AB Blood group is characterized by all of the traits
adhere to is that the human organism adapted to life on earth two found in groups A and B (D’Adamo & D’Adamo, 2002;
and a half million years ago, and since then the genetic set has D’Adamo & Whitney, 2016).
not changed significantly. Humans were in balance with the
environment and did not suffer from the so-called “modern”
Breatharianism: storing a universal energy
diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes,
autoimmune diseases and infertility. In addition, the Paleodiet is Breatharianism, (also called prana-nutrition) is described as the
based on a lifestyle that includes physical activity, an appropriate human ability to absorb all nutrients from the universal life force
number of hours of sleep and relaxation, and multiple social or chi energy:3 People who practice Breatharianism do not need
interactions (Wolf, 2013). food (Fukushima, Kataoka, Hamada & Matsumoto, 2001;
214 A. Ando’ et al. Scand J Psychol 64 (2023)
Jasmuheen, 1997). According to this belief, the functioning of the use of strategies has been associated with a deficit in awareness
human body is similar to that of plants, which use photosynthesis and acceptance of one’s emotional responses, difficulties in
to convert solar energy into organic molecules from which they controlling impulses, limitations in pursuing one’s goals, and
derive their nourishment (Monfort, 2009); by not eating solid relationship problems (D’Agostino, Covanti, Monti &
food, the necessary energy is immediately assimilated, thus Starcevic, 2017; Gratz & Roemer, 2004; Thompson, 1994).
avoiding energy loss through digestion and excretion of waste. Dodge (1991) describes emotional dysregulation as a disorder that
Solid food would indeed be the cause of disease, aging and death. occurs during the process of processing information and events,
Nicolas Pilartz4 (1971), suggested that there are three ways in such as rumination. As mentioned earlier, rumination is described
which people practice prana nutrition. The first, defined as as the tendency to respond to distress by repeatedly and passively
spontaneous, refers to the ability to practice prana nourishment focusing on one’s negative emotions and failures and their
due to a genetic predisposition. The second is a gradual and consequences (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991, 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema,
intentional path that involves the progressive decrease in daily Wisco & Lyubomirsky, 2008). Because rumination is
caloric intake with the introduction of an increasing amount of characterized primarily by difficulties in coping with and
prana. The third is the 21-day process in which an individual controlling negative emotional states, it is considered the most
experiences prana by immersing himself in nature and learning to common (impaired) emotion regulation strategy and can be
heighten his senses and expand his consciousness, thus facilitating defined as an emotional process associated with repetitive,
access to Energy. unwanted, and past-oriented, negatively attuned thoughts
(Compare, Zarbo, Shonin, Van Gordon & Marconi, 2014; Smith
& Alloy, 2009). Typically, although the results are negative,
Food choices and emotional dysregulation: the role of rumination, people with rumination persist in adopting these non-adaptive
psychological inflexibility, and emotional contagion processes because of their cognitive inflexibility. The lack of
In recent decades, many researchers have defined the flexible and appropriate strategies for modulating the intensity
multidimensional construct of emotion regulation and its and/or duration of the emotional response may reflect a form of
associated deficits (Cole, Michel & Teti, 1994; D’Agostino, emotional dysregulation (Paivio & Laurent, 2001); indeed, such
Covanti, Monti & Starcevic, 2017; Dodge, 1991; Gross, 1998; inflexibility is associated with the inability to adapt different
Katz & Gottman, 1991; Koole, 2009; Paivio & Laurent, 2001; emotional states to different situations (Thompson, 2011) and to
Thompson, 2011). The emotion regulation skill encompasses a set integrate emotional processes with other information in a flexible
of processes capable of recognizing and expressing emotions and manner (Katz & Gottman, 1991). Thus, cognitive inflexibility
modulating emotional responses elicited by internal and external consists in the tendency to implement automatic behaviors, that is,
stimuli (Cole, Michel & Teti, 1994). Efficient emotion regulation actions that have proven adequate in previous situations but that
enables individuals to adapt to the experiences they encounter persistently continued even in the presence of new conditions in
(Gratz & Roemer, 2004) maintaining good interpersonal which they are completely ineffective (Ca~ nas, Fajardo &
relationships (Thompson, 1994; Tiedens & Leach, 2004), and Salmer on, 2006). Because emotional dysregulation is
achieving their goals (Gratz & Roemer, 2004; Tamir, 2009). characterized by a deficient ability to discriminate and modulate
Therefore, emotion regulation as a multidimensional construct emotional experiences (Cole, Michel & Teti, 1994; Gratz &
encompasses a range of processes related to the generation of Roemer, 2004; Gross, 1998), it can be expressed through
emotions and their modulation (Gross, 1998; Koole, 2009). components of emotional contagion. Emotional contagion
Gross (1998) distinguishes five groups of emotion regulation represents an experience in which the process of transmitting and
processes: situation selection, situation modification, attentional receiving different emotions through others is not consciously or
deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. The clearly distinguished (Hatfield, Bensman, Thornton &
third strategy, attentional deployment, involves shifting attentional Rapson, 2014). Emotional contagion has been defined as “the
resources from a negative stimulus to a positive one in order to tendency to automatically imitate and synchronize facial
change the emotional response; this stage is again divided into expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of
three types of strategies (Gross, 1998): concentration, distraction, another person and, consequently, to emotionally converge”
and rumination. Concentration is the strategy by which attention (Hatfield, Cacioppo & Rapson, 1994, p. 5).
is directed to specific emotional stimuli (Erber & Tesser, 1992); Several studies have associated difficulties in the regulation of
distraction consists of shifting attention from the current situation emotions with the eating disorders (e.g., Sim & Zeman, 2005,
to another that is considered more acceptable (Derryberry & 2006; Whiteside et al., 2007; D’Agostino, Covanti, Monti &
Rothbart, 1988; Mclntosh, 1996); rumination occurs when Starcevic, 2017). Typical behaviors related to the eating disorders
people’s attention is directed more toward information with a can represent an attempt to avoid and/or to suppress negative
negative valence, and is associated with the tendency to respond emotions (Abraham & Beumont, 1982; Harrison, Sullivan,
to stress by repeatedly and passively focusing on one’s negative Tchanturia & Treasure, 2009) but, furthermore, they may reflect
emotions, failures, and their consequences (Gross, 1998). massively those difficulties occurring in identifying and
Emotion dysregulation implies difficulties in expressing, recognizing different emotions (Evers, Marijn Stok & de
discriminating, modulating, and attenuating emotional experiences Ridder, 2010). Eating disorders are not limited to the domains of
(Bradley, DeFife, Guarnaccia et al., 2011; Cole, Michel & eating behaviors and body image, but can also be related to
Teti, 1994; D’Agostino, Covanti, Monti & Starcevic, 2017; significant difficulties in emotional functioning (Gilboa-
Gross, 1998; Koole, 2009; Kring, 2008), and the dysfunctional Schechtman, Avnon, Zubery & Jeczmien, 2006).
Although belonging to an eating tribe, such as those described (1) through the distribution of brochures containing key information about
above, does not constitute “in itself” an eating disorder, certain the study; and (2) through Facebook (identifying Facebook groups on food
tribes). The Google form included the following dietary options:
characteristics of inflexibility and emotional dysregulation may be
Veganism, Fruitarianism, Raw Food Diet, Paleodiet, Blood Type group,
shared from these two distinct populations. The Food Tribes may Breatharianism, Macrobiotic Diet, Other.5 Potential participants were
be characterized by different eating choices and restrictions. In screened for exclusion criteria (food intolerances [e.g., celiac disease and
literature we can find only few articles specifically about vegans lactose intolerance] and/or with gastrointestinal pathologies [e.g., irritable
and vegetarians analyzing different psychopathological disorders bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease]). The final sample included 378 healthy
subjects (117 males, 258 females, 3 other) ranging in age from 18 to
such as depression and anxiety (e. g., Bas, Karabudak &
70 years (M = 42.15; SD = 11.73).
Kiziltan, 2005; Wojciak, 2014; Beezhold et al., 2015; Hibbeln, Participants gave their written informed consent to participate in this
Northstone, Evans & Goldin, 2018; Jin, Kandula, Kanaya & study, which was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Turin
Talegawkar, 2019; Lavalle, Zhang, Michelak, Schneider & (Turin, Italy) (protocol number:13360). The information sheet and
Margaf, 2019), restrictive eating behaviors (Fisak, Peterson, informed consent form represented the first sections of the Google Form
that we adopted for this study (see below for details).
Tantleff-Dunn & Molnar, 2006; Trautmann, Rau, Wilson &
Walters, 2008; Zuromski, Witte, Smith et al., 2015), somatic
worries (Cooper, Wise & Mann, 1985; Michalak, Zhang & Procedure
Jacobi, 2012), and orthorexia (Barthels, Meyer & Pietrowsky, A Google form was developed to obtain all the information needed to
2018; Bratman & Knight, 2000; Brytek-Matera, 2019). Orthorexia answer our research questions after reviewing the literature on dietary
nervosa is proposed to be an eating disorder characterized by habits. The first part of the Google form consisted of general questions
