NEUROLINGUISTICS:LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

(TEACHING ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE)

Submitted to Fulfill One of Advance Linguistics Assignment

Lecturer : Dr. Supeno, M.Hum.

By:
GROUP 11
CLASS 2N

EVA TRI RAHMANI NPM. 20217470027

RISTA NOVANI NPM.20217470112
SASI WIJATI NPM. 20217470005
SARAH ALFIAH HUMAIROH NPM. 20217470142

POST GRADUATE PROGRAM

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITAS INDRAPRASTA PGRI
2022
 PREFACE

Assalamu’alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh

In the name of Allah SWT, the beneficent and merciful. All praises is merely
to The Mightiest Allah SWT, the lord of the worlds, for the gracious mercy and
tremendous blessing that enable us to accomplish this paper entitled
“Neurolinguistics:Language Acquisition (Teaching English Foreign Language).
The purpose in writing this paper is to fulfill the assignment that given by Dr.
Supeno, M.Hum as lecturer in Advance Linguistics Course.

The writers would like to express the gratitude to:

1. Dr. Supeno, M.Hum as lecturer in Advance Linguistics Course who has

guided the writers in writing this paper
2. All friends who has given support and idea
3. All parties who have helped the writers for the completion of this paper.

The writers realized that this paper is far from being perfect, therefore all
input in the form of suggestions and constructive criticism is expected.

Bekasi, March 2022

The Writers

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ............................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

A. Background ................................................................................................ 1

CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL REVIEW

B. Neurolinguistics

1. Definition of Neurolinguistics ............................................................... 3

2. The history of Neurolinguistics ............................................................. 4

3. Language and Brain ............................................................................... 4

C. Role of Neurolinguistics in TEFL (Teaching English as Foreign Language)

.................................................................................................................... 7

D. Neurolinguistics Program (NLP) ............................................................ 10

E. Brain Demage and Language Disorders ................................................... 16

CHAPTER III CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND

Have been confirmed by linguists that the language as a

communication tool is genetically only in humans; not found on other living
creatures. Language is the main characteristic that distinguishes humans with
other creatures and can not be separated from humans. History proves how
language affects various aspects of a person's life. Humans interact with each
other through communication in the form of language. Communication
occurs either verbally or non verbally that is by writing, readings and sign or
symbol. Language itself is a complex process that does not just happen.

Human brain plays important role in processing the language. The

central question here is how is the language represented in human brain?.
Neurolinguistics have been known in studying about how the process of in-
put and out-put languages. The aim of neurolinguistics is to know how
languages is processed to get, to produce, to understand, even to use the
language. Written language is derived from the utterance language.
Meanwhile, if we want to practice speaking so it is directly related to neuron
brain. It is argued that in doing speaking needs brain processes.

Goswami (2006) has a lot of interesting arguments in relation to the

link between neuroscience and education. In her article titled “Neuroscience
and education: from research to practice?”. she discusses the myths about
brain based learning phenomenon and provides evidence against such
programs that claim to make use of it. She asserts that although the
integration of neuroscience into education could be useful for determining the
children with specific learning and language problems, for detecting the brain
areas that could be responsible for such processes like learning, memory and
knowledge storage etc., it is not meaningful to make too farfetched

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connections between such distinct disciplines like educational sciences and

neurology (Goswami, 2006).

There are many methods to improve second language from nineteenth

century. NeuroLinguistic Programming (NLP) is the new method used in
language learning. It examines the connection between language and brain.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming proposes skills, strategies and techniques to
overwhelm the mental difficulties and helps to develop the self-learning and
self-motivation. For more deeply, this paper would like to discuss about how
the Neurolinguistics role in Teaching English For Foreign Language (TEFL),
also dicsuss about how Neuro-Linguistic Programming give contribution in
teaching English as Foreign Language, and kinds of language disorders.
 CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL REVIEW

A. Neurolinguistics
1. Definition of Neurolinguistics

The study of the relationship between language and the brain is

called neurolinguistics (Yule:2010). When person discusses about
neurolinguistics so it containts about brain and language. While In
neurolinguistics, it is no longer concerning with human mind. However
it deals with physical counterpart of human mind which is human brain.
Neurolinguistics mainly investigates linguistic development of
normally developing subjects language loss in patients with brain
damage and language used by people with specific language
impairment (SLI) (Gürel:2004). Neurolinguistic studies the brain
mechanism and the performance of the brain in linguistic competences.

