The CENTRE for EDUCATION

in MATHEMATICS and COMPUTING

cemc.uwaterloo.ca

2022 Euclid Contest

Tuesday, April 5, 2022

(in North America and South America)

Wednesday, April 6, 2022

(outside of North America and South America)

Solutions

©2022 University of Waterloo

2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 2
32 − 23 9−8 1
1. (a) Evaluating, 3 2
= = = −1.
2 −3 8−9 −1
3 2 2 3 32 − 23
Alternatively, since 2 − 3 = −(3 − 2 ), then 3 = −1.
2 − 32
q√ √ √ √ √
(b) Evaluating, 81 + 9 − 64 = 9 + 3 − 8 = 4 = 2.
1 1 √
(c) Since √ = , then x2 + 7 = 4.
x2 + 7 4
This means that x2 + 7 = 42 = 16 and so x2 = 9.
Since x2 = 9, then x = ±3.
We can check by substitution that both of these values are solutions.

2. (a) Factoring, 2022 = 2 · 1011 = 2 · 3 · 337. (It turns out that 337 is a prime number, though
this fact is not needed here.)
Therefore, 2022 = 2 · 1011 and 2022 = 3 · 674 and 2022 = 6 · 337.
Thus, the three ordered pairs are (a, b) = (2, 1011), (3, 674), (6, 337).
(b) Manipulating algebraically, the following equations are equivalent:
2c + 1 1
=
2d + 1 17
17(2c + 1) = 2d + 1
34c + 17 = 2d + 1
34c + 16 = 2d
d = 17c + 8
Since c is an integer with c > 0, then c ≥ 1, which means that 17c + 8 ≥ 25.
Therefore, the smallest possible value of d is d = 25.
2c + 1 3 1
Note that, when d = 25, we obtain c = 1 and so = = .
2d + 1 51 17
(c) Solution 1
When x = −5, the left side of the equation equals 0.
This means that when x = −5, the right side of the equation must equal 0 as well.
Thus, (−5)2 + 3(−5) + t = 0 and so 25 − 15 + t = 0 or t = −10.

Solution 2
Expanding the left side, we obtain
(px + r)(x + 5) = px2 + rx + 5px + 5r
Since this is equal to x2 + 3x + t for all real numbers, then the coefficients of the two
quadratic expressions must be the same.
Comparing coefficients of x2 , we obtain p = 1.
This means that
x2 + rx + 5x + 5r = x2 + 3x + t
Comparing coefficients of x, we obtain r + 5 = 3 and so r = −2.
This means that
x2 + 3x − 10 = x2 + 3x + t
Comparing constant terms, we obtain t = −10.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 3

3. (a) Suppose that the volume of the jug is V L.

Then 41 V + 24 = 58 V .
Multiplying by 8, we obtain 2V + 24 · 8 = 5V which gives 3V = 192 and so V = 64.
Therefore, the volume of the jug is 64 L.
(b) Suppose that Stephanie starts with n soccer balls.
Since Stephanie can divide the n balls into fifths and into elevenths, then n is a multiple
of both 5 and 11.
Since 5 and 11 are both prime numbers, then n must be a multiple of 5 · 11 = 55.
Thus, n = 55k for some positive integer k.
In this case, 52 n = 52 · 55k = 22k and 11
6 6
n = 11 · 55k = 30k.
When Stephanie has given these balls away, she is left with 55k − 22k − 30k = 3k balls.
Since 3k is a multiple of 9, then k is a multiple of 3.
Therefore, the smallest possible number of balls is obtained when k = 3, which means
that Stephanie started with n = 55 · 3 = 165 soccer balls.
(c) Suppose that the number of students in the Junior section is j and the number of students
in the Senior section is s.
The number of left-handed Junior students is 60% of j, or 0.6j.
The number of right-handed Junior students is 40% of j, or 0.4j.
The number of left-handed Senior students is 10% of s, or 0.1s.
The number of right-handed Senior students is 90% of s, or 0.9s.
Since the total numbers of left-handed and right-students are equal, we obtain the equa-
tion 0.6j + 0.1s = 0.4j + 0.9s which gives 0.2j = 0.8s or j = 4s.
This means that there are 4 times as many Junior students as Senior students, which
means that 54 of the students are Junior and 15 are Senior.
Therefore, 80% of the students in the math club are in the Junior section.