obsession with eating healthy food. Barthels et al. (2018) analyzed about the participants’ dietary habits and associated information (e.g., give
an example of your meal a day; why did you choose this dietary style?; do
the relationship between restrictive food habits, orthorexia and the you suffer or have you suffered from gastrointestinal diseases) (e.g.,
choice to undertake a vegetarian/vegan diet. The Barthels gastritis, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcers, etc.) The second part consisted
et al (2018) revealed that individuals who limit their eating of specific questionnaires that we selected and included in our study. To
behaviors, due to ethical reasons or to lose weight, might show facilitate an overall participation, it was indicated that after completing the
characteristics of orthorexia. In particular, vegetarians and vegans questionnaire, participants would receive some interesting information
(e.g., historical or current events) about the food tribe to which they
appear to exhibit both restrictive and orthorexic eating behaviors,
belong. It was also communicated that at the end of participation in the
but not to lose weight; this suggests that restricting one’s eating study, there would be a drawing for a book that one of the participants
behaviors, excluding foods of animal origin for health reasons, may could win (a cookbook specific to the subject’s dietary habits).
be a risk factor for developing orthorexic behaviors (Barthels
et al, 2018). Vegetarian and vegan people may complicate and
Measures6
strain their eating behaviors as they develop rigid rules and become
inflexible in their eating habits (Forestell, Spaeth & Kane, 2011; Acceptance and action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II)7. The AAQ-II
(Bond et al., 2011; Pennato, Berrocal, Bernini & Rivas, 2013) is a self-
Timko, Hormes & Chubski, 2012).
report questionnaire with 10 items. It is a unidimensional measure of
psychological inflexibility. The items focus on willingness to experience
unwanted private events, on the ability to be in the present moment, or in the
The current study commitment to flexible value directed actions while experiencing negative
internal events. Individuals have to say how much is true, for themselves,
Going beyond possible stereotypes about some food choices which any statement on a seven-point Likert scale (from “never true” to “always
are perceived as restrictive, the aim of the current study is to true”). Higher scores in the scale indicate higher psychological inflexibility.
investigate possible differences in emotion regulation: (1) between
The emotional contagion scale (ECS)8. The ECS (Doherty, 1997; Lo
specific food tribes; and (2) when comparing food tribes to people
Coco, Ingoglia & Lundqvist, 2014) is a 15-item self-report scale, which
who do not follow a specific diet. Specifically, we examined the assesses the tendency to catch the emotions expressed by others, so
presence of rumination, psychological inflexibility, and emotional assesses susceptibility to emotional contagion. The items focus on five
contagion as components of emotion dysregulation. In addition, we basic emotions: Anger, Fear, Sadness, Happiness and Love. The total
thought of investigating the sense of community in food tribes as it score, obtained from the sum of all the items (of each scale), provides a
measure of the subject’s emotional contagion. The higher the score, the
is closely related to emotional contagion (Hess & Fischer, 2013).
greater the sensitivity to emotional contagion.
Sarason (1974) defined the sense of community as the perception
of similarity with others, a recognized interdependence, the Difficulties in emotion regulation scale (DERS-16)9. The DERS-16
willingness to maintain this interdependence by offering or doing (Bjureberg, Ljotsson, Tull, et al., 2015; Giromini, Velotti, de Campora,
Bonalume & Zavattini, 2012; Gratz & Roemer, 2004) is a multidimensional
for others what is expected of them, the feeling of belonging to a
scale developed to detect clinically relevant difficulties in all dimensions of
completely stable and reliable structure. Sometimes the desire to emotional regulation and represents the most comprehensive measure of the
belong, similarity and belonging to a group are social factors that construct to date and exhibits good reliability and validity in adults. This
can lead to emotional contagion (Hess & Fischer, 2013). questionnaire includes five domains (subscales) of emotional dysregulation:
non-acceptance of emotional responses (Non-acceptance); limited access to
emotion regulation strategies (Strategies); impaired engaging in targeted
METHOD behavior when emotionally aroused (Goals); difficulties in controlling
impulses (Impulse); lack of emotional clarity (Clarity). The final dimension
assesses the flexible use of situational strategies to modulate emotional
Participants responses. Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (almost
Because our study aimed to identify subjects who belonged to specific diet never) to 5 (almost always). Higher scores indicate greater difficulty in
programs, a Google form was used, the link to which was disseminated: regulating emotions.
Rumination and reflection questionnaire (RRQ). The RRQ multiple comparisons and post hoc tests (with Bonferroni correction) were
(Giromini, Brusadelli, Di Noto, Grasso & Lang, 2015; Trapnell & performed. Also, a correlation matrix investigating the associations
Campbell, 1999). It is a 24-item self-report measure of self-consciousness, between the psychological constructs under investigation was generated
divided along the dimensions of positively motivated Reflection10 (for each food group). Finally, chi square coefficients were obtained to test
(Reflection) and negatively motivated rumination (Rumination). Both whether the four groups differed in the number of subjects reporting high
rumination and Reflection involve heightened attention to self, but they scores on those variables related to the presence of rumination,
differ in the motivation behind the attention. Rumination is “self- psychological, inflexibility, and emotional contagion.
attentiveness motivated by perceived threats, losses, or injustices to the
self” (Neuroticism); Reflection is “self-attentiveness motivated by curiosity
or epistemic interest in the self (Openness to experience) (Trapnell & RESULTS
Campbell, 1999, p. 297). Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for both scales.
Demographic composition of food tribes
The sense of community descriptors scale (SCD). The SCD We summarized descriptive statistics of food styles, in our sample
(Halamova, Kanovsky & Nanistova, 2018; Sadovska & Nanistova, 2000) (Table 112,13; Table S1).
is a self-report questionnaire that uses a semi-projective method in the
form of a semantic differential consisting of 22 bipolar/opposite adjectives
(e.g., useful/not useful) reflecting characteristics of a mature community - Step by step description of the results
with a strong sense of community (i.e., positive) - and characteristics of a
non-functioning immature community (i.e., negative). The SCD was Below is a brief overview of the results we present. First, we
developed based on Peck’s (1987; Peck, 1994) community theory, and compared the four food tribes with acceptable sample size14 (i.e.,
adjectives were selected primarily on the basis of relevance to ensure that Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood Type group and Other group) on
the scale contains items that reflect the characteristics of a mature measures assessing psychological inflexibility, ruminative aspects,
community with a strong sense of community. This scale measures the
emotional dysregulation, presence of emotional contagion, and
extent to which a community or group is a true community (i.e., the extent
to which it enables one to experience the psychological sense of sense of community. Second, we conducted a correlational
community, regardless of the nature and context of the community). It analysis between the psychological constructs of rumination,
measures the difference between the sense of community in a real psychological inflexibility, and emotional contagion, in these four
community and an ideal community and uses it as a criterion for main dietary groups. Third, we reported and described the reasons
satisfaction with community SCD. The smaller the difference, the greater
for choosing a particular dietary style for groups with acceptable
the SCD satisfaction and the stronger the sense of community (conversely,
high values on the scale – SCD Satisfaction – indicate a strong sample sizes and for smaller groups (i.e., Macrobiotic diet, Raw
dissatisfaction with the real community of affiliation). In particular, the food diet, Fruitarianism, and Breatharianism); for both the larger
items can be used to capture three dimensions. Acceptance (maps the and smaller groups, we examined some qualitative aspects of the
maturity of the community in terms of perception of individuality, dietary style choice, including recording and describing
uniqueness, meaning, acceptance and respect for diversity, safety, self-
unstructured responses.
reflection and responsibility); Dynamism (describes the internal process of
the community in terms of quality of relationships, shared goals and self-
Comparing the four food groups: Veganism, paleodiet, blood type
transcendence); Openness (characterizes the atmosphere of a community
through inner freedom, mutual trust and open communication). group and other group We performed statistical analyses only for
Specifically, for the current study, we asked participants who belonged to those groups that were included in our Google Form with an
food tribes to refer to their chosen food community, while participants acceptable sample size: Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood Type group
who did not adhere to a particular diet were asked to refer to their and Other group.
relational community.
One-way ANOVA. We first computed a one-way ANOVA to
compare the four groups (Table 2):15 statistically significant
Data analysis differences were found in the AAQ-II Total score, in the RRQ
SPSS11 data analysis software was used for statistical analysis. One-way Rumination and the RRQ Reflection, in the DERS Non
ANOVA was computed to compare the food groups and, subsequently,
Table 1. Demographic composition of food tribes (N = 378)
Blood Macrobiotic Raw food