In other perceptions, Neurolinguistics is the study of how language

is represented in the brain: that is, how and where our brains store our
knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand,
read, and write, what happens in our brains as we acquire that
knowledge, and what happens as we use it in our everyday lives.
Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain
processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and
psycholinguistics. In short, neurolinguistics is the study of neural
underpinnings and mechanisms that support our ability to perceive,
produce, and understand words and sentences, to learn our first, second,
and subsequent languages, and whose damage can result in disorders of
speech, language, and reading. The brain plays a main role in
controlling motor and sensory activities and in the process of thinking.

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2. History of Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is historically rooted in the development in the
19th century of aphasiology, the study of linguistic deficits (aphasias)
occurring as the result of brain damage. Aphasiology attempts to
correlate structure to function by analyzing the effect of brain injuries on
language processing. One of the first people to draw a connection
between a particular brain area and language processing was Paul Broca,
a French surgeon who conducted autopsies on numerous individuals
who had speaking deficiencies, and found that most of them had brain
damage (or lesions) on the left frontal lobe, in an area now known as
Broca's area. The coining of the term neurolinguistics in the late 1940s
and 1950s is attributed to Edith Crowell Trager, Henri Hecaen and
Alexandr Luria. Luria's book "Problems in Neurolinguistics" is likely
the first book with "neurolinguistics" in the title. Harry Whitaker
popularized neurolinguistics in the United States in the 1970s, founding
the journal "Brain and Language" in 1974.

3. Language and Brain

Human brain consists of two main parts called the left hemisphere
and the right hemisphere. The left brain is considered better for tasks
involving logic, language, and analytical thinking. The right brain is
considered better for doing things related to creativity.

The shaded areas in this illustration indicate the general locations

of those language functions involved in speaking and listening. The
areas exist largely through the examination, in autopsies, of the brains
of people who, in life, were known to have specific language
disabilities. Several areas of the brain must function together in order
for a person to develop, use, and understand language. The areas of the
brain necessary for language. Spoken word, cognition, and written word
all are processed in different parts of the brain in different orders.
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Picture 2.1 Illustration of Brain Structure addopted from Geschwind, 1991

The structures of brain are explained as follows:

a. Broca’s area

The part shown as (1) in the illustration is technically described as

the “anterior speech cortex” or, more usually, as Broca‟s area.
Broca‟s area, located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is linked to
speech production, and recent studies have shown that it also plays
a significant role in language comprehension. Broca‟s area works
in conjunction with working memory to allow a person to use
verbal expression and spoken words. In other words, Broca's area
handling the motor production of speech. Paul Broca, a French
surgeon, reported in the 1860s that damage to this specific part of
the brain was related to extreme difficulty in producing speech. It
was noted that damage to the corresponding area on the right
hemisphere had no such effect. This finding was first used to argue
that language ability must be located in the left hemisphere and
since then has been treated as an indication that Broca‟s area is
crucially involved in the production of speech.
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b. Wernicke’s area

The part shown as (2) in the illustration is the “posterior spe bility
and led to the view that Wernicke‟s area is part of the ech cortex,”
or Wernicke‟s area. Wernicke‟s area, located in the cerebral cortex,
is the part of the brain involved in understanding written and
spoken language. Carl Wernicke was a German doctor who, in the
1870s, reported that damage to this part of the brain was found
among patients who had speech comprehension difficulties. This
finding confirmed the left hemisphere location of language a brain
crucially involved in the understanding of speech.