4. (a) Let P be the point with coordinates (7, 0) and let Q be the point with coordinates (0, 5).
y

E (3, 5) D (7, 5)
Q (0, 5)

F (0, 3)
C (7, 2)

x
A (0, 0) B (4, 0) P (7, 0)

Then AP DQ is a rectangle with width 7 and height 5, and so it has area 7 · 5 = 35.
Hexagon ABCDEF is formed by removing two triangles from rectangle AP DQ, namely
4BP C and 4EQF .
Each of 4BP C and 4EQF is right-angled, because each shares an angle with rectangle
AP DQ.
Each of 4BP C and 4EQF has a base of length 3 and a height of 2.
Thus, their combined area is 2 · 12 · 3 · 2 = 6.
This means that the area of hexagon ABCDEF is 35 − 6 = 29.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 4

(b) Since 4P QS is right-angled at P , then by the Pythagorean Theorem,

SQ2 = SP 2 + P Q2 = (x + 3)2 + x2

Since 4QRS is right-angled at Q, then by the Pythagorean Theorem, we obtain

RS 2 = SQ2 + QR2
(x + 8)2 = ((x + 3)2 + x2 ) + 82
x2 + 16x + 64 = x2 + 6x + 9 + x2 + 64
0 = x2 − 10x + 9
0 = (x − 1)(x − 9)

and so x = 1 or x = 9. √
√ if x = 1, 4P QS has sides of lengths 4, 1 and 17 and 4QRS has
(We can check that
sides of lengths 17, 8 and 9, both of which are right-angled, and if x = 9, 4P QS has
sides of lengths 12, 9 and 15 and 4QRS has sides of lengths 15, 8 and 17, both of which
are right-angled.)
In terms of x, the perimeter of P QRS is x + 8 + (x + 8) + (x + 3) = 3x + 19.
Thus, the possible perimeters of P QRS are 22 (when x = 1) and 46 (when x = 9).
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 5
1
5. (a) If r is a term in the sequence and s is the next term, then s = 1 + .
1+r
1 1 1
This means that s − 1 = and so = 1 + r which gives r = − 1.
1+r s−1 s−1
41
Therefore, since a3 = , then
29
1 1 1 29 17
a2 = −1= −1= −1= −1=
a3 − 1 (41/29) − 1 12/29 12 12
17
Further, since a2 = , then
12
1 1 1 12 7
a1 = −1= −1= −1= −1=
a2 − 1 (17/12) − 1 5/12 5 5

(b) Initially, the water in the hollow tube forms a cylinder with radius 10 mm and height
h mm. Thus, the volume of the water is π(10 mm)2 (h mm) = 100πh mm3 .
After the rod is inserted, the level of the water rises to 64 mm. Note that this does not
overflow the tube, since the tube’s height is 100 mm.
Up to the height of the water, the tube is a cylinder with radius 10 mm and height 64
mm.
Thus, the volume of the tube up to the height of the water is
π(10 mm)2 (64 mm) = 6400π mm3
This volume consists of the water that is in the tube (whose volume, which has not
changed, is 100πh mm3 ) and the rod up to a height of 64 mm.

Since the radius of the rod is 2.5 mm, the volume of the rod up to a height of 64 mm is
π(2.5 mm)2 (64 mm) = 400π mm3 .
Comparing volumes, 6400π mm3 = 100πh mm3 + 400π mm3 and so 100h = 6000 which
gives h = 60.