Veganism Paleodiet Type group diet diet Fruitarianism Breatharianism Other
(N = 127) (N = 48) (N = 44) (N = 23) (N = 12) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 112)
Gender (Chi2 = 28.22; p = 0.013)

M N = 27 N = 26 N=8 N=7 N=7 N=3 N=2 N = 37
(21.3%) (54.2%) (18.2%) (30.4%) (58.3%) (50%) (33.3%) (33.0%)
F N = 98 N = 22 N = 36 N = 16 N=5 N=3 N=4 N = 74
(77.2%) (45.8%) (81.8%) (69.6%) (41.7%) (50%) (66.7%) (66.1%)
Other N = 2 (1.6%) / / / / / / N=1
(0.9%)
Age (F = (7, 370) = 3. 254; p = 0.001)
Range 21–70 18–68 23–66 22–64 27–65 30–55 21–48 20–70
M 39.71 41.83 49.20 41.70 42.25 42.50 39.50 42.50
SD 11.23 10.06 10.01 9.98 14.14 8.62 9.93 12.99
acceptance, in the DERS Strategies, in the DERS Clarity, in the and ruminative thinking (RRQ Rumination). In addition, the
DERS Total score, in the ECS Anger, in the Real SCD Dynamics, Paleodiet group showed lower susceptibility to anger (ECS
in the Ideal SCD Dynamics, and in the Ideal SCD Total score. Anger).
Therefore, differences between the four food groups were in Also, we observed significant mean differences between
relation to the following characteristics: a psychological rigidity Veganism and Paleodiet on the Real SCD Dynamics, and when
and an overall inability to perform direct actions while compared Veganism to Paleodiet, Veganism to the Blood Type
experiencing negative internal events (AAQ), ruminative and group, and Paleodiet to the Other group differences were
reflective thinking (RRQ Rumination and Reflection), observed on the Ideal SCD Dynamics scale.
susceptibility to anger (ECS Anger), difficulties in emotion Vegans were characterized by higher internal processes of the
regulation (DERS) and sense of both real and ideal community real community in terms of quality of relationships compared to
(Real SCD Dynamics, Ideal SCD Dynamics, Ideal SCD Total the Paleodiet group, and by a higher sense of the ideal community
score). in terms of dynamic aspects if compared to the Paleodiet and
Blood Type group. The Paleodiet group, also, perceived the ideal
Multiple comparisons and post hoc tests. By conducting post hoc community as more dynamic than the Other group (Real SCD
analysis – with Bonferroni correction (Table 3; Table S2) – a Dynamics and Ideal SCD Dynamics).
statistically significant mean difference on the AAQ-II Total score Paired samples test was performed for the SCD specifically in
was found when comparing Veganism to the Blood Type group relation to the perception of the real sense of community and
and to the Other group, between Paleodiet and the Other group on ideal sense of community16 in Veganism [t (126) = 7.69;
the ECS Anger, and between Veganism and the Other group on p ≤ 0.001; d17 = 0.68]; in the Paleodiet group [t (47) = 4.33;
the DERS No -acceptance, on the DERS Goals, on the DERS p ≤ 0.001; d = 0.63], in the Blood Type group [t (43) = 4.462;
Impulse, on the DERS Strategies, on the DERS Clarity, on the p ≤ 0.001; d = 0.67], and in the Other group [t (111) = 8.25;
DERS Total, and on the RRQ Rumination. p ≤ 0.001; d = 0.78]. Differences were observed on senses of real
Overall, then, Vegans reported lower levels of problematic and ideal community, in the four groups.
psychological aspects when compared to the Other group; the
latter showed more psychological inflexibility, inability to accept Correlations between psychological constructs: Focusing on
emotional responses (DERS Non-acceptance), limited access to rumination, psychological inflexibility, and emotional
emotion regulation strategies (DERS Strategies), impaired goal- contagion. Despite several variables produced significant
directed behavior when emotionally aroused (DERS Goals), lack correlations at alpha = 0.05, with respectively medium and
of emotional clarity (DERS Clarity) and regulation (DERS Total), medium to large effect sizes; it is worthy to highlight that the
effect sizes observed are very unstable and that small sample sizes
usually lead to inflated effect sizes Sch€onbrodt & Perugini (2013).
Table 2. One-way ANOVA: Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood Type group and
Other group Furthermore, given there was a risk that some correlations may
contain false positives because of sample sizes, we reported
Measure F(3,327) p g2 correlations between the summary of each main/total scales (no
subscales) for each food tribe that we investigated.
AAQ 4.233 0.006 0.04
The four food groups (i.e., Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood Type
RRQ Rumination 5.530 0.001 0.05
RRQ Reflection 3.097 0.027 0.03 and Other) reported significant positive correlations of the RRQ
DERS Non acceptance 2.671 0.047 0.02 rumination scale to the DERS Total scale. Correlations remained
DERS Goals 2.449 0.064 0.02 statistically significant at a Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of
DERS Impulse 2.373 0.070 0.02 p = 0.025 (i.e., 0.05/2). We can note, therefore, that the
DERS Strategies 3.085 0.027 0.03
ruminative thinking (RRQ Rumination) was associated with
DERS Clarity 2.837 0.038 0.03
DERS Total 3.382 0.018 0.03 difficulties in emotion regulation, in all groups. In the Blood Type
ECS Sadness 1.489 0.217 0.01 group, RRQ Reflection scale was significantly associated – with a
ECS Anger 4.534 0.004 0.04 negative correlation – to DERS Total score: reflective thinking,
ECS Fear 1.103 0.348 0.01 seems to be related to unimpaired emotion regulation strategies
ECS Love .084 0.969 0.00
(Table 4).
ECS Happiness .991 0.397 0.00
Real SCD Acceptance .769 0.512 0.00 The Vegan group reported significant positive correlations of
Real SCD Dynamics 4.162 0.007 0.04 the RRQ Rumination scale to the ECS Fear and negative
Real SCD Openness 2.125 0.097 0.02 correlations to the ECS Happiness scales; positive correlations
Ideal SCD Openness 1.794 0.148 0.02 were observed between the RRQ Reflection and the ECS
Ideal SCD Acceptance .680 0.565 0.00
Happiness; in the Paleodiet group were noted significant
Ideal SCD Dynamics 10.769 <0.001 0.09
Real SCD Total Score 1.720 0.163 0.02 positive correlations of the RRQ Reflection scale to the ECS,
Ideal SCD Total Score 3.297 0.021 0.03 Fear, Love and Happiness scales. In the Other group we may
SCD Satisfaction .491 0.689 0.00 observe statistically significant associations – with a positive
correlation – of the RRQ Rumination to the ECS Sadness,
Note: AAQ = Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II; ECS = Emotional
Anger, Fear, and between the RRQ Reflection with the ECS
Contagion Scale; DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale;
RRQ = Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire; SCD = Sense of Love. Most of the correlations remained statistically significant
Community Descriptors Scale. at a Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of p = 0.05 (i.e., 0.05/10).
Table 3. Multiple comparisons and post hoc tests: Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood Type group and Other group
95% confidence interval for mean
Measure Food tribe Mean difference Std. error Lower bound Upper bound
AAQ Veganism Paleodiet 2.14 1.88 7.13 2.85