c. The motor cortex and the arcuate fasciculus

The part shown as (3) in the illustration is the motor cortex, an area
that generally controls movement of the muscles (for moving
hands, feet, arms, etc.). Close to Broca‟s area is the part of the
motor cortex that controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw,
tongue and larynx. The part shown as (4) in the illustration is a
bundle of nerve fibers called the arcuate fasciculus. This was also
one of Wernicke‟s discoveries and is now known to form a crucial
connection between Wernicke‟s and Broca‟s areas.

d. Localization view

Having identified these four components, it is tempting to conclude

that specific aspects of language ability can be accorded specific
locations in the brain. This is called the localization view and it has
been used to suggest that the brain activity involved in hearing a
word, understanding it, then saying it, would follow a definite
pattern. The word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke‟s area.
This signal is then transferred via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca‟s
area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then
sent to part of the motor cortex to physically articulate the word.
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e. Auditory Cortex
The primary auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe and
connected to the auditory system, is organized so that it responds to
neighboring frequencies in the other cells of the cortex. It is
responsible for identifying pitch and loudness of sounds.
f. Angular Gyrus
The angular gyrus, located in the parietal lobe of the brain, is
responsible for several language processes, including number
processing, spatial recognition and attention.

B. The Role of Neurolinguitics in TEFL (Teaching English as Foreign

Language)

Neurolinguistic has been involved in language education for long time, it has
very big role in teaching and learning process especially in Teaching English for
Foreign Language (TEFL) study. The importance of eye contact and movement in
identifying emotional states that have been recognized for the first time by Richard
Bandler and John Grinder, are also part of the Neurolinguistic role in TEFL. The
correlation between NL (Neurolinguistic) and its TEFL, information arrives
through the senses and the "modalities" is identified as a route to different
individuals. These modalities are:
1. Visually recalled
2. Visually constructed
3. Auditory recalled
4. Auditively digitized
5. Motor sensationally
These clearly form the basis of what is now known as "VAK". The need to identify
learners of visual, auditory, and motor sensations and to accommodate different
learning styles in the classroom. When externalities occur, their perception is
changed by three main factors: cancellation, distortion, and generalization. These
processes are immediately recognizable to language learners are as follows:
a. Cancellation
There are many informations for the learners. Learners remove or omit some
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information to make their input easier to manage. From a teacher's point of

view, we have already learned not to present many new languages at once and
the principle of "less, more".
b. Distortion
Language learners distort information into an understandable and learnable
format. This process is negative because it is misleading and misleading, and
positive because it contributes to learning and motivation.
c. Generalisation
This is one of the approaches that we learn, with the aid of taking the facts we
get and drawing large conclusions. At its worst, over-generalisation occurs,
inflicting misuse of guidelines and poorly shaped hypotheses. However,
what's genuinely learnt with the aid of using people is dictated with the aid of
using their personal private filters. NL in language learning area identifies
those as `beliefs', 'values', 'decisions' and 'memories', widely described
because the manner a person handles facts.
In NL, these filters influence our worldview and behavior. In language
learning, they describe a wide range of learning styles and strategies: Learners
make decisions based on beliefs and value judgments. They are often in conflict
because their previous learning experience does not match their current learning
environment. Values provide the basis for making decisions about what is right and
what is wrong, what you want to know / want to know, and what you don't want /
want to know. In certain cultures, some beliefs get in the way and prevent learners
from adopting strategies that teachers want to encourage, such as risk-taking.
Memories and past choices give rise to beliefs that influence our current
behavior. Learners often rely on previously adopted strategies and require
deconditioning, but it can be argued that adult learning patterns only replace
previously forgotten learning strategies. NL also recognizes the importance of
nonverbal communication, especially eye contact, posture, breathing and
movement. "Jointness" is achieved when linguistic and nonverbal communication
match. The congruence here may be parallel to language learning in the concept of
fluency, and nonverbal communication needs to be taught along with functional
language and phonology to achieve the generation of natural language.
Teachers who use music to create atmosphere, stimulate creativity, use
pantomime and acting techniques to build self-confidence, and add body language
 9