2x + 1 2x 1 1
6. (a) We note that = + =2+ .
x x x x
2x + 1 1 1 1
Therefore, = 4 exactly when 2 + = 4 or = 2 and so x = .
x x x 2
2x + 1
Alternatively, we could solve = 4 directly to obtain 2x+1 = 4x, which gives 2x = 1
x
1
and so x = .
2
1
Thus, to determine the value of f (4), we substitute x = into the given equation
  2
2x + 1 1 13
f = x + 6 and obtain f (4) = + 6 = .
x 2 2
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 6

(b) Since the graph passes through (3, 5), (5, 4) and (11, 3), we can substitute these three
points and obtain the following three equations:

5 = loga (3 + b) + c
4 = loga (5 + b) + c
3 = loga (11 + b) + c

Subtracting the second equation from the first and the third equation from the second,
we obtain:

1 = loga (3 + b) − loga (5 + b)
1 = loga (5 + b) − loga (11 + b)

Equating right sides and manipulating, we obtain the following equivalent equations:

loga (5 + b) − loga (11 + b) = loga (3 + b) − loga (5 + b)

2 loga (5 + b) = loga (3 + b) + loga (11 + b)
loga (5 + b)2 = loga ((3 + b)(11 + b))


(using log laws)
2
(5 + b) = (3 + b)(11 + b) (raising both sides to the power of a)
25 + 10b + b2 = 33 + 14b + b2
−8 = 4b
b = −2

Since b = −2, the equation 1 = loga (3 + b) − loga (5 + b) becomes 1 = loga 1 − loga 3.

Since loga 1 = 0 for every admissible value of a, then loga 3 = −1 which gives a = 3−1 = 13 .
Finally, the equation 5 = loga (3 + b) + c becomes 5 = log1/3 (1) + c and so c = 5.
Therefore, a = 31 , b = −2, and c = 5, which gives y = log1/3 (x − 2) + 5.
Checking:
• When x = 3, we obtain y = log1/3 (3 − 2) + 5 = log1/3 1 + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5.
• When x = 5, we obtain y = log1/3 (5 − 2) + 5 = log1/3 3 + 5 = −1 + 5 = 4.
• When x = 11, we obtain y = log1/3 (11 − 2) + 5 = log1/3 9 + 5 = −2 + 5 = 3.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 7
 
1
7. (a) The probability that the integer n is chosen is log100 1 + .
n
The probability that an integer between 81 and 99, inclusive, is chosen equals the sum of
the probabilities that the integers 81, 82, . . ., 98, 99 are selected, which equals
       
1 1 1 1
log100 1 + + log100 1 + + · · · + log100 1 + + log100 1 +
81 82 98 99
Since the second probability equals 2 times the first probability, the following equations
are equivalent:
         
1 1 1 1 1
log100 1 + + log100 1 + + · · · + log100 1 + + log100 1 + = 2 log100 1 +
81 82 98 99 n
         
82 83 99 100 1
log100 + log100 + · · · + log100 + log100 = 2 log100 1 +
81 82 98 99 n
Using logarithm laws, these equations are further equivalent to
   2
82 83 99 100 1
log100 · · ··· · · = log100 1 +
81 82 98 99 n
   2
100 1
log100 = log100 1 +
81 n
 2
100 1
Since logarithm functions are invertible, we obtain = 1+ .
r 81 n
1 100 10 1 1
Since n > 0, then 1 + = = , and so = , which gives n = 9.
n 81 9 n 9
AC 3
(b) Since = , then we let AC = 3t and AD = 4t for some real number t > 0.
AD 4
A

4t
3t

B D
2 C 1

Using the cosine law in 4ACD, the following equations are equivalent:

AD2 = AC 2 + CD2 − 2 · AC · CD · cos(∠ACD)

(4t)2 = (3t)2 + 12 − 2(3t)(1)(− 53 )
16t2 = 9t2 + 1 + 18
5
t
2 2
80t = 45t + 5 + 18t
2
35t − 18t − 5 = 0
(7t − 5)(5t + 1) = 0

Since t > 0, then t = 75 .