Blood type group 4.62* 1.94 9.78 0.53
Other 4.75* 1.44 8.57 0.93
Paleodiet Blood type group 2.48 2.32 8.63 3.67
Other 2.61 1.91 7.69 2.47
Blood type group Other 0.13 1.97 5.37 5.11
ECS Sadness Veganism Paleodiet 0.43 0.42 0.69 1.56
Blood type group 0.56 0.44 1.73 0.60
Other 0.28 0.32 1.14 0.58
Other 0.71 0.43 1.86 0.43
ECS Anger Veganism Paleodiet 0.83 0.42 0.29 1.95
Blood type group 0.35 0.44 1.51 0.81
Other 0.70 0.32 1.56 0.16
Other 1.53**a 0.43 2.67 0.39
ECS Fear Veganism Paleodiet 0.39 0.45 0.80 1.59
Blood type group 0.18 0.46 1.05 1.42
Other 0.36 0.34 1.28 0.55
Other 0.76 0.46 1.97 0.46
ECS Love Veganism Paleodiet 0.05 0.47 1.29 1.19
Blood type group 0.21 0.48 1.07 1.49
Other 0.07 0.36 0.88 1.02
Other 0.12 0.48 1.15 1.38
ECS Happiness Veganism Paleodiet 0.04 0.40 1.03 1.11
Blood type group 0.53 0.42 1.64 0.57
Other 0.39 0.31 1.21 0.43
Other 0.43 0.41 1.52 0.66
DERS Non acceptance Veganism Paleodiet 0.67 0.55 2.13 0.79
Blood type group 0.71 0.57 2.21 0.80
Other 1.18* 0.42 2.30 0.07
Other 0.51 0.56 2.00 0.97
DERS Goals Veganism Paleodiet 0.44 0.56 1.93 1.05
Blood type group 0.51 0.58 2.05 1.03
Other 1.16* 0.43 2.30 0.02
Other 0.72 0.57 2.24 0.80
DERS Impulse Veganism Paleodiet 0.54 0.55 1.99 0.92
Blood type group 0.50 0.57 2.01 1.00
Other 1.12* 0.42 2.24 0.01
Other 0.58 0.56 2.07 0.90
DERS Strategies Veganism Paleodiet 0.38 0.92 2.82 2.07
Blood type group 1.68 0.95 4.20 0.85
Other 1.98* 0.70 3.86 0.11
Other 1.61 0.94 4.10 0.88
DERS Clarity Veganism Paleodiet 0.32 0.32 1.17 0.52
(continued)
Table 3. (continued)
Blood type group 0.54 0.33 1.41 0.33

Other 0.69* 0.24 1.34 0.04
Other 0.37 0.32 1.23 0.50
DERS Total Veganism Paleodiet 2.35 2.55 9.13 4.43
Blood type group 3.94 2.64 1.93 3.06
Other 6.14* 1.95 11.33 0.95
Other 3.79 2.60 1.69 3.11
RRQ Rumination Veganism Paleodiet 2.10 1.75 6.74 2.53
Blood type group 2.74 1.80 7.53 2.04
Other 5.43*a 1.34 8.97 1.88
Other 3.32 1.78 8.05 1.40
RRQ Reflection Veganism Paleodiet 2.77 1.46 1.10 6.64
Blood type group 3.80 1.50 0.19 7.80
Other 0.24 1.11 2.72 3.20
Other 2.53 1.48 6.46 1.41
Real SCD Acceptance Veganism Paleodiet 0.30 1.57 3.86 4.46
Blood type group 1.61 1.62 5.90 2.69
Other 0.87 1.20 2.32 4.05
Other 0.57 1.60 3.67 4.80
Real SCD Dynamics Veganism Paleodiet 4.72*a 1.41 0.97 8.47
Blood type group 2.29 1.46 1.58 6.16
Other 2.37 1.08 0.50 5.24
Other 2.35 1.44 6.17 1.47
Real SCD Openness Veganism Paleodiet 1.32 0.66 0.43 3.07
Blood type group 0.34 0.68 1.47 2.14
Other 1.05 0.50 0.28 2.39
Other 0.26 0.67 2.04 1.52
Ideal SCD Openness Veganism Paleodiet 1.14 0.52 0.24 2.52
Blood type group 0.69 0.54 0.73 2.11
Other 0.40 0.40 0.66 1.45
Other 0.75 0.53 2.15 0.66
Ideal SCD Acceptance Veganism Paleodiet 0.36 1.21 2.85 3.57
Blood type group 0.87 1.25 4.18 2.44
Other 0.85 0.92 1.61 3.30
Paleodiet
Blood type group 1.23 1.49 5.19 2.72
Other 0.49 1.23 2.78 3.75
Ideal SCD Dynamics Veganism Paleodiet 5.74*a 1.09 2.83 8.64
Blood type group 3.95*a 1.13 .96 6.95
Other 1.93 0.84 0.29 4.16
Other 3.80*a 1.11 6.76 0.85
Real SCD Total Score Veganism Paleodiet 6.34 3.30 2.42 15.10
(continued)
Blood type group 1.02 3.41 8.03 1.06