to speech act have already been drawn from the NL repertoire. However,
educational activities have only recently been developed by TEFL practitioners
who are specific and open to NL.
Many of these activities also integrate the skills and are extensions or
modifications of existing techniques such as storytelling, guided fantasy,
role-play and simulation. Areas where NLP can have a real impact,
however, are those which explore the relationships between students and
between students and teacher, and those which help to create a healthy and
positive learning environment:
1) Creating rapport
Rapport is the sense of ease that develops when people are
interacting with others they feel comfortable with, and is essential
for meaningful communication to take place. Rapport is most likely
when like-minded people interact. In the classroom, mingle and
'getting to know you' activities, as well as continuous negotiation
between teacher and students foster rapport, while communication
gap activities and group work reinforce it.
2) Mirroring
One way of establishing good rapport is to mirror the behaviour of
those we wish to influence or to be influenced by. Mirroring of
posture, gestures, facial expressions and even breathing can easily be
practised in the classroom, while simple drilling achieves the same
results with phonological features of connected speech and key
lexical phrases. To achieve natural communication, verbal and non-
verbal aspects need to be combined in communicative activities.
Learners may be asked to mirror the behaviour of characters on
television before mirroring each other and the teacher.
3) Creating positive states and anchoring
This is about motivation and maintaining positive attitudes to
learning. In NLP, a positive state is created through a mental image
formed by the process of achieving something mentally or
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physically, and this state is anchored by a gesture, expression or

body movement which is repeated to maintain or recall the state.
Guided fantasy may be used to create the state, and a movement or
sound selected to represent it. Some teachers, often subconsciously,
opt for different positions in the classroom to carry out certain
actions, such as give instructions, teach grammar or tell a story. In
ELT this is a type of anchoring by which students automatically
know what is going to happen next in a lesson, and are prepared for
it.
4) Maintaining flow
NLP fits in nicely with 'Flow Theory', the notion that learning flows
like water and that the best learning takes place when uninterrupted.
For the purposes of lesson planning, flow is achieved when there is a
balance of skills development and new challenges, clear task goals
and the need for concentration. Successful learning takes place when
learners feel a sense of control over what is happening in the
classroom, do not feel self-conscious, and receive positive feedback
from each other and the teacher. In good lessons, time seems to pass
quickly. There are clear messages here about balance of activities,
interest, attitude to errors, confidence building, learner training and
autonomy. Competitive and collaborative games, jokes, songs and
anecdotes, personalisation and well-structured information gap
activities all help to maintain flow.
5) Pacing and leading
A set of strategies requiring the listener to 'tune in', accept and
correctly state the speaker's point of view (pacing) before suggesting
an alternative point of view (leading). Acceptance of an argument
will be accompanied by the listener's mirroring of the speaker's
behaviour. Activities involving listening without response, turn-
taking, planning and decision-making are useful for raising
awareness of this process.
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6) Perceptual positioning
This is an extension of mirroring used in NLP for resolving conflicts
and involving a neutral third party as a mediator in disputes. An ELT
application here would be in a reading or storytelling lesson, where
one position is taken by the writer / teller, another by a character in
the story, and a third by a reader or neutral observer of events.

7) Modelling good practice

NLP asks us to mirror what others do well. In ELT, much of this is
about learner training, particularly when learners discover each
other's strategies or adopt new study skills, for revision and
examination preparation for example.

C. Neurolinguistuics Programming (NLP)

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a psychological approach

that involves analyzing strategies used by successful individuals and
applying them to reach a personal goal. It relates thoughts, language, and
patterns of behavior learned through experience to specific
outcomes. There are numerous methods and techniques for teaching English
these days, nevertheless there will always be the newest ones explored and
evaluated to make this process becomes more effective. Neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP) is an approach for teaching language that helps to attain
excellence in learners‟ performance; (Millrood, 2004). NLP is a subjective
experience which will improve our interpersonal communication. Neuro
Linguistics Programming is a set of general communication techniques. The
assumptions of NLP refer to attitude to life, the people and to self-discovery
and awareness, it has had some appeal within language teaching.
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1. How Neuro-Linguistic Programming Works