Thus, AC = 3t = 15 7
.
Using the cosine law in 4ACB and noting that

cos(∠ACB) = cos(180◦ − ∠ACD) = − cos(∠ACD) = 3

5
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 8

the following equations are equivalent:

AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 − 2 · AC · BC · cos(∠ACB)

2
= 15
7
+ 22 − 2( 15
7
)(2)( 35 )
225 36
= 49
+4− 7
225 196 252
= 49
+ 49
− 49
169
= 49

13
Since AB > 0, then AB = 7
.

8. (a) The parabola with equation y = ax2 + 2 is symmetric about the y-axis.
Thus, its vertex occurs when x = 0 (which gives y = a · 02 + 2 = 2) and so V has
coordinates (0, 2).
To find the coordinates of B and C, we use the equations of the parabola and line to
obtain

ax2 + 2 = −x + 4a
ax2 + x + (2 − 4a) = 0

Using the quadratic formula,

p √
−1 ± 12 − 4a(2 − 4a) −1 ± 1 − 8a + 16a2
x= =
2a 2a
√
Since 1 − 8a + 16a2 = (4a − 1)2 and 4a − 1 > 0 (since a > 21 ), then 1 − 8a + 16a2 = 4a − 1
and so
−1 ± (4a − 1)
x=
2a
4a − 2 2a − 1 1 −4a
which means that x = = = 2 − or x = = −2.
2a a a 2a
We can use the equation of the line to obtain the y-coordinates of B and C.
When x = −2 (corresponding to point B), we obtain y = −(−2) + 4a = 4a + 2.
 
1 1 1
When x = 2 − (corresponding to point C), we obtain y = − 2 − + 4a = 4a − 2 + .
a a a
Let P and Q be the points on the horizontal line through V so that BP and CQ are
perpendicular to P Q.
y

B
C

P V Q
x
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 9

Then the area of 4V BC is equal to the area of trapezoid P BCQ minus the areas of
right-angled 4BP V and right-angled 4CQV .
Since B has coordinates
 (−2,4a + 2), P has coordinates (−2, 2), V has coordiantes
 (0, 2),
1 1 1
Q has coordinates 2 − , 2 , and C has coordinates 2 − , 4a − 2 + , then
a a a

BP = (4a + 2) − 2 = 4a
 
1 1
CQ = 4a − 2 + − 2 = 4a − 4 +
a a
P V = 0 − (−2) = 2
1 1
QV = 2 − − 0 = 2 −
a a
1 1
P Q = P V + QV = 2 + 2 − = 4 −
a a
Therefore, the area of trapezoid P BCQ is
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
(BP + CQ)(P Q) = 4a + 4a − 4 + 4− = 4a − 2 + 4−
2 2 a a 2a a
1 1
Also, the area of 4BP V is · BP · P V = (4a)(2) = 4a.
2 2
Furthermore, the area of 4CQV is
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
· CQ · QV = 4a − 4 + 2− = 2a − 2 + 2−
2 2 a a 2a a

From the given information,

     
1 1 1 1 72
4a − 2 + 4− − 4a − 2a − 2 + 2− =
2a a 2a a 5

Multiplying both sides by 2a2 , which we distribute through the factors on the left side as
2a · a, we obtain
144 2
(8a2 − 4a + 1)(4a − 1) − 8a3 − (4a2 − 4a + 1)(2a − 1) = a
5
Multiplying both sides by 5, we obtain

5(8a2 − 4a + 1)(4a − 1) − 40a3 − 5(4a2 − 4a + 1)(2a − 1) = 144a2

Expanding and simplifying, we obtain

(160a3 − 120a2 + 40a − 5) − 40a3 − (40a3 − 60a2 + 30a − 5) = 144a2

80a3 − 204a2 + 10a = 0
2a(40a2 − 102a + 5) = 0
2a(20a − 1)(2a − 5) = 0

1 5 1 5
and so a = 0 or a = or a = . Since a > , then a = .
20 2 2 2
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 10

(b) We prove that there cannot be such a triangle.