Other 4.30 2.53 2.41 11.00
Other 2.04 3.36 1.96 6.88
Ideal SCD total score Veganism Paleodiet 7.25*a 2.43 0.80 13.71
Blood type group 4.03 2.51 2.64 1.69
Other 3.29 1.86 1.65 8.23
Other 3.96 2.48 1.54 2.61
SCD satisfaction Veganism Paleodiet 0.92 3.24 7.69 9.52
Blood type group 3.01 3.35 5.88 11.90
Other 1.01 2.48 7.59 5.58
Other 1.92 3.30 1.69 6.84
Notes: AAQ = Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II; ECS = Emotional Contagion Scale; DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale;
RRQ = Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire; SCD = Sense of Community Descriptors Scale. Bold indicates statistically significant mean differences
values.
a
Medium to large (Cohen’s d) effect-size (i.e., ≥0.50).
*p ≤ 0.05.
**p ≤ 0.01.
Vegans, Paleodiet, Blood Type, Other groups reported correlated with adaptive and efficient characteristics of an ideal
respectively significant correlations – with a positive direction – and real community (SCD).
of the RRQ Rumination to the AAQ-II Total Score. Also, in The Other group reported statistically significant and positive
Veganism and the Other group a significant negative correlation correlations of the AAQ-II total score to the ECS Sadness Anger
was found respectively between the RRQ Reflection scale and and Fear, in Paleodiet group to the ECS, and in Veganism to the
the AAQ-II Total score; correlations remained statistically ESC Anger, ECS Fear, and the ECS Happiness scale. The AAQ-
significant at a Bonferroni corrected alpha level of p = 0.025 II Total score inversely correlated with the Real SCD Total Score,
(i.e., 0.05/2). Rumination (RRQ Rumination) can be associated and positively correlated with the SCD Satisfaction. In the Blood
with vulnerability to fear (ECS Fear) in Vegans. In the Type group were negative correlations of the AAQ-II Total score
Paleodiet group, positive correlations were observed between to the Real SCD Total Score. Only in the Other Group
reflection and susceptibility to happiness, love (ECS Happiness, correlations remained statistically significant at a Bonferroni-
Love) and (surprisingly) also to fear and anger (ECS Fear and corrected alpha level of p = 0.01 (i.e., 0.05/3). These data show
Anger). In the Other group, rumination (RRQ Rumination) was how vulnerability to anxiety was related to the adoption of a rigid
associated with sadness (ECS Sadness), and reflection (RRQ thinking style and how impaired emotion regulation may be
Reflection) with love (ECS Love). In all groups, rumination associated with undirected actions while experiencing negative
(RRQ Rumination) was associated with psychological internal events. Psychological flexibility appeared to be associated
inflexibility (AAQ). with a representation of the community as immature.
In individuals belonging to the Blood Type group were We may observe statically significant correlations between ECS
obtained respectively negative and positive correlations of the and SCD variables with medium to large effect sizes in all
RRQ Rumination scale to the Real SCD Total Score and to the groups; the correlations remaining statistically significant at a
SCD Satisfaction, and positively between the RRQ Reflection Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of p = 0.003 (i.e., 0.05/15) were
scale with the Real SCD Total Score scale. In individuals in the Blood Type group, between ECS Happiness with the Ideal
belonging to the Other group we observed inverse correlations of SCD Total score. Statistically significant correlations at a
the RRQ Rumination scale to the Real SCD Total score and Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of p = 0.01 (i.e., 0.05/5) were in
positive correlation to the SCD Satisfaction, and between the the Other group between ECS Fear and the DERS Total score.
RRQ Reflection scale and the Ideal SCD Total Score. In the Emotional contagion seemed to be one of the many expressions
Blood Type group and the Other group, rumination (RRQ of the presence of emotional dysregulation, and susceptibility to
Rumination) was negatively correlated with perceptions of the happiness was associated with the conception of a community
community as mature, while reflection (RRQ Reflection) was with positive characteristics, in the Blood Type group.
Table 4. Correlations between psychological constructs in Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood type group and Other group
Real SCD Ideal SCD

RRQ RRQ ECS ECS ECS DERS Total Total SCD
Food tribe Rumination Reflection AAQ Sadness Anger ECS Fear ECS Love Happiness Total Score Score Satisfaction
Veganism
Scand J Psychol 64 (2023)
RRQ Rumination 1 0.049 0.554* 0.033 0.16 0.197* 0.038 0.202* 0.599* 0.09 0.085 0.032
RRQ Reflection 0.049 1 0.213* 0.083 0.016 0.004 0.14 0.183* 0.168 0.083 0.099 0.148
AAQ 0.554* 0.213* 1 0.1 0.207* 0.255** 0.051 0.205* 0.635** 0.128 0.074 0.076
ECS Sadness 0.033 0.083 0.1 1 0.390** 0.548** 0.399** 0.390** 0.058 0.053 0.021 0.038
ECS Anger 0.16 0.016 0.207* 0.390* 1 0.620* 0.277* 0.233* 0.192* 0.117 0.053 0.15
ECS Fear 0.197* 0.004 0.255* 0.548* 0.620 1 0.409 0.384 0.215 0.086 0.013 0.075
ECS Love 0.038 0.14 0.051 0.399 0.277 0.409 1 0.601 0.106 0.07 0.09 0.008
ECS Happiness 0.202 0.183 0.205 0.390 0.233 0.384 0.601 1 0.096 0.035 0.009 0.04
DERS Total 0.599 0.168 0.635 0.058 0.192 0.215 0.106 0.096 1 0.06 0.159 0.048
Real SCD Total Score 0.09 0.083 0.128 0.053 0.117 0.086 0.07 0.035 0.06 1 0.310 0.772
Ideal SCD Total Score 0.085 0.099 0.074 0.021 0.053 0.013 0.09 0.009 0.159 0.310 1 0.365
SCD Satisfaction 0.032 0.148 0.076 0.038 0.15 0.075 0.008 0.04 0.048 0.772 0.365 1
Paleodiet
RRQ Rumination 1 0.284 0.733 0.123 0.19 0.243 0.062 0.002 0.659 0.123 0.17 0.24
RRQ Reflection 0.284 1 0.277 0.189 0.305 0.412 0.409 0.321 0.111 0.045 0.333 0.182
AAQ 0.733 0.277 1 0.227 0.340 0.245 0.082 0.044 0.685 0.129 0.076 0.183
ECS Sadness 0.123 0.189 0.227 1 0.426 0.291 0.297 0.442 0.319 0.096 0.062 0.14
ECS Anger 0.19 0.305 0.340 0.426 1 0.524 0.148 0.179 0.104 0.198 0.038 0.227
ECS Fear 0.243 0.412 0.245 0.291 0.524 1 0.383 0.296 0.125 0.038 0.327 0.185
ECS Love 0.062 0.409 0.082 0.297 0.148 0.383 1 0.631 0.038 0.18 0.419 0.104
ECS Happiness 0.002 0.321 0.044 0.442 0.179 0.296 0.631 1 0.021 0.292 0.388 0.031
DERS Total 0.659 0.111 0.685 0.319 0.104 0.125 0.038 0.021 1 0.27 0.015 0.264
Blood type group
RRQ Rumination 1 0.385 0.644 0.218 0.175 0.226 0.037 0.151 0.665 0.407 0.181 0.301
RRQ Reflection 0.385 1 0.27 0.127 0.02 0.07 0.169 0.098 0.369 0.331 0.241 0.159
AAQ 0.644 0.27 1 0.09 0.062 0.052 0.102 0.139 0.679 0.308 0.196 0.173
ECS Sadness 0.218 0.127 0.09 1 0.584 0.454 0.427 0.400 0.009 0.17 0.162 0.046
ECS Anger 0.175 0.02 0.062 0.584 1 0.555 0.232 0.460 0.169 0.082 0.228 0.118
ECS Fear 0.226 0.07 0.052 0.454 0.555 1 0.182 0.447 0.199 0.086 0.239 0.123
ECS Love 0.037 0.169 0.102 0.427 0.232 0.182 1 0.611 0.11 0.512 0.449 0.174
ECS Happiness 0.151 0.098 0.139 0.400 0.460 0.447 0.611 1 0.161 0.444 0.530 0.02
DERS Total 0.665 0.369 0.679 0.009 0.169 0.199 0.11 0.161 1 0.441 0.112 0.405
(continued)
Food tribes and emotion regulation strategies 221
222 A. Ando’ et al.
Real SCD Ideal SCD