NLP practitioners believe there are natural hierarchies of learning,

communication, and change. The six logical levels of change are:

a. Purpose and spirituality: This can be involvement in something

larger than oneself, such as religion, ethics, or another system. This
is the highest level of change.
b. Identity: Identity is the person you perceive yourself to be and
includes your responsibilities and the roles you play in life.
c. Beliefs and values: These are your personal belief system and the
issues that matter to you.
d. Capabilities and skills: These are your abilities and what you can
do.
e. Behaviors: Behaviors are the specific actions you perform.
f. Environment: Your environment is your context or setting,
including any other people around you. This is the lowest level of
change.
The purpose of each logical level is to organize and direct the
information below it. As a result, making a change in a lower level
may cause changes in a higher level. However, making a change in a
higher level will also result in changes in the lower levels, according
to NLP theory.

2. NLP For Teaching English As Foreign Language

It was found that the use of NLP has been endorsed by different
models in diverse areas such as school education, health care, workplace
well-being, emotional development, and business and interpersonal
relationships (Silva, 2017; Sturt et al., 2012). Thus, in the education field,
NLP is concerned with changing the mental and emotional behavior of
students towards learning. NLP can be applied to different kinds of
learners (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic) using pictures, sounds, and
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emotions. It is a program which can be adapted to any kind of learners and

is a technique which is suitable for English classes.

NLP methods and tools which can be used in the classes for creating
an impression on relationships, action, learning and student achievement,
and teaching efficiency. The increased access to learning for young people
improves their opportunities and achievement. Several studies have
provided evidence that NLP is a highly motivational tool which builds
confidence among learners so that they could better achieve their goals.
NLP also helps to achieve excellence of performance in language teaching
and learning by improving classroom communication, optimizing learner
attitudes and motivation, raising self-esteem, and facilitating students‟
personal growth. Hence, it can be said that NLP was effective when
teachers are aware of their power of verbal interaction with students
(Pishghadam et al., 2011).

Teachers use NLP learning techniques in interactive learning sessions

and activities. Most of the techniques involve a high level of
communication and create good relations not only among students but also
between teachers and students. NLP also helps to channelize the
competency of each student in the right direction as each child interprets
information differently (Silva, 2017).

NLP helped teachers to create an atmosphere that stimulates

creativity, using mime and drama techniques to build student‟s confidence.
NLP is implemented in classrooms in India and other countries where
teachers adopt different versions of current practices of storytelling, role-
playing, and skits (Siddiqui, 2018). Finally, it was found that NLP makes
noticeable changes in students‟ learning experience so that they will be
able to notice, think, and act carefully. NLP also helps students to achieve
their goals and makes them more confident towards resolving any problem
(Susikaran, 2013)
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3. How Neuro-Linguistic Programming Works In Teaching Language

According to Silva (2017), the mechanism of communication involves

four basic elements: our physiology (body), our thoughts (the focus of our
attention), our language (words), and our perceptions (beliefs). Both verbal
communication and non-verbal communication reflect our feelings and
thoughts. We act by following our values and belief systems. Therefore,
the teacher in the classroom clearly understands students‟ behaviours and
attitudes by following the principles, rules and regulations of conduct that
she/he regards as appropriate. The way we communicate decides how we
are thought of by our addressees. Emotions are one of the factors which
influence the learning process. Learning which is based on fear and tension
will bring only stress and panic in students‟ academic life. Moreover, it
negatively affects the assimilation of the materials being taught. It is
necessary that teachers gain a capacity to manage the feelings of students,
thus making them learn in a delightful, energetic, and calm manner.
Another vital element which help students to do their best is to teach them
according to their specificities and wants (Silva, 2017).