We prove this by contradiction. That is, we suppose that there is such a triangle and
prove that there is then a logical contradiction.
Suppose that 4ABC is not equilateral, has side lengths that form a geometric sequence,
and angles whose measures form an arithmetic sequence.
Suppose that 4ABC has side lengths BC = a, AC = ar, and AB = ar2 , for some real
numbers a > 0 and r > 1. (These lengths form a geometric sequence, and we can assume
that this sequence is increasing, and that the sides are labelled in this particular order.)
Since BC < AC < AB, then the opposite angles have the same relationships, namely
∠BAC < ∠ABC < ∠ACB.
Suppose that ∠BAC = θ, ∠ABC = θ + δ, and ∠ACB = θ + 2δ for some angles θ and δ.
(In other words, these angles form an arithmetic sequence.
Since these three angles are the angles in a triangle, then their sum is 180◦ , and so
θ + (θ + δ) + (θ + 2δ) = 180◦
3θ + 3δ = 180◦
θ + δ = 60◦
In other words, ∠ABC = 60◦ .
C

a 60°+ δ ar

60° 60°– δ
B ar 2 A

We could proceed using the cosine law:

AC 2 = BC 2 + AB 2 − 2 · BC · AB · cos(∠ABC)
(ar)2 = a2 + (ar2 )2 − 2a(ar2 ) cos(60◦ )
a2 r2 = a2 + a2 r4 − 2a2 r2 · 21
a2 r 2 = a2 + a2 r 4 − a2 r 2
0 = a2 r4 − 2a2 r2 + a2
0 = a2 (r4 − 2r2 + 1)
0 = a2 (r2 − 1)2
This tells us that a = 0 (which is impossible) or r2 = 1 (and thus r = ±1, which is
impossible).
Therefore, we have reached a logical contradiction and so such a triangle cannot exist.
Alternatively, we could proceed using the sine law, noting that
∠BAC = θ = (θ + δ) − δ = 60◦ − δ
∠ACB = θ + 2δ = (θ + δ) + δ = 60◦ + δ
By the sine law,
BC AC AB
= =
sin(∠BAC) sin(∠ABC) sin(∠ACB)
from which we obtain
a ar ar2
= =
sin(60◦ − δ) sin(60◦ ) sin(60◦ + δ)
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 11

Since a 6= 0, from the first two parts,

ar sin 60◦
r= =
a sin(60◦ − δ)

Since ar 6= 0, from the second two parts,

ar2 sin(60◦ + δ)
r= =
ar sin 60◦
Equating expressions for r, we obtain successively

sin 60◦ sin(60◦ + δ)

=
sin(60◦ − δ) sin 60◦
sin2 60◦ = sin(60◦ − δ) sin(60◦ + δ)
 √ 2
2
3
= (sin 60◦ cos δ − cos 60◦ sin δ)(sin 60◦ cos δ + cos 60◦ sin δ)
√  √ 
3 3 1 3 1
4
= 2
cos δ − 2
sin δ 2
cos δ + 2
sin δ
3
4
= 43 cos2 δ − 14 sin2 δ
3
4
= 43 cos2 δ + 43 sin2 δ − sin2 δ
3
4
= 43 (cos2 δ + sin2 δ) − sin2 δ
3
4
= 43 − sin2 δ
sin2 δ = 0

which means that δ = 0◦ . (Any other angle δ with sin δ = 0 would not produce angles in
a triangle.)
Therefore, all three angles in the triangle are 60◦ , which means that the triangle is equi-
lateral, which it cannot be.
Therefore, we have reached a logical contradiction and so such a triangle cannot exist.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 12

9. (a) The (4, 2)-sawtooth sequence consists of the terms

1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1

whose sum is 31.

