Sampling Design

What is sampling design?

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample
design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the
set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite
universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total
number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the
like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of
a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source
list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample
should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine
the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of
population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger
sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits the
sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while
deciding the size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As
such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide
the sample size.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we
may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population. There may also be important sub-groups in the population
 Sampling Design

about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several
sample designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he
must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller
sampling error.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE In this context one must remember that two
costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the cost of collecting the data and the cost of an
incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher must keep in view the two causes of
incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and sampling error. Systematic bias results from errors in
the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At
best the causes responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually a systematic
bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased

representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is
biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the
data collected through such a measuring device.

3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample,
there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of
establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure
of what is to be estimated.

4. Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are
aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of which the average
length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece
work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept
unobserved. Thus, the Indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is
often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the
income data collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the
income data collected by some social organization. People in general understate their incomes if
asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their
 Sampling Design

affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’
answer rather than revealing their true feelings.

Different type of sampling designs:

(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-

probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection
of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the
universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on
the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to
secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations
and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience
sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results
particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement
sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is
used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop
hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite
universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a
sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or
numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the
random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample,
each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers
are selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and then a
systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in the 4th
row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then
move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the
numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next
number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed
in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This
procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite
population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling
of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with
which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of
a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the
list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
 Sampling Design

(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a
number of nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from
each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random
sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is
known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from
individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be
filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the
interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each
stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota
sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements
for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its
credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be
kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into
100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the
sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample
to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential
for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering
approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews. Area sampling is
quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical
area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area
into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters,
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small
areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more
efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical
area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select
large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally
certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all
stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate
size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is
usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality
control.