Modeling, action, and effective communication are key elements

of neuro-linguistic programming. The belief is that if an individual can
understand how another person accomplishes a task, the process may
be copied and communicated to others so they too can accomplish the
task. Modelling is central to NLP- teachers are expected to model their
teaching on expert teachers they most admire. Similarly learners are
expected to find successful models for the person they themselves are
striving to become. If you want to be become an excellent teacher, model
excellent teachers. NLP principles can be applied to the teaching of all
aspects of language, according to Revell and Norman. As an example,
teaching present perfect; to help the students become aware at a feeling
level of the conceptual meaning of a grammatical structure, give a guided
fantasy of eating a food item and then reflecting on the experience,
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students are told that they are going on an “inner grammatical experience”
as they eat a biscuit. They are asked to relax, close their eyes and “go
inside” Once “inside”, they listen to the teacher, produced fantasy. As
Revell and Norman comment, the assumptions on which NLP are based,
need not be accepted as the absolute truth, but acting as if they were true
can make a world of difference in your life and teaching. NLP offers a
different interpretation of the role of the teacher and the learner, one in
harmony with many learner-centered, person-centered views..

In NLP, these filters affect our model of the world and our
behaviour. In language learning, they explain a wide range of learning
styles and strategies:

a) Learners make decisions based on beliefs and value judgements.

They are often in a state of conflict because their previous learning
experiences do not coincide with their current learning environment.
b) Values provide the basis for decisions about what is right and wrong,
what they want / need to know and don't want / need to know. In
certain cultures, some beliefs are disabling, in that they prevent
learners adopting strategies such as risk-taking which teachers would
like to encourage.
c) Memories and prior decisions create beliefs which affect our current
behaviour. Learners often revert to previously adopted strategies and
require deconditioning, while it can be argued that adult learning
patterns merely replace earlier learning strategies which have been
forgotten.
NLP also recognises the importance of non-verbal communication,
particularly eye contact, posture, breathing and movement. 'Congruency'
is achieved when there is a match between verbal and non-verbal
communication. Congruency, here, may have a language learning parallel
in the concept of fluency, suggesting that non-verbal communication
 16

should be taught alongside functional language and phonology in order to

achieve natural language production.
Teachers using music to create atmosphere and stimulate
creativity, or using mime and drama techniques to build confidence and
add body language to speech acts are already drawing from the NLP
repertoire. Only recently, however, have classroom activities specifically
and overtly based on NLP been developed by ELT practitioners.

D. Brain Demage and Language Disorders

1. Brain Damage

Language is closely related to human being. All human being normally

speak at least one language. It is hard to imagine much significant social,
intellectual, or artistic activity taking place in the absence of language. The
possession of language distinguishes humans from other animals. Even to
understand our humanity we must understand the language that makes us
human. Language is also connected to brain. It is believed that language is
a distinctive piece of biological make up of our brains. In the contrary, if
humans have disaster in their brain then automatically that disaster will
bring certain negative effects in comprehending and producing language
(speech production).

2. Language Disorder

The most common way to communicate is by talking. It seems that the act
of talking to express what human thinks is easy since it is effortless. They
think of what they want to say and then say it. However, it is actually
produced by completely difficult movements of the head, neck, chest, and
abdomen. An injury or defect on these sites can affect normal speech.
Therefore, for some people the act of vocalizing their thoughts and
produce them in sounds is not easy. Language disorder is the inability of
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humans to speak properly. Disorder itself may due to genetic or

developmental problems and others due to brain damage.
Lanier (2010, as cited in Semana 2018) defines language disorders as
“having inability to understand, form, or use words correctly. They can
occur in both verbal and nonverbal communication.” People are suffering
from language disorder know exactly what they want to say and how to
use language in any appropriate condition. However, they have difficulties
in producing the sounds to communicate effectively. Their difficulties may
range from being unable to pronounce a specific letter or sound to inability
to produce understandable speech. However, there are also some sufferers
of language disorder who do not understand what utterances they have
produced. This severe condition attacks either children or adults. There are
some types of language disorder. Some types of language disorder are
briefly explained as follows:
a. Stuttering
Stuttering is a speech disorder which disturbs fluency by repetitions
and prolongations in syllables, sounds, and words. Stuttering is also
called stammering. A person who suffers from stuttering has difficulty
in starting words because of disruption in respiration, vocalization,
and articulation which involves the throat, palate, tongue, lips, and
teeth. Stuttering occurs when there are disruptions in the way that the
brain coordinates with the various components which is necessary for
speech production. An individual who suffers from this disorder feels
a strain in speaking. Thus, he/she may avoid some words that are
regarded difficult to be pronounced.
b. Aphasia
The study of aphasia, or the loss of language functions caused by
damage to the „language areas‟ of the brain. Aphasia is a disorder that
results from damage to portions of the brain that are responsible for
language. For most people, these areas are on the left side of the brain.
Aphasia usually occurs suddenly, often following a stroke or head
 18