(b) Solution 1
Suppose that m ≥ 2.
The (m, 3)-sawtooth sequence consists of an initial 1 followed by 3 teeth, each of which
goes from 2 to m to 1.
Consider one of these teeth whose terms are

2, 3, 4, . . . , m − 1, m, m − 1, m − 2, m − 3, . . . , 2, 1

When we write the ascending portion directly above the descending portion, we obtain

2, 3, 4, . . . , m − 1, m,
m − 1, m − 2, m − 3, . . . , 2, 1

From this presentation, we can see m − 1 pairs of terms, the sum of each of which is m + 1.
(Note that 2 + (m − 1) = 3 + (m − 2) = 4 + (m − 3) = · · · = (m − 1) + 2 = m + 1 and as
we move from left to right, the terms on the top increase by 1 at each step and the terms
on the bottom decrease by 1 at each step, so their sum is indeed constant.)
Therefore, the sum of the numbers in one of the teeth is (m − 1)(m + 1) = m2 − 1.
This means that the sum of the terms in the (m, 3)-sawtooth sequence is 1 + 3(m2 − 1),
which equals 3m2 − 2.

Solution 2
Suppose that m ≥ 2.
The (m, 3)-sawtooth sequence consists of an initial 1 followed by 3 teeth, each of which
goes from 2 to m to 1.
Consider one of these teeth whose terms are

2, 3, 4, . . . , m − 1, m, m − 1, m − 2, m − 3, . . . , 2, 1

This tooth includes one 1, two 2s, two 3s, and so on, until we reach two (m − 1)s, and one
m.
The sum of these numbers is

1(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + · · · + 2(m − 1) + m

which can be rewritten as

2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (m − 1) + m) − 1 − m = 2 · 21 m(m + 1) − m − 1 = m2 + m − m − 1 = m2 − 1

Therefore, the sum of the numbers in one of the teeth is (m − 1)(m + 1) = m2 − 1.

This means that the sum of the terms in the (m, 3)-sawtooth sequence is 1 + 3(m2 − 1),
which equals 3m2 − 2.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 13

(c) From (b), the sum of the terms in each tooth is m2 − 1.

Thus, the sum of the terms in the (m, n)-sawtooth sequence is 1 + n(m2 − 1).
For this to equal 145, we have n(m2 − 1) = 144.
This means that n and m2 − 1 form a divisor pair of 144.
As m ranges from 2 to 12, the values of m2 − 1 are

3, 8, 15, 24, 35, 48, 63, 80, 99, 120, 143

(When m = 13, we get m2 − 1 = 168 and so when m ≥ 13, the value of m2 − 1 is too large
to be a divisor of 144.)
Of these, 3, 8, 24, 48 are divisors of 144 (corresponding to m = 2, 3, 5, 7), and give corre-
sponding divisors 48, 18, 6, 3.
Therefore, the pairs (m, n) for which the sum of the terms is 145 are

(m, n) = (2, 48), (3, 18), (5, 6), (7, 3)

(d) In an (m, n)-sawtooth sequence, the sum of the terms is n(m2 − 1) + 1.

In each tooth, there are (m − 1) + (m − 1) = 2m − 2 terms (from 2 to m, inclusive, and
from m − 1 to 1, inclusive).
This means that there are n(2m − 2) + 1 terms in the sequence.
n(m2 − 1) + 1
Thus, the average of the terms in the sequence is .
n(2m − 2) + 1
We need to prove that this is not an integer for all pairs of positive integers (m, n) with
m ≥ 2.
n(m2 − 1) + 1
Suppose that = k for some integer k. We will show, by contradiction, that
n(2m − 2) + 1
this is not possible.
n(m2 − 1) + 1
Since = k, then
n(2m − 2) + 1

m2 n − n + 1
=k
2mn − 2n + 1
m2 n − n + 1 = 2mnk − 2nk + k
m2 n − 2mnk + (2nk − n − k + 1) = 0

We treat this as a quadratic equation in m.