RRQ RRQ ECS ECS ECS DERS Total Total SCD
Food tribe Rumination Reflection AAQ Sadness Anger ECS Fear ECS Love Happiness Total Score Score Satisfaction
Other
RRQ Rumination 1 0.222 0.718 0.298 0.365 0.355 0.054 0 0.709 0.258 0.016 0.252
RRQ Reflection 0.222 1 0.312 0.166 0.042 0.123 0.189 0.082 0.296 0.131 0.223 0.048
AAQ 0.718 0.312 1 0.219 0.341 0.296 0.132 0.084 0.731 0.279 0.045 0.250
ECS Sadness 0.298 0.166 0.219 1 0.265 0.415 0.203 0.275 0.146 0.015 0.016 0.002
ECS Anger 0.365 0.042 0.341 0.265 1 0.640 0.059 0.199 0.289 0.206 0.043 0.247
ECS Fear 0.355 0.123 0.296 0.415 0.640 1 0.253 0.282 0.297 0.174 0.022 0.197
ECS Love 0.054 0.189 0.132 0.203 0.059 0.253 1 0.490 0.031 0.047 0.052 0.006
ECS Happiness 0 0.082 0.084 0.275 0.199 0.282 0.490 1 0.007 0.062 0.037 0.033
DERS Total 0.709 0.296 0.731 0.146 0.289 0.297 0.031 0.007 1 0.343 0.115 0.258
Notes: AAQ = Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II; ECS = Emotional Contagion Scale; DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; RRQ = Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire; SCD = Sense of
Community Descriptors Scale.
*p ≤ .05,
**p ≤ .01.
Scand J Psychol 64 (2023)
16.7
66.7
16.7
Note: Total = The percentage refers to the total of the (sub)sample, which includes only the food tribes that adhered to a particular dietary style. This table does not include the Other group because it reports only
Looking further at the data as a whole, it was possible to see
2.3
Breatharianism
/
/
/
how perceived support from the real community (Real SCD
Total Score) correlated negatively with emotional dysregulation
(DERS Total) in both the Blood Type group and the Other
1
4
6
group. This can prove that the perception of a supportive
/
/
/
community was associated with non-deficient emotion regulation
strategies. On the other hand, overall difficulty in managing
emotions (DERS Total) was associated with low perceived
16.7
16.7
16.7
2.3
50
%
satisfaction of the real community (SCD Satisfaction) in the
Fruitarianism
/
/
Blood Type group and in the Other group. Correlations
remained statistically significant at a Bonferroni-corrected alpha
Table 5. Motivations for choosing a particular eating habit: Veganism, Paleodiet, Blood type group, Macrobiotic diet, Raw food diet, Fruitarianism & Breatharianism (N = 266)
level of p = 0.002 (i.e., 0.05/3).
1
3
1
1
6
/
/
Motivations for choosing a particular eating habit: Some
qualitative aspects. Based on the question “Why did you choose
33.3
16.7
16.7
your dietary style?” we grouped responses by participants into six
8.3
4.5
25
%
Raw food diet
/
categories related to the motivations for choosing a particular diet:
ethical, health, ethical and health, advice from others, balanced
diet, other (Table 5).
12
Most members of the Vegan group choose their diet for ethical
1
3
4
2
2
/
reasons and specifically in order to not cause suffering to animals,
and supporting therefore the animal rights (e.g., “It is a choice of
non-violence and love: for animals, people and the planet”; “For
73.9
8.6
4.3
8.7
4.3
8.7
Macrobiotic diet
ethical reasons, I think it is wrong to eat other animals”; “I no
%
longer wanted to be responsible for killing animals”; “It is a
choice of non-violence and love: for animals, people and the
planet”). Also, they seemed to be less conditioned by others in
17
23
n
2
1
2
their food choices when compared to other food tribes. The
Paleodiet group associated its food choice with health reasons as
well as the Blood Type group (e.g., “For my health problems
which I solved thanks to the Paleodiet”; “I follow the Paleodiet in
77.3
16.5
Blood type group
11.4
2.3
9.1
%
/
order to solve intestinal problems”; “I chose this eating style for
my psychophysical well-being”). In both groups, therefore, the
food choice was linked to maintaining one’s well-being. Also, 44
34
within the group Blood Type group no ethical motivations linked

n
5
1
4
/
to the choice of eating style are reported.

For the remaining small groups (i.e., Macrobiotic diet, Raw
food diet, Fruitarianism, and Breatharianism), we were only able
18.0
70.8
10.4
2.1
8.3
8.3
%
to investigate some qualitative aspects by focusing on the non-

those motivations that contribute to the implementation of a particular diet.
/
structured responses. The number of subjects was very small, so

Food tribes
Paleodiet
statistical analyses were not possible (as mentioned earlier, we

performed statistical analyses only for the groups that had
48
34
n
1
5
4
4
/
acceptable sample sizes: Veganism, Paleodiet group, Blood

Group, and Other group).
Most members of the Breatharian group choose their diet for
47.7
53.5
19.7
21.3
health reasons and specifically to live well by integrating one’s

0.8
0.8
3.9
%
being with nature (e.g., “To be free from habit patterns,

psychophysical well-being, clearly, living-connection”; “For
Veganism
health, well-being, longevity, performance, clarity, inspiration,

127
empathy”). In the Fruitarian group half of its members follows

68
25
27
n
1
1
5
such food habit for health reasons e.g., “Due to disabling

migraines”; “As a child I have always chosen fruit, the rest I have
been throwing up for over 40 years. I read about nutrition
Advice from others
Ethical and Health
comparative anatomy and the conclusion is simple we have the