injury, but it may also develop slowly, as the result of a brain tumor or
a progressive neurological disease. The disorder impairs the
expression and understanding of language as well as reading and
writing. Aphasia may co-occur with speech disorders, such as
dysarthria or apraxia of speech, which also result from brain damage
(Fromkin & Rodman, 1998 as cited in Alnajm).
Aphasia is caused by damage to one or more of the language
areas of the brain. Most often, the cause of the brain injury is a stroke.
A stroke occurs when a blood clot or a leaking or burst vessel cuts off
blood flow to part of the brain. Brain cells die when they do not
receive their normal supply of blood, which carries oxygen and
important nutrients. Other causes of brain injury are severe blows to
the head, brain tumors, gunshot wounds, brain infections, and
progressive neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease.
However, most people who have aphasia are middle-aged or
older, but anyone can acquire it, including young children. Hence, the
sufferers may have difficulty in expressing language (speaking),
comprehending language (comprehension), or both. Here are some
types of aphasia:
1) Broca Aphasia
The serious language disorder known as Broca‟s aphasia
(also called “motor aphasia”) is characterized by a substantially
reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation and slow, often
effortful speech. What is said often consists almost entirely of
lexical morphemes (e.g. nouns, verbs). The frequent omission of
functional morphemes (e.g. articles, prepositions) and inflections
(e.g. plural -s, past tense -ed) has led to the characterization of this
type of aphasic speech as “agrammatic.” In agrammatic speech, the
grammatical markers are missing (Yule, 2020).
A person with Broca‟s aphasia may understand speech
relatively well, particularly when the grammatical structure of the
 19

spoken language is simple. However, they may have harder

times understanding sentences with more complex grammatical
construct. For example, the sentence “Mary gave John balloons”
may be easy to understand but “The balloons were given to John
by Mary” may pose a challenge when interpreting the meaning of
who gave the balloons to whom.
Broca‟s aphasia is named after the French scientist, Paul
Broca, who first related a set of deficits associated with this type of
aphasia to localized brain damage. He did this in 1861, after caring
for a patient who could only say the word “tan”.
2) Wernicke Aphasia
The type of language disorder that results in difficulties in
auditory comprehension is sometimes called “sensory aphasia,” but
is more commonly known as Wernicke‟s aphasia. Someone
suffering from this disorder can actually produce very fluent
speech which is, however, often difficult to make sense of. Very
general terms are used, even in response to specific requests for
information, as in this sample: I can’t talk all of the things I do,
and part of the part I can go alright, but I can’t tell from the other
people. Difficulty in finding the correct word, sometimes referred
to as anomia, also happens in Wernicke‟s aphasia. To overcome
their word-finding difficulties, speakers use different strategies
such as trying to describe objects or talking about their purpose, as
in the thing to put cigarettes in (for “ashtray”). In the following
example (from Lesser & Milroy, 1993), the speaker tries a range of
strategies when he can‟t come up with the word (“kite”) for an
object in a picture. For example, “t’s blowing, on the right, and er
there’s four letters in it, and I think it begins with a C – goes –
when you start it then goes right up in the air – I would I would
have to keep racking my brain how I would spell that word – that
flies, that that doesn’t fly, you pull it round, it goes up in the air”.
 20