Since m is an integer, then this equation has integer roots, and so its discriminant must
be a perfect square.
The discriminant of this quadratic equation is

∆ = (−2nk)2 − 4n(2nk − n − k + 1)
= 4n2 k 2 − 8n2 k + 4n2 + 4nk − 4n
= 4n2 (k 2 − 2k + 1) + 4n(k − 1)
= 4n2 (k − 1)2 + 4n(k − 1)
= (2n(k − 1))2 + 2(2n(k − 1)) + 1 − 1
= (2n(k − 1) + 1)2 − 1

We note that (2n(k − 1) + 1)2 is a perfect square and ∆ is supposed to be a perfect square.
But these perfect squares differ by 1, and the only two perfect squares that differ by 1 are
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 14

1 and 0.
(To justify this last fact, we could look at the equation a2 − b2 = 1 where a and b are
non-negative integers, and factor this to obtain (a + b)(a − b) = 1 which would give
a + b = a − b = 1 from which we get a = 1 and b = 0.)
Since (2n(k − 1) + 1)2 = 1 and 2n(k − 1) + 1 is non-negative, then 2n(k − 1) + 1 = 1 and
so 2n(k − 1) = 0.
Since n is positive, then k − 1 = 0 or k = 1.
Therefore, the only possible way in which the average is an integer is if the average is 1.
In this case, we get

m2 n − 2mn + (2n − n − 1 + 1) = 0
m2 n − 2mn + n = 0
n(m2 − 2m + 1) = 0
n(m − 1)2 = 0

Since n and m are positive integers with m ≥ 2, then n(m − 1)2 6= 0, which is a contra-
diction.
Therefore, the average of the terms in an (m, n)-sawtooth sequence cannot be an integer.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 15

10. (a) Assume that the first topping is placed on the top half of the pizza. (We can rotate the
pizza so that this is the case.)
Assume that the second topping is placed on the half of the pizza that is above the
horizontal diameter that makes an angle of θ clockwise with the horizontal as shown. In
other words, the topping covers the pizza from θ to θ + 180◦ .

T1
T1 T2
T1
θ
T2

We may assume that 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ .

When 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ , the angle of the sector covered by both toppings is at least 90◦ (and
so is at least a quarter of the circle).
When 90◦ < θ ≤ 180◦ , the angle of the sector covered by both toppings is less than 90◦
(and so is less than a quarter of the circle).
When θ moves past 180◦ , the left-hand portion of the upper half circle starts to be covered
with both toppings again. When 180◦ ≤ θ < 270◦ , the angle of the sector covered by both
toppings is less than 90◦ (and so is less than a quarter of the circle).
When 270◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ , the angle of the sector covered by both toppings at least 90◦ (and
so is at least a quarter of the circle).
Therefore, if θ is chosen randomly between 0◦ and 360◦ , the combined length of the intervals
in which at least 41 of the pizza is covered with both toppings is 180◦ .
180◦ 1
Therefore, the probability is , or .
360◦ 2
(b) Suppose that the first topping is placed on the top half of the pizza. (Again, we can rotate
the pizza so that this is the case.)
Assume that the second topping is placed on the half of the pizza that is above the
diameter that makes an angle of θ clockwise with the horizontal as shown. In other words,
the topping covers the pizza from θ to θ + 180◦ .
We may assume that 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ . If 180◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ , the resulting pizza can be seen
as a reflection of the one shown.
T1 T1
T2 T2
T1 T1
θ θ
T2 T2

Consider the third diameter added, shown dotted in the diagram above. Suppose that its
angle with the horizontal is α. (In the diagram, α < 90◦ .) We assume that the topping is
added on the half pizza clockwise beginning at the angle of α, and that this topping stays
in the same relative position as the diameter sweeps around the circle.
For what angles α will there be a portion of the pizza covered with all three toppings?
If 0◦ ≤ α < 180◦ , there will be a portion covered with three toppings; this portion is above
the right half of the horizontal diameter.
If 180◦ ≤ α < 180◦ + θ, the third diameter will pass through the two regions with angle
θ and the third topping will be below this diameter, so there will not be a region covered
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 16

with three toppings.