hand to collect from the tree”. In the Raw food diet group people
Balanced diet
some people choose the diet for both ethical and health reasons
Motivation
(e.g., “To improve weight loss and prevent disease, also for
Ethical
Health
Other
Total
ethical reasons”; “It all started with ethics, then I discovered the
health benefits. I have read and studied a lot about nutrition. Nordin & Rorsman, 2012); in fact, psychological inflexibility
Among these writings I had also read a lot about the benefits of negatively relates to quality of life, perceived health, and positive
raw food. I wanted to test on my body if what I had read was emotional experiences.
true. So I set myself the goal of trying for a year. I found
myself.”) People belonging to the Macrobiotic group mainly
follow this diet for health reasons (e.g., “My digestion and blood Emotional contagion
values have greatly improved resulting in general well-being”; The Paleodiet group seems to be characterized by lower
“My parents started eating so when I was born, my father had susceptibility to anger, compared to all those subjects who do not
psoriasis all over his body at an advanced stage, he recovered follow a particular diet (the Other group), who, differently, show a
with this type of feeding and continued”). tendency to be invaded by emotions associated with angry
experiences if compared to the Paleodiet members. This is
possibly because the Other group contains different members not
DISCUSSION sharing, for example, by a similar eating style such as occurs in
In discussing the results, we wanted to first, focus on how the the Paleodiet group: therefore, conflicts and relative greater
constructs examined (i.e., rumination, psychological inflexibility, presence of negative moods can “impregnate” individuals with
emotional contagion, sense of community, and emotional anger. These findings suggest that negative acts and behaviors
dysregulation) might decline and express in the major food tribes, may have a strong impact and are more likely to spread quickly
and what differences might exist between these dietary strains. among group members; in fact, previous studies on contagion of
When comparing the four groups, differences are found in the negative mood suggests that negative affective states may be
presence of cognitive inflexibility and rumination, reflective transmitted more easily than positive affect (Joiner, 1994; Katz,
thinking, emotional dysregulation, and emotional contagion. In Beach & Joiner, 1999).
addition, the four groups differ in the representation of their
community as dynamic, both real and imagined. All groups have
a positive representation of the ideal community one would like Sense of community
to belong to in terms of openness, dynamism, and acceptance of Vegans describe their community, both real and ideal, as dynamic
diversity, compared to the concrete community they live in. Next, in terms of the internal process of community in terms of quality
we focused on each food tribe specifically by discussing the of relationships, shared goals, and self-transcendence, compared
observed correlations and their significance. It turns out that all to the Paleodiet group (Real SCD Dynamics) and the Blood Type
groups have in common that rumination and psychological group (only for Ideal SCD Dynamics). Also noteworthy is the
inflexibility were associated with non-acceptance of negative fact that the Other group would like to belong to a community
emotions and a tendency towards general emotion dysregulation. that is more dynamic (Ideal SCD Dynamic) than the Paleodiet
group. In general, the Vegan group describes the ideal community
as more positive especially if compared to the Paleodiet group.
Rumination Vegans show a feeling of belonging, that members matter to one
Vegans report lower levels of mental rumination than the Other another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs
group that seems to be more characterized by greater self- will be met through commitment to be together
attention motivated by perceived threats, losses, or injustices to
the self (Rumination scale). In the Other group, therefore,
emerged a possibility that a cognitive process that involves Overall emotional dysregulation
passively and repetitively focusing on negative feelings and their Examining the complex construct of emotional dysregulation,
consequences; ruminative thinking may lead to deleterious which is closely related to and includes the elements discussed
outcomes through prolonging emotional reactivity; however, above (e.g., psychological inflexibility, rumination, and emotional
evidence supporting the link between rumination and reactivity contagion), we can observe as follows: vegans appear to have a
has been mixed (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco & Lyubomirsky, 2008). more efficient ability to manage and tolerate negative emotions
than those who do not adhere to a particular dietary style (i.e., the
Other group). In addition, Vegans are characterized by working-
Psychological inflexibility well abilities in exhibiting purposeful behaviors; they refrain from
Vegans show less psychological inflexibility compared to the impulsive behavior when experiencing negative emotions also by
Blood Type group and the Other group, thus reporting a more accessing to emotion regulation strategies that are perceived as
efficient ability to deal with private (even negative) experiences appropriate (DERS Non acceptance, DERS Goals, DERS
and to control unwanted thoughts (AAQ). Therefore, vegans are Impulse, DERS Strategies, DERS Clarity).
more characterized by the tendency to commit to flexible, value-
oriented actions in the face of negative internal events. We can
therefore assume that vegans when compared to the Blood type How do the variables relate to each other and within each group?
group and the Other group have a lower risk to be influenced by a Taking into account the limitations imposed by the sample size,
pathogenic process through which emotionally and physically we calculated the statistical correlations that emerged between the
distressing stimuli can predict psychological distress and other main scales used to examine the psychological constructs (the
health-related outcomes (Berrocal, Pennato & Bernini, 2009; results discussed below should be taken with caution).
Veganism. Within this group, rumination (Rumination scale) and components of emotional dysregulation (DERS). Rumination is
difficulty being fully present in the present situation (psychological synonymous with the absence of difficulty in managing emotions,
inflexibility; AAQ) are associated with non-acceptance of negative especially in relation to the pursuit of goals (and relative
emotions and with a tendency toward general emotion dysregulation strategies), in clarity of one’s emotions, and in monitoring
(DERS). This factor reflects a lacking awareness of emotional impulsivity. Reflection (Refection scales), differently, results as
responses. Furthermore, in vegans, the presence of rumination and linked to low levels of emotion dysregulation (DERS Total).
psychological inflexibility appear to be associated with a low Rumination and psychological inflexibility (AAQ) are also
contagion of happiness (ECS Happiness), with the intrusion and associated with the contagion of potentially negative emotions
conditioning by fear (ECS Fear): the inner fear, in fact, probably such as sadness, anger, and fear (ECS Sadness, ECS Anger, and
maintains and supports that mental circle characterizing negative ECS Fear).
emotions and repetitive and passive thoughts. In vegans, It is noteworthy, however, that the ruminative and inflexible
psychological inflexibility (AAQ) is associated with rumination thinking (AAQ; Rumination scale) are associated with low
(Rumination Scale), which involves a passive attitude in relation to satisfaction regarding the community in which one lives.
the focus of one’s negative emotions, which keeps the subject Psychological inflexibility (AAQ) and rumination (Rumination
trapped and blocked from these negative emotions. scale) are linked to susceptibility to sadness, anger and fear (ECS
Sadness, ECS Anger, ECS Fear): probably the more one is invaded
Paleodiet group. In the Paleodiet group, rumination (Rumination by negative emotions the more difficult it is to detach, and this
scale) and psychological rigidity (AAQ) are associated with the leads the subject to passively ruminate (e.g., anger, rumination).
presence of general emotional dysregulation (DERS). Cognitive
inflexibility is likely to be present when rigid dominance of
psychological responses is associated with some susceptibility to Clinical implications
anger (ECS Anger): this relationship is likely to occur when Adherence to the vegan dietary style does not seem to be
individuals try to avoid experiencing undesirable internal events associated with a rigid thinking. Compared to the Blood Group
such as anger. It is noteworthy that reflective thinking (Reflection and the Other group, Vegans are characterized by a tendency to
scale) is associated to the susceptibility to fear and anger but also commit to flexible, value-based actions in the face of negative
to positive emotion as love and happiness; we can hypothesize, internal events. Vegans also describe their community as dynamic
for example, that being invaded by strong emotions can lead to and positive in terms of the quality of relationships and exhibit a
reasoning in a productive way, such as, coping with and sense of belonging to their community that is higher than other
controlling negative emotional states. groups. These “adaptive” elements suggest that the adherence to
Another interesting point we found in the Paleodiet group is this style is not necessarily associated with pathological
that such group desires to belong to a community that accepts the components. However, it is noteworthy that in the Vegan group,
diversity among people of the community (Ideal SCD Total rumination and psychological inflexibility, if present, seem to be
Score), and all of this is associated with both fear of accepting associated with a low contagion of happiness, with the intrusion
novelty (ECS Fear), and the contagion of love (ECS Love) and and conditioning by fear.
happiness (ECS Happiness). Sadness (ECS Sadness) also appears The Paleodiet group seems to be less affected by negative
to be associated with and difficulty achieving one’s goals when emotions such as anger, but rumination and psychological rigidity
infused with negative emotions (DERS Total), in the Paleodiet – when occur – are associated with the presence of general
group. Within this group, there is a considerable number of emotional dysregulation. Cognitive inflexibility is likely to be
subjects (N = 10) reporting a massive susceptibility to the present when a rigid dominance of psychological responses is
emotion of anger (ECS Anger). linked to some vulnerability to anger (we speculate that given that
Blood type group. Rumination aspects (Rumination scale) and psychological inflexibility may be related with a kind of control
psychological rigidity (AAQ) are associated with all dimensions of of “impetuous feelings” – such as anger – also the diet
emotion regulation (DERS). The reflective thinking (Reflection scale) undertaken could be linked to this form of general control).
is inversely correlated with difficulties in concentration and task The Blood Type group and the Other group report a more
completion when experiencing negative emotions (DERS Total). efficient ability to deal with private (including negative)
Cognitive Inflexibility (AAQ) is related to poor perceptions of experiences and to control unwanted thoughts which in some
individuality, uniqueness, meaningfulness, acceptance of and respect cases may lead to impulsive actions.
for diversity, provision of safety, capacity for self-reflection and In the Other group, the presence of psychological inflexibility
accountability, and good representation of real community (Real SCD seems to be related to a low possibility of belonging to a
Total Score). The Blood Type group members are susceptible to community that may provide support (and this could make this
happiness (ECS Happiness) and love (ECS Love) and such group potentially vulnerable to anger and other negative emotions).
susceptibility correlates with a representation of the real and dynamic The main objective of this work is to compare the main food
community as open, mature and dynamic (Real SCD and Ideal SCD groups with different eating behaviors: it does not aim to define
scales). what is pathological (and what is not), but we proposed to
examine some psychological characteristics of food tribes and
Other group. In the Other group, rumination (Rumination scale) focus on what may potentially express in a mental disorder.
and rigidity in thinking and behavior (AAQ) correlate with all Emotion dysregulation (and specifically in its ruminative aspects)
has been positively associated with anxiety and depression. Also, closed-diagnostic criteria can help clinicians to understand where a
emotion dysregulation it has been found to be prevalent in the selective eating habit is located in an underlying healthy or
context of eating disorders, which compulsive/restrictive eating pathological functioning.
behaviors are the compensatory consequence of massive
avoidance of thoughts and emotions (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema &
Schweizer, 2010; Aldea & Rice, 2006). It is useful to emphasize Limitations
that the presence of a maladaptive trait should be “placed” on a First, an evident limitation was that not all groups had a
continuum/dimensional approach. For example, clinicians may be representative sample size such as to be able to perform statistical
dealing with a person who eats a vegan diet and exhibits high analysis; in fact, some groups consisted of a very small number of
levels of mental rigidity and vulnerability to negative emotions: in members. Unfortunately, it was difficult to involve an adequate
this case, clinicians may wonder if the adherence to this eating number of participants for each subsample. Anyway, the total
style an extreme form of control may be (over food and more). number of participants is acceptable/good (N = 378) and also by
Also, the perception of the eating community to which one reviewing other studies on food tribes, we found that the sample size
belongs, if positive, can be a resource for the individual’s well- was however small (e.g., Barnard et al., 2021; Larsson &
being and even a protective element. Differently, we can speculate Johansson, 2002). The correlations found within each group can be
that if an individual describes the community (to which he or she considered exploratory for future studies with a larger sample. In any
belongs) as idealized and extremely positive (e.g., reporting an case, in the first part of this work (and after reviewing the most recent
excessive level of sense of community) the adherence to a diet literature on the topic under-discussion) we thought to include a
might be associated with emotional contagion, poor regulation of description of characteristics of the most known food tribes. Second,
emotions, and interference from others. in general self-reports as tools are not exhaustively able to assess
The overall motivation for starting and then maintaining a food those implicit components that can influence participant’s
style should always be understood and it could be already performance and therefore in this case, the food choices. Third, the
“placed” in a psychological functioning that may or may not be fact that participants were asked to describe a different type of
problematic. People with adaptive psychological functioning can community (i.e., the food community for food tribes, and the
be able to cope with the limitations and conditions that dieting relational community for the Other group) might influence the
brings. Differently, for people who are vulnerable and emotionally differences between groups on the sense/representation of their
unstable, a rigid eating style can exacerbate a previous condition community. However, some authors/researchers (e.g., McMillan &
and lead to disastrous consequences. Chavis, 1986) have applied the concept of community equally to
territorial communities (e.g., neighborhoods) and to relational
communities (e.g., professional, spiritual, food): in all “types” of
CONCLUSIONS community, a sense of community is characterized by four elements:
This work aimed to investigate differences in the management of Membership, Influence, Integration and Fulfillment of Needs, and
emotions between groups that adhere to a particular dietary style Shared Emotional Connection. Fourth, the one-way ANOVA, which
and between these and other people who do not belong to a dietary was used to examine the differences between the means of the age in
tribe/follow a particular diet. The idea of this study arises precisely groups, proved to be statistically significant. Despite this, we
from the fact that the consideration of food tribes is often “filtered” observed that a minimal difference occurred in the age range
by stereotypes and prejudices. Clinical evidence today has defined between the biggest groups; therefore, age would not have a
two overarching and empirically identified groupings or spectra: significant impact on the difference in participant’s responses to the
the internalizing and the externalizing (Westen, Shedler, Bradley & questionnaires. In spite of these limitations, we believe that this work
DeFife, 2012) underlying particular personality disorders and/or is innovative and unique in that it examines particular aspects related
syndromes (Weiss, Sampson, The Mount Zion Psychotherapy to eating behaviors and specific psychological constructs underlying
Research Group, 1986). Internalizing disorders (i.e., anxiety and some food choices.
depression) may occur in individuals who exhibit over control of All procedures performed in studies involving human
their behavior. Externalizing disorders are characterized by participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the
problematic behaviors related to an affective lability, or the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
tendency to experience strong and variable emotions. Such spectra, Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable
therefore, may promote different problematic behaviors (e.g., ethical standards. Participants gave their written informed consent
restrictive/selective eating behaviors): for example, within the to participate to this study, which was approved by the Institutional
Blood Type group and the Vegan group, we may find people with a Review Board of the University of Turin (Project Number: 13360).
selective/restrictive eating behavior that is expression of the same Agata Ando’ and Alessandro Zennaro conceived of the presented
or different psychopathological spectrum. Also, we can observe in idea. Alessandro Zennaro supervised the findings of this work.
people (belonging to a certain dietary tribe) some selective eating Agata Ando’ and Giulia Passariello wrote the manuscript. All
habits which are not necessarily expressions of underlying authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
pathological internalizing or externalizing spectra. An eating style
is not problematic in itself, but becomes problematic if it is
promoted by those components defined as trans-diagnostic (e.g., DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
psychological rumination/inflexibility, emotional contagion) that The data that support the findings of this study are available from
represent a kind of cloth of spectra. Only thinking not in terms of the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ENDNOTES mediating role of experiential avoidance. Journal of Cognitive and