3) Conduction Aphasia
One other, much less common, type of aphasia has been
associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus and is called
conduction aphasia. Individuals suffering from this disorder
sometimes mispronounce words, but typically do not have
articulation problems. They are fluent, but may have disrupted
rhythm because of pauses and hesitations. Comprehension of
spoken words is normally good. However, the task of repeating a
word or phrase (spoken by someone else) creates major difficulty,
with forms such as vaysse and fosh being reported as attempted
repetitions of the words “base” and “wash.” What the speaker
hears and understands can‟t be transferred very successfully to the
speech production area.
It should be emphasized that many of these symptoms such
as word-finding difficulty which can occur in all types of aphasia.
They can also occur in more general disorders resulting from brain
disease, as in dementia and Alzheimer‟s disease. Difficulties in
speaking can also be accompanied by difficulties in writing.
Impairment of auditory comprehension tends to be accompanied by
reading difficulties. Language disorders of the type we have
described are almost always the result of injury to the left
hemisphere. This left hemisphere dominance for language has also
been demonstrated by another approach to the investigation of
language and the brain.

c. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a general term sometimes used to describe any
continuing problem in learning to read, such us difficulty in
distinguishing letter shapes and words. Hence, dyslexia is also called
word blindness. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the
phonological component of language that is often unexpected in
 21

relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective

classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems
in reading comprehension and reduce reading experience that can
impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
There are three cognitive aspects of dyslexic children such as
hearing, vision and attention. Physically children with dyslexia look
normal. Dyslexia is not limited to the inability of a person to compose
or read sentences in reverse order but also in various sequences
including top to bottom, from left to the right and difficult to accept
commands that should be continued to the memory of the brain. This
is often cause the dyslexic children is not concentrate in some ways.
Dyslexic children are different from each other. The only thing in
common with them is a very low reading ability seen from the age and
the intelligence they have.
In oral language children with dyslexia are late in learning to
talk, difficulty in pronouncing words, in acquiring vocabulary or using
age appropriate grammar, difficulty in following directions, confusion
with before/after, right/left, and so on; difficulty in learning the
alphabet, nursery rhymes, or songs, difficulty in understanding
concepts and relationships, difficulty with word retrieval or naming
problems. Moreover, in reading case children with dyslexia have
difficulty in learning to read, identifying or generating rhyming words,
or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness), difficulty in
hearing and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness),
difficulty in distinguishing different sounds in words (phonological
processing), difficulty in learning the sounds of letters (phonics),
difficulty in remembering names and shapes of letters, or naming
letters rapidly, transposing the order of letters when reading or
spelling, misreading or omitting common short words, “stumbles”
through longer words, poor reading comprehension during oral or
 22

silent reading, often because words are not accurately read, slow,
laborious oral reading.
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

Brain is the dominate in processing language and without brain and its
very important areas human being can't to have language. We have seen too that
neuro-linguistics the new science is responsible for studying different cases of
damaging of human brain. Language is predominantly lateralized to the left
hemisphere in the vast majority of people, even the majority of left-handers. We
have studied the evolution of human brain that the human brain has undergone
very rapid growth in recent evolution. The brain has doubled in size in less than
one million years.

Human brain is the most powerful and complicated organ of human body.
It functions to control thought and feeling. Human brain consists of two main
parts called the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. These two main part
hemispheres are similar in form but different in function. The different bodily
functions such as speech, hearing, sensations, actions are gradually brought under
the control of different areas of the brain.

Different parts of brain controlled different body function. The two halves
of the brain control different sides of the body. The left hemisphere controls the
right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.
The two hemispheres are connected, and generally split the workload – except in
the case of language, where the left hemisphere has primary responsibility. Those
parts of the brain which control language are usually in the left hemisphere. One
area in the left hemisphere is known as Broca’s area, or speech center, because it
is an important area involved in speech. Damage to this area of the brain leads to
different types language disorder. Another area called Wernickel’s area is thought
to be involved in understanding language.

Whether one is a disciple of NLP or not, what is clear is that NLP and
ELT are complementary in that NLP learns by observing communication patterns,

23
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and ELT learns from what NLP suggests as best practice in improving
interpersonal communication and therefore learning. There is nothing in NLP that
is contrary to current ELT methodology in terms of communicative language
learning and humanistic approaches, while NLP has much to contribute to the
already vast repertoire of the informed eclectic.
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