If 180◦ + θ ≤ α ≤ 360◦ , the third topping starts to cover the leftmost part of the region
currently covered with two toppings, and so a region is covered with three toppings.
Therefore, for an angle θ with 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ , a region of the pizza is covered with three
toppings when 0◦ ≤ α < 180◦ and when 180◦ + θ ≤ α ≤ 360◦ .
To determine the desired probability, we graph points (θ, α). A particular choice of diam-
eters corresponds to a choice of angles θ and α with 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ and 0◦ ≤ α ≤ 360◦ ,
which corresponds to a point on the graph below.
The probability that we are looking for then equals the area of the region of this graph
where three toppings are in a portion of the pizza divided by the total allowable area of
the graph.
The shaded region of the graph corresponds to instances where a portion of the pizza will
be covered by three toppings.
α
α = θ + 180º
360º

180º

θ
180º

This shaded region consists of the entire portion of the graph where 0◦ ≤ α ≤ 180◦
(regardless of θ) as well as the region above the line with equation α = θ + 180◦ (that is,
the region with θ + 180◦ ≤ α ≤ 360◦ ).
Since the slope of the line is 1, it divides the upper half of the region, which is a square,
into two pieces of equal area.
Therefore, 43 of the graph is shaded, which means that the probability that a region of the
3
pizza is covered by all three toppings is .
4
(c) The main idea of this solution is that the toppings all overlap exactly when there is one
topping with the property that all other toppings “begin” somewhere in that toppings
semi-circle. In the rest of this solution, we determine the probability using this fact and
then justify this fact.
Suppose that, for 1 ≤ j ≤ N , topping j is put on the semi-circle that starts at an angle of
θj clockwise from the horizontal left-hand radius and continues to an angle of θj + 180◦ ,
where 0◦ ≤ θj < 360◦ . By establishing these variables and this convention, we are fixing
both the angle of the diameter and the semi-circle defined by this diameter on which the
topping is placed.
Suppose that there is some region of the pizza with non-zero area that is covered by all N
toppings.
This region will be a sector with two bounding radii, each of which must be half of a
diameter that defines one of the toppings.
Suppose that the radius at the clockwise “end” of the sector is the end of the semi-circle
where topping X is placed, and that the radius at the counter-clockwise “beginning” of
the sector is the start of the semi-circle where topping Y is placed.
2022 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 17

TY begins All toppings

TX ends

TX begins
TY ends

This means that each of the other N − 2 toppings begins between (in the clockwise sense)
the points where topping X begins and where topping Y begins.
Consider the beginning angle for topping X, θX .
To say that the other N − 1 toppings begin at some point before topping X ends is the
same as saying that each θj with j 6= X is between θX and θX + 180◦ .
Here, we can allow for the possibility that θX + 180◦ is greater than 360◦ by saying that
an angle equivalent to θj (which is either θj or θj + 360◦ ) is between θX and θX + 180◦ .
For each j 6= X, the angle θj is randomly, uniformly and independently chosen on the
1
circle, so there is a probability of that this angle (or its equivalent) will be in the semi-
2
circle between θX and θX + 180◦ .
Since there are N − 1 such angles, the probability that all are between θX and θX + 180◦
1
is N −1 .
2
Since there are N possible selections for the first topping that can end the common sector,
N
then the desired probability will be N −1 as long as we can show that no set of angles can
2
give two different sectors that are both covered with all toppings.
To show this last fact, we suppose without loss of generality that

0◦ = θ1 < θ2 < θ3 < · · · < θN −1 < θN < 180◦

(We can relabel the toppings if necessary to obtain this order and rotate the pizza so that
topping 1 begins at 0◦ .)
We need to show that it is not possible to have a Z for which θZ , θZ+1 , . . . , θN , θ1 , θ2 , . . . , θZ−1
all lie in a semi-circle starting with θZ .
Since θZ < 180◦ and θ1 can be thought of as 360◦ , then this is not possible as θ1 and the
angles after it are all not within 180◦ of θZ .
Therefore, it is not possible to have two such regions with the same set of angles, and so
N
the desired probability is N −1 .
2