1 Behavioral Psychotherapies, 9, 149–159.
George Ohsawa was a Japanese doctor and philosopher.
2 Bjureberg, J., Ljotsson, B., Tull, M.T., Hedman, E., Sahlin, H., Lundh,
In Ancient Chinese philosophy, Yin and Yang (negative/positive)
L.G. et al. (2015). Development and validation of a brief version of
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Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 38, 284–296.
interconnected in the natural world.
3 Bond, F.W., Hayes, S.C., Baer, R.A., Carpenter, K.M., Guenole, N.,
Chi consists in the energy that runs through our bodies, providing us
Orcutt, H.K. et al. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the
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4 acceptance and action questionnaire–II: A revised measure of
Exponent breatharian movement in Italy.
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Therapy, 42, 676–688.
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6 Bradley, B., DeFife, J.A., Guarnaccia, C., Phifer, M.J., Fani, M.N.,
Measures included in our study were royalty-free.
Ressler, K.J. et al. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and negative affect:
7
Cronbach’s alpha for RRQ = 0. 847
Association with psychiatric symptoms. The Journal of Clinical
8
Cronbach’s alpha for ECS = 0.827
Psychiatry, 72, 685–691.
9
Cronbach’s alpha for DERS = 0.959
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12 Ca~
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For all other comparisons standardized residuals were lower than 2
Karwowski (Ed.), International encyclopedia of ergonomics and
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human factors (Vol. 3). Boca Raton: CRC Taylor & Francis.
Everitt & Skrondal, 2010).
13 Cavallucci, N. (2016). Manuale della Rivoluzione Fruttariana Sostenibile.
The one-way ANOVA used to examine differences between the means
Teoria, pratica e carpotecnia secondo i principi del Progetto 3M
of age groups results as statistically significant.However, we can observe
[Manual of the Sustainable Fruitarian Revolution. Theory, practice and
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below) differs only minimally: therefore, effectively, age would have not
Cesena: Edizioni Sı - Collana Exoterica.
significant impact on the difference in responses to the questionnaires by
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2008). Outbreak of
participants.
14 salmonella seroType Saintpaul infections associated with multiple raw
With the power to detect medium effect size
produce items, United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,
15
g2 effect-size: 0.01 (small); 0.06 (medium); >0.14 (large).
16 57, 929–934 Click or tap here to enter text.
The content of the question was the same; participants were asked to
Cole, P.M., Michel, M.K. & Teti, L.O. (1994). The development of
think of the real community, and then the ideality one (as mentioned
emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective.
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17 Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59,
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Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2023, 64, 212–229 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.

Personality & Social Psychology

INTRODUCTION Anderson, 1979). Below, we report a brief description of the

Table 1. Demographic composition of food tribes (N = 378)

Blood Macrobiotic Raw food

Gender (Chi2 = 28.22; p = 0.013)

95% conﬁdence interval for mean

AAQ Veganism Paleodiet 2.14 1.88 7.13 2.85

95% conﬁdence interval for mean

Blood type group 0.54 0.33 1.41 0.33

95% conﬁdence interval for mean

Blood type group 1.02 3.41 8.03 1.06

Real SCD Ideal SCD

Real SCD Ideal SCD

within the group Blood Type group no ethical motivations linked

to the choice of eating style are reported.

to investigate some qualitative aspects by focusing on the non-

structured responses. The number of subjects was very small, so

statistical analyses were not possible (as mentioned earlier, we

acceptable sample sizes: Veganism, Paleodiet group, Blood

health reasons and speciﬁcally to live well by integrating one’s

being with nature (e.g., “To be free from habit patterns,

health, well-being, longevity, performance, clarity, inspiration,

empathy”). In the Fruitarian group half of its members follows

such food habit for health reasons e.g., “Due to disabling

comparative anatomy and the conclusion is simple we have the

ENDNOTES mediating role of experiential avoidance. Journal of Cognitive